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GIVE ME LIBERTY! AN AMERICAN HISTORY  Brief Fourth Edition GIVE ME LIBERTY! AN AMERICAN HISTORY  Brief Fourth Edition ERIC FONER B W . W . NORTON & COMPANY NEW YORK . LONDON For my mother, Liza Foner (1909–2005), an accomplished artist who lived through most of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first W. W. Norton & Company has been independent since its founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By mid-century, the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program— trade books and college texts—were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of 400 and a comparable number of trade, college, and professional titles published each year— W. W. Norton & Company stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by its employees. Copyright © 2014, 2012 by Eric Foner All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America Fourth Edition Editor: Steve Forman Associate Editor: Justin Cahill Editorial Assistant: Penelope Lin Managing Editor, College: Marian Johnson Managing Editor, College Digital Media: Kim Yi Project Editor: Diane Cipollone Copy Editor: Elizabeth Dubrulle Marketing Manager: Sarah England Media Editors: Steve Hoge, Tacy Quinn Assistant Editor, Media: Stefani Wallace Production Manager: Sean Mintus Art Director: Rubina Yeh Designer: Chin-Yee Lai Photo Editor: Stephanie Romeo Photo Research: Donna Ranieri Permissions Manager: Megan Jackson Permissions Clearing: Bethany Salminen Composition and Layout: Jouve Manufacturing: Transcontinental Since this page cannot accommodate all of the copyright notices, the Credits pages at the end of the book constitute an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data has been applied for. This edition: ISBN 978-0-393-92033-8 (pbk.) W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110-0017 wwnorton.com W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., Castle House, 75/76 Wells Street, London W1T 3QT 1234567890 ABOUT THE AUTHOR  E R I C F O N E R is DeWitt Clinton Professor of History at Columbia University, where he earned his B.A. and Ph.D. In his teaching and scholarship, he focuses on the Civil War and Reconstruction, slavery, and nineteenth-century America. Professor Foner’s publications include Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War; Tom Paine and Revolutionary America; Nothing but Freedom: Emancipation and Its Legacy; Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877; The Story of American Freedom; and Forever Free: The Story of Emancipation and Reconstruction. His history of Reconstruction won the Los Angeles Times Book Award for History, the Bancroft Prize, and the Parkman Prize. He has served as president of the Organization of American Historians and the American Historical Association. In 2006 he received the Presidential Award for Outstanding Teaching from Columbia University. His most recent book is The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery, winner of the Lincoln Prize, the Bancroft Prize, and the Pulitzer Prize.  CONTENTS  About the Author ... v List of Maps, Tables, and Figures ... xviii Preface ... xx 1. A NEW WORLD ... 1 THE FIRST AME RI C A N S . . . 3 The Settling of the Americas ... 3  Indian Societies of the Americas ... 3  Mound Builders of the Mississippi River Valley ... 5  Western Indians ... 6  Indians of Eastern North America ... 6  Native American Religion ... 7  Land and Property ... 9  Gender Relations ... 10  European Views of the Indians ... 10 INDIAN FREEDO M , EU R O PEA N FREED O M . . . 1 1 Indian Freedom ... 11  Christian Liberty ... 12  Freedom and Authority ... 12  Liberty and Liberties ... 13 THE EXPANSION O F E U RO P E . . . 1 3 Chinese and Portuguese Navigation ... 14  Freedom and Slavery in Africa ... 14  The Voyages of Columbus ... 16 CONTACT ... 16 Columbus in the New World ... 16  Exploration and Conquest ... 17  The Demographic Disaster ... 19 THE SPANISH E M P I RE . . . 2 0 Governing Spanish America ... 21  Colonists and Indians in Spanish America ... 21  Justifications for Conquest ... 22  Piety and Profit ... 23  Reforming the Empire ... 24  Exploring North America ... 25  Spanish in Florida and the Southwest ... 25  The Pueblo Revolt ... 27 Voices of Freedom: From Bartolomé de las Casas, History of the Indies (1528), and From “Declaration of Josephe” (December 19, 1681) ... 28 THE FRENCH AN D D U TC H EM PI R E S . . . 3 0 French Colonization ... 32  New France and the Indians ... 32  The Dutch Empire ... 34  Dutch Freedom ... 34  The Dutch and Religious Toleration ... 35  Settling New Netherland ... 36  Features of European Settlement ... 36 REVIEW ... 37 2. BEGINNINGS OF ENGLISH AMERICA, 1607–1660 ... 38 ENGLAND AND TH E N EW W O R L D . . . 4 0 Unifying the English Nation ... 40  England and Ireland ... 40  England and North America ... 40  Motives for Colonization ... 41  The Social Crisis ... 42  Masterless Men ... 43 Contents vi i THE COMING OF TH E EN G LI S H . . . 43 English Emigrants ... 43  Indentured Servants ... 44  Land and Liberty ... 44  Englishmen and Indians ... 45  The Transformation of Indian Life ... 46 SETTLING THE CHE S A P E A KE . . . 47 The Jamestown Colony ... 47  Powhatan and Pocahontas ... 48  The Uprising of 1622 ... 49  A Tobacco Colony ... 50  Women and the Family ... 50  The Maryland Experiment ... 52  Religion in Maryland ... 52 THE NEW ENGLAND W A Y . . . 53 The Rise of Puritanism ... 53  Moral Liberty ... 53  The Pilgrims at Plymouth ... 54  The Great Migration ... 55  The Puritan Family ... 55  Government and Society in Massachusetts ... 56  Church and State in Puritan Massachusetts ... 58 NEW ENGLANDERS D I V I D ED . . . 59 Roger Williams ... 60  Rhode Island and Connecticut ... 60  The Trials of Anne Hutchinson ... 61  Puritans and Indians ... 61 Voices of Freedom: From “The Trial of Anne Hutchinson” (1637), and From John Winthrop, Speech to the Massachusetts General Court (July 3, 1645) ... 62 The Pequot War ... 64  The New England Economy ... 65  A Growing Commercial Society ... 66 RELIGION, POLITIC S , A N D FREED O M ... 67 The Rights of Englishmen ... 67  The English Civil War ... 68  England’s Debate over Freedom ... 68  The Civil War and English America ... 69  Cromwell and the Empire ... 70 REVIEW ... 71 3. CREATING ANGLO-AMERICA, 1660–1750 ... 72 GLOBAL COMPETIT I O N A N D T H E EX P A N S I O N O F ENGLAND’S EMPIRE . . . 74 The Mercantilist System ... 74  The Conquest of New Netherland ... 74  New York and the Indians ... 75  The Charter of Liberties ... 77  The Founding of Carolina ... 77  The Holy Experiment ... 78  Land in Pennsylvania ... 79 ORIGINS OF AMERI C A N S LA V ERY . . . 80 Englishmen and Africans ... 80  Slavery in History ... 81  Slavery in the West Indies ... 81  Slavery and the Law ... 82  The Rise of Chesapeake Slavery ... 83  Bacon’s Rebellion: Land and Labor in Virginia ... 83  A Slave Society ... 85 v iii Co nt ent s COLONIES IN CR I S I S . . . 86 The Glorious Revolution ... 86  The Glorious Revolution in America ... 87  The Salem Witch Trials ... 89 THE GROWTH O F C O L O N I A L A M ERI C A . . . 90 A Diverse Population ... 90  The German Migration ... 91 Voices of Freedom: From Memorial against Non-English Immigration (December 1727), and From Letter by a Swiss-German Immigrant to Pennsylvania (August 23, 1769) ... 92 Religious Diversity ... 95  Indian Life in Transition ... 95  Regional Diversity ... 96  The Consumer Revolution ... 97  Colonial Cities ... 97  An Atlantic World ... 98 SOCIAL CLASSE S I N TH E C O L O N I ES . . . 99 The Colonial Elite ... 99  Anglicization ... 100  Poverty in the Colonies ... 100  The Middle Ranks ... 101  Women and the Household Economy ... 101  North America at Mid-Century ... 102 REVIEW ... 103 4. SLAVERY, FREEDOM, AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EMPIRE, TO 1763 ... 104 SLAVERY AND E M P I RE . . . 106 Atlantic Trade ... 106  Africa and the Slave Trade ... 107  The Middle Passage ... 109  Chesapeake Slavery ... 109  The Rice Kingdom ... 110  The Georgia Experiment ... 111  Slavery in the North ... 112 SLAVE CULTUR ES A N D S L A V E R E S I S TA N C E . . . 113 Becoming African-American ... 113  African Religion in Colonial America ... 113  African-American Cultures ... 114  Resistance to Slavery ... 115 AN EMPIRE OF FREED O M . . . 116 British Patriotism ... 116  The British Constitution ... 117  Republican Liberty ... 117  Liberal Freedom ... 118 THE PUBLIC SPHERE . . . 119 The Right to Vote ... 119  Political Cultures ... 120  The Rise of the Assemblies ... 121  Politics in Public ... 121  The Colonial Press ... 122  Freedom of Expression and Its Limits ... 122  The Trial of Zenger ... 123  The American Enlightenment ... 124 THE GREAT AWA K E N I N G . . . 125 Religious Revivals ... 125  The Preaching of Whitefield ... 126  The Awakening’s Impact ... 126 IMPERIAL RIVA L R I ES . . . 127 Spanish North America ... 127  The Spanish in California ... 127  The French Empire ... 129 Contents ix BATTLE FOR THE C O N TI N EN T . . . 130 The Middle Ground ... 130  The Seven Years’ War ... 130  A World Transformed ... 131  Pontiac’s Rebellion ... 132  The Proclamation Line ... 132 Voices of Freedom: From Pontiac, Speeches (1762 and 1763), and From The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African (1789) ... 134 Pennsylvania and the Indians ... 136  Colonial Identities ... 137 REVIEW ... 138 5. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION, 1763–1783 ... 139 THE CRISIS BEGINS . . . 140 Consolidating the Empire ... 140  Taxing the Colonies ... 142  Taxation and Representation ... 143  Liberty and Resistance ... 144  The Regulators ... 145 THE ROAD TO REVO LU T I O N . . . 145 The Townshend Crisis ... 145  The Boston Massacre ... 146  Wilkes and Liberty ... 147  The Tea Act ... 148  The Intolerable Acts ... 148 THE COMING OF IN D EPEN D EN C E . . . 149 The Continental Congress ... 149  The Continental Association ... 150  The Sweets of Liberty ... 150  The Outbreak of War ... 151  Independence? ... 151  Paine’s Common Sense ... 152  The Declaration of Independence ... 153  An Asylum for Mankind ... 154  The Global Declaration of Independence ... 155 Voices of Freedom: From Thomas Paine, Common Sense (1776), and From Jonathan Boucher, A View of the Causes and Consequences of the American Revolution (1775) ... 156 SECURING INDEPEND E N C E . . . 158 The Balance of Power ... 158  Blacks in the Revolution ... 158  The First Years of the War ... 159  The Battle of Saratoga ... 161  The War in the South ... 162  Victory at Last ... 162 REVIEW ... 166 6. THE REVOLUTION WITHIN ... 167 DEMOCRATIZING F REED O M . . . 169 The Dream of Equality ... 169  Expanding the Political Nation ... 169  The Revolution in Pennsylvania ... 170  The New Constitutions ... 171  The Right to Vote ... 171 TOWARD RELIGIOU S TO L E R A TI O N . . . 172 Catholic Americans ... 173  Separating Church and State ... 173  Jefferson and Religious Liberty ... 174  Christian Republicanism ... 175  A Virtuous Citizenry ... 175 x Cont e nt s DEFINING ECON O M I C FREED O M . . . 176 Toward Free Labor ... 176  The Soul of a Republic ... 176  The Politics of Inflation ... 177  The Debate over Free Trade ... 178 THE LIMITS OF LI B E R T Y . . . 178 Colonial Loyalists ... 178  The Loyalists’ Plight ... 179  The Indians’ Revolution ... 181 SLAVERY AND T H E REV O LU T I O N . . . 182 The Language of Slavery and Freedom ... 182  Obstacles to Abolition ... 183  The Cause of General Liberty ... 183  Petitions for Freedom ... 184  British Emancipators ... 185  Voluntary Emancipations ... 185 Voices of Freedom: From Abigail Adams to John Adams, Braintree, Mass. (March 31, 1776), and From Petitions of Slaves to the Massachusetts Legislature (1773 and 1777) ... 186 Abolition in the North ... 188  Free Black Communities ... 188 DAUGHTERS OF LI B E R T Y . . . 189 Revolutionary Women ... 189  Republican Motherhood ... 190  The Arduous Struggle for Liberty ... 190 REVIEW ... 192 7. FOUNDING A NATION, 1783–1791 ... 193 AMERICA UNDE R T H E C O N F E D ERA T I O N . . . 195 The Articles of Confederation ... 195  Congress, Settlers, and the West ... 196  The Land Ordinances ... 198  The Confederation’s Weaknesses ... 200  Shays’s Rebellion ... 200  Nationalists of the 1780s ... 201 A NEW CONSTIT U TI O N . . . 202 The Structure of Government ... 202  The Limits of Democracy ... 203  The Division and Separation of Powers ... 204  The Debate over Slavery ... 205  Slavery in the Constitution ... 205  The Final Document ... 207 THE RATIFICAT I O N D E B A TE A N D T H E O R I G I N O F TH E B I LL OF RIGHTS ... 208 The Federalist ... 208  “Extend the Sphere” ... 208  The AntiFederalists ... 209 Voices of Freedom: From David Ramsay, The History of the American Revolution (1789), and From James Winthrop, Anti-Federalist Essay Signed “Agrippa” (1787) ... 210 The Bill of Rights ... 214 “WE THE PEOPL E ” . . . 215 National Identity ... 215  Indians in the New Nation ... 215  Blacks and the Republic ... 217  Jefferson, Slavery, and Race ... 218  Principles of Freedom ... 219 REVIEW ... 220 Contents xi 8. SECURING THE REPUBLIC, 1791–1815 ... 221 POLITICS IN AN AG E O F P A S S I O N . . . 222 Hamilton’s Program ... 223  The Emergence of Opposition ... 223  The Jefferson-Hamilton Bargain ... 224  The Impact of the French Revolution ... 225  Political Parties ... 226  The Whiskey Rebellion ... 226  The Republican Party ... 226  An Expanding Public Sphere ... 227 Voices of Freedom: From Judith Sargent Murray, “On the Equality of the Sexes” (1790), and From Address of the Democratic-Republican Society of Pennsylvania (December 18, 1794) ... 228 The Rights of Women ... 230 THE ADAMS PRESID E N C Y . . . 231 The Election of 1796 ... 231  The “Reign of Witches” ... 232  The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions ... 233  The “Revolution of 1800” ... 233  Slavery and Politics ... 234  The Haitian Revolution ... 235  Gabriel’s Rebellion ... 235 JEFFERSON IN POWER . . . 236 Judicial Review ... 237  The Louisiana Purchase ... 237  Lewis and Clark ... 239  Incorporating Louisiana ... 240  The Barbary Wars ... 241  The Embargo ... 241  Madison and Pressure for War ... 242 THE “SECOND WAR O F I N D EPEN D EN C E” . . . 243 The Indian Response ... 243  The War of 1812 ... 244  The War’s Aftermath ... 246  The End of the Federalist Party ... 247 REVIEW ... 248 9. THE MARKET REVOLUTION, 1800–1840 ... 249 A NEW ECONOMY .. . 251 Roads and Steamboats ... 251  The Erie Canal ... 252  Railroads and the Telegraph ... 254  The Rise of the West ... 255  The Cotton Kingdom ... 257 MARKET SOCIETY .. . 259 Commercial Farmers ... 260  The Growth of Cities ... 260  The Factory System ... 261  The “Mill Girls” ... 262  The Growth of Immigration ... 263  The Rise of Nativism ... 265  The Transformation of Law ... 266 THE FREE INDIVIDU A L . . . 267 The West and Freedom ... 267  The Transcendentalists ... 267  The Second Great Awakening ... 268  The Awakening’s Impact ... 269 Voices of Freedom: From Ralph Waldo Emerson, “The American Scholar” (1837), and From “Factory Life as It Is, by an Operative” (1845) ... 270 The Emergence of Mormonism ... 272 x ii Co nt ent s THE LIMITS OF PRO S P E R I TY . . . 273 Liberty and Prosperity ... 273  Race and Opportunity ... 274  The Cult of Domesticity ... 275  Women and Work ... 276  The Early Labor Movement ... 277  The “Liberty of Living” ... 277 REVIEW ... 279 10. DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA, 1815–1840 ... 280 THE TRIUMPH O F D EM O C RA C Y . . . 281 Property and Democracy ... 281  The Dorr War ... 282  Tocqueville on Democracy ... 282  The Information Revolution ... 283  The Limits of Democracy ... 284  A Racial Democracy ... 284 NATIONALISM A N D I TS D I S C O N T E N TS . . . 285 The American System ... 285  Banks and Money ... 287  The Panic of 1819 ... 287  The Missouri Controversy ... 288 NATION, SECTI O N , A N D PA R T Y . . . 289 The United States and the Latin American Wars of Independence ... 289  The Monroe Doctrine ... 290  The Election of 1824 ... 291 Voices of Freedom: From President James Monroe, Annual Message to Congress (1823), and From John C. Calhoun, “A Disquisition on Government” (ca. 1845) ... 292 The Nationalism of John Quincy Adams ... 294  “Liberty Is Power” ... 294  Martin Van Buren and the Democratic Party ... 294  The Election of 1828 ... 295 THE AGE OF JAC K S O N . . . 296 The Party System ... 296  Democrats and Whigs ... 297  Public and Private Freedom ... 298  South Carolina and Nullification ... 299  Calhoun’s Political Theory ... 299  The Nullification Crisis ... 301  Indian Removal ... 301  The Supreme Court and the Indians ... 302 THE BANK WAR A N D A FTER . . . 304 Biddle’s Bank ... 304  Pet Banks, the Economy, and the Panic of 1837 ... 306  Van Buren in Office ... 307  The Election of 1840 ... 307 REVIEW ... 310 11. THE PECULIAR INSTITUTION ... 311 THE OLD SOUTH . . . 312 Cotton Is King ... 313  The Second Middle Passage ... 314  Slavery and the Nation ... 314  The Southern Economy ... 314  Plain Folk of the Old South ... 316  The Planter Class ... 317  The Paternalist Ethos ... 318  The Proslavery Argument ... 318  Abolition in the Americas ... 320  Slavery and Liberty ... 320 Contents xi i i LIFE UNDER SLAVE RY . . . 321 Slaves and the Law ... 321  Conditions of Slave Life ... 322  Free Blacks in the Old South ... 322  Slave Labor ... 323  Slavery in the Cities ... 324  Maintaining Order ... 325 SLAVE CULTURE ... 326 The Slave Family ... 326  The Threat of Sale ... 327  Gender Roles among Slaves ... 327  Slave Religion ... 328  The Desire for Liberty ... 329 RESISTANCE TO SLA V ERY . . . 330 Forms of Resistance ... 330 Voices of Freedom: From Letter by Joseph Taper to Joseph Long (1840), and From “Slavery and the Bible” (1850) ... 332 The Amistad ... 334  Slave Revolts ... 335  Nat Turner’s Rebellion ... 336 REVIEW ... 338 12. AN AGE OF REFORM, 1820–1840 ... 339 THE REFORM IMPU LS E . . . 340 Utopian Communities ... 341  The Shakers ... 343  Oneida ... 343  Worldly Communities ... 344  Religion and Reform ... 345  Critics of Reform ... 346  Reformers and Freedom ... 346  The Invention of the Asylum ... 347  The Common School ... 347 THE CRUSADE AGAI N S T S LA V ERY . . . 348 Colonization ... 348  Militant Abolitionism ... 349  Spreading the Abolitionist Message ... 350  Slavery and Moral Suasion ... 351  A New Vision of America ... 352 BLACK AND WHITE A B O LI T I O N I S M . . . 353 Black Abolitionists ... 353  Gentlemen of Property and Standing ... 354 THE ORIGINS OF FEM I N I S M . . . 356 The Rise of the Public Woman ... 356  Women and Free Speech ... 356  Women’s Rights ... 357  Feminism and Freedom ... 358  Women and Work ... 358  The Slavery of Sex ... 359 Voices of Freedom: From Angelina Grimké, Letter in The Liberator (August 2, 1837), and From Frederick Douglass, Speech on July 5, 1852, Rochester, New York ... 360 “Social Freedom” ... 362  The Abolitionist Schism ... 363 REVIEW ... 365 13. A HOUSE DIVIDED, 1840–1861 ... 366 FRUITS OF MANIFE S T D E S T I N Y . . . 368 Continental Expansion ... 368  The Mexican Frontier: New Mexico and California ... 368  The Texas Revolt ... 370  The Election of 1844 ... 370  The Road to War ... 372  The War and Its Critics ... 372  Combat x iv Cont e nt s in Mexico ... 373  Race and Manifest Destiny ... 374  Gold-Rush California ... 376  Opening Japan ... 377 A DOSE OF ARS EN I C . . . 378 The Wilmot Proviso ... 378  The Free Soil Appeal ... 379  Crisis and Compromise ... 380  The Great Debate ... 380  The Fugitive Slave Issue ... 381  Douglas and Popular Sovereignty ... 382  The KansasNebraska Act ... 382 THE RISE OF THE REPU B L I C A N P A RTY . . . 383 The Northern Economy ... 383  The Rise and Fall of the KnowNothings ... 385  The Free Labor Ideology ... 386  “Bleeding Kansas” and the Election of 1856 ... 387 THE EMERGENC E O F LI N C O LN . . . 388 The Dred Scott Decision ... 389  Lincoln and Slavery ... 390  The Lincoln-Douglas Campaign ... 390  John Brown at Harpers Ferry ... 391 Voices of Freedom: From The Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858) ... 392 The Rise of Southern Nationalism ... 394  The Election of 1860 ... 395 THE IMPENDING C RI S I S . . . 397 The Secession Movement ... 397  The Secession Crisis ... 398  And the War Came ... 399 REVIEW ... 401 14. A NEW BIRTH OF FREEDOM: THE CIVIL WAR, 1861–1865 ... 402 THE FIRST MOD ERN W A R . . . 403 The Two Combatants ... 404  The Technology of War ... 405  The Public and the War ... 406  Mobilizing Resources ... 407  Military Strategies ... 407  The War Begins ... 408  The War in the East, 1862 ... 409  The War in the West ... 410 THE COMING OF EM A N C I PA T I O N . . . 410 Slavery and the War ... 410  Steps toward Emancipation ... 413  Lincoln’s Decision ... 413  The Emancipation Proclamation ... 414  Enlisting Black Troops ... 416  The Black Soldier ... 416 THE SECOND AM E R I C A N R E V O L U TI O N . . . 417 Liberty, Union, and Nation ... 418  The War and American Religion ... 419 Voices of Freedom: From Letter of Thomas F. Drayton (April 17, 1861), and From Abraham Lincoln, Address at Sanitary Fair, Baltimore (April 18, 1864) ... 420 Liberty in Wartime ... 422  The North’s Transformation ... 422  Government and the Economy ... 423  The War and Native Americans ... 423  A New Financial System ... 425  Women and the War ... 425  The Divided North ... 426 Contents xv THE CONFEDERATE N A TI O N . . . 428 Leadership and Government ... 428  The Inner Civil War ... 428  Economic Problems ... 429  Women and the Confederacy ... 430  Black Soldiers for the Confederacy ... 431 TURNING POINTS ... 431 Gettysburg and Vicksburg ... 431  1864 ... 433 REHEARSALS FOR R EC O N S T R U C T I O N A N D T H E EN D OF THE WAR ... 434 The Sea Islands Experiment ... 434  Wartime Reconstruction in the West ... 435  The Politics of Wartime Reconstruction ... 435  Victory at Last ... 436  The War and the World ... 438  The War in American History ... 438 REVIEW ... 440 15. “WHAT IS FREEDOM?”: RECONSTRUCTION, 1865–1877 ... 441 THE MEANING OF F REED O M . . . 443 Families in Freedom ... 443  Church and School ... 444  Political Freedom ... 444  Land, Labor, and Freedom ... 445  Masters without Slaves ... 445  The Free Labor Vision ... 447  The Freedmen’s Bureau ... 447  The Failure of Land Reform ... 448  The White Farmer ... 449 Voices of Freedom: From Petition of Committee in Behalf of the Freedmen to Andrew Johnson (1865), and From A Sharecropping Contract (1866) ... 450 Aftermath of Slavery ... 453 THE MAKING OF RA D I C A L REC O N S T R U C T I O N . . . 454 Andrew Johnson ... 454  The Failure of Presidential Reconstruction ... 454  The Black Codes ... 455  The Radical Republicans ... 456  The Origins of Civil Rights ... 456  The Fourteenth Amendment ... 457  The Reconstruction Act ... 458  Impeachment and the Election of Grant ... 458  The Fifteenth Amendment ... 460  The “Great Constitutional Revolution” ... 461  The Rights of Women ... 461 RADICAL RECONST RU C TI O N I N T H E S O U TH . . . 462 “The Tocsin of Freedom” ... 462  The Black Officeholder ... 464  Carpetbaggers and Scalawags ... 464  Southern Republicans in Power ... 465  The Quest for Prosperity ... 465 THE OVERTHROW O F R E C O N S TRU C TI O N . . . 466 Reconstruction’s Opponents ... 466  “A Reign of Terror” ... 467  The Liberal Republicans ... 469  The North’s Retreat ... 470  The Triumph of the Redeemers ... 471  The Disputed Election and Bargain of 1877 ... 472  The End of Reconstruction ... 473 REVIEW ... 474 x vi Cont e nt s APPENDIX DOCUMENTS The Declaration of Independence (1776) ... A-2 The Constitution of The United States (1787) ... A-5 From George Washington’s Farewell Address (1796) ... A-17 The Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments And Resolutions (1848) ... A-22 From Frederick Douglass’s “What, To the Slave, Is The Fourth Of July?” Speech (1852) ... A-25 The Gettysburg Address (1863) ... A-29 Abraham Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address (1865) ... A-30 The Populist Platform of 1892 ... A-31 Franklin D. Roosevelt’s First Inaugural Address (1933) ... A-34 From The Program For The March On Washington For Jobs And Freedom (1963) ... A-37 Ronald Reagan’s First Inaugural Address (1981) ... A-38 Barack Obama’s First Inaugural Address (2009) ... A-42 TABLES AND FI G U R E S Presidential Elections ... A-46 Admission of States ... A-54 Population of the United States ... A-55 Historical Statistics of The United States: Labor Force—Selected Characteristics Expressed As A Percentage of The Labor Force, 1800–2010 ... A-56 Immigration, By Origin ... A-56 Unemployment Rate, 1890–2013 ... A-57 Union Membership As A Percentage Of Nonagricultural Employment, 1880–2012 ... A-57 Voter Participation in Presidential Elections 1824–2012 ... A-57 Birthrate, 1820–2011 ... A-57 S U G G E S T E D R E A D I N G S ... A - 5 9 G L O S S A R Y ... A - 6 7 C R E D I T S ... A - 9 5 I N D E X ... A - 9 9 Contents xvi i MAPS CHAPTER 7 Western Lands, 1782–1802 ... 197 C H A PTER 1 The First Americans ... 4 Native Ways of Life, ca. 1500 ... 8 The Old World on the Eve of American Colonization, ca. 1500 ... 15 Western Ordinances, 1785–1787 ... 199 Ratification of the Constitution ... 213 CHAPTER 8 The Presidential Election of 1800 ... 234 Voyages of Discovery ... 18 The Louisiana Purchase ... 239 Early Spanish Conquests and Explorations in the The War of 1812 ... 245 New World ... 26 The New World—New France and New Netherland, ca. 1650 ... 31 CHAPTER 9 The Market Revolution: Roads and Canals, 1840 ... 253 C H A PTER 2 English Settlement in the Chesapeake, ca. 1650 ... 48 English Settlement in New England, ca. 1640 ... 59 C H A PTER 3 Eastern North America in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries ... 76 European Settlement and Ethnic Diversity on the Atlantic Coast of North America, 1760 ... 94 C H A PTER 4 Atlantic Trading Routes ... 107 Travel Times from New York City in 1800 and 1830 ... 256 The Market Revolution: The Spread of Cotton Cultivation, 1820–1840 ... 258 Cotton Mills, 1820s ... 263 CHAPTER 10 The Missouri Compromise, 1820 ... 289 The Presidential Election of 1824 ... 291 The Presidential Election of 1828 ... 296 Indian Removals, 1830–1840 ... 302 The Presidential Election of 1840 ... 308 CHAPTER 11 The Slave Trade in the Atlantic World, 1460–1770 ... 108 European Empires in North America, ca. 1750 ... 128 Eastern North America after the Peace of Paris, 1763 ... 133 Slave Population, 1860 ... 315 Size of Slaveholdings, 1860 ... 319 Major Crops of the South, 1860 ... 325 Slave Resistance in the Nineteenth-Century Atlantic World ... 331 C H A PTER 5 CHAPTER 12 The Revolutionary War in the North, Utopian Communities, Mid-Nineteenth 1775–1781 ... 160 Century ... 342 The Revolutionary War in the South, 1775–1781 ... 163 North America, 1783 ... 164 CHAPTER 13 The Trans-Mississippi West, 1830s–1840s ... 369 The Mexican War, 1846–1848 ... 374 C H A PTER 6 Continental Expansion through 1853 ... 375 Loyalism in the American Revolution ... 180 The Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1854 ... 383 x viii Li st of Ma ps, Tabl es , and Fi gur es The Railroad Network, 1850s ... 384 The Presidential Election of 1856 ... 389 The Presidential Election of 1860 ... 396 C HAPTER 14 The Secession of Southern States, 1860–1861 ... 404 The Civil War in the East, 1861–1862 ... 409 The Civil War in the West, 1861–1862 ... 411 The Emancipation Proclamation ... 414 The Civil War, 1863 ... 432 The Civil War, Late 1864–1865 ... 437 CHAPTER 3 Table 3.1 Origins and Status of Migrants to British North American Colonies, 1700–1775 ... 91 CHAPTER 4 Table 4.1 Slave Population as Percentage of Total Population of Original Thirteen Colonies, 1770 ... 112 CHAPTER 7 Table 7.1 Total Population and Black Population C HAPTER 15 The Barrow Plantation ... 446 of the United States, 1790 ... 217 CHAPTER 9 Sharecropping in the South, 1880 ... 452 The Presidential Election of 1868 ... 460 Reconstruction in the South, 1867–1877 ... 471 The Presidential Election of 1876 ... 472 Table 9.1 Population Growth of Selected Western States, 1800–1850 (Excluding Indians)... 257 Table 9.2 Total Number of Immigrants by Five-Year Period ... 264 Figure 9.1 Sources of Immigration, 1850 ... 265 CHAPTER 11 TABLES AND FIGURES Table 11.1 Growth of the Slave Population ... 314 Table 11.2 Slaveholding, 1850 (in Round C HAPTER 1 Numbers) ... 318 Table 1.1 Estimated Regional Populations: The Americas, ca. 1500 ... 24 Table 1.2 Estimated Regional Populations: The World, ca. 1500 ... 25 CHAPTER 14 Figure 14.1 Resources for War: Union versus Confederacy ... 407 L i s t s o f Ma p s , Ta b l e s , a n d F i g u re s xi x P R E FA C E ince it originally appeared late in 2004, Give Me Liberty! An American History has gone through three editions and been adopted for use in survey courses at close to one thousand two- and four-year colleges in the United States, as well as a good number overseas. Of course, I am extremely gratified by this response. The book offers students a clear narrative of American history from the earliest days of European exploration and conquest of the New World to the first decade of the twenty-first century. Its central theme is the changing contours of American freedom. The comments I have received from instructors and students encourage me to think that Give Me Liberty! has worked well in the classroom. These comments have also included many valuable suggestions, ranging from corrections of typographical and factual errors to thoughts about subjects that need more extensive treatment. In preparing new editions of the book I have tried to take these suggestions into account, as well as incorporating the insights of recent historical scholarship. Since the original edition was written, I have frequently been asked to produce a more succinct version of the textbook, which now runs to some 1,200 pages. This Brief Edition is a response to these requests. The text of the current volume is about one-third shorter than the full version. The result, I believe, is a book more suited to use in one-semester survey courses, classes S xx Pr efa ce where the instructor wishes to supplement the text with additional readings, and in other situations where a briefer volume is desirable. Since some publishers have been known to assign the task of reduction in cases like this to editors rather than the actual author, I wish to emphasize that I did all the cutting and necessary rewriting for this Brief Edition myself. My guiding principle was to preserve the coverage, structure, and emphases of the regular edition and to compress the book by eliminating details of secondary importance, streamlining the narrative of events, and avoiding unnecessary repetition. While the book is significantly shorter, no subject treated in the full edition has been eliminated entirely and nothing essential, I believe, has been sacrificed. The sequence of chapters and subjects remains the same, and the freedom theme is present and operative throughout. In abridging the textbook I have retained the original interpretive framework as well as the new emphases added when the second and third editions of the book were published. The second edition incorporated new material about the history of Native Americans, an area of American history that has been the subject of significant new scholarship in the past few years. It also devoted greater attention to the history of immigration and the controversies surrounding it—issues of considerable relevance to American social and political life today. The most significant change in the third edition reflected my desire to place American history more fully in a global context. In the past few years, scholars writing about the American past have sought to delineate the influences of the United States on the rest of the world as well as the global developments that have helped to shape the course of events here at home. They have also devoted greater attention to transnational processes—the expansion of empires, international labor migrations, the rise and fall of slavery, the globalization of economic enterprise—that cannot be understood solely within the confines of one country’s national boundaries. Without seeking in any way to homogenize the history of individual nations or neglect the domestic forces that have shaped American development, this edition retains this emphasis. The most significant changes in this Fourth Edition reflect my desire to integrate more fully into the narrative the history of American religion. Today, this is a thriving subfield of American historical writing, partly because of the increased prominence in our own time of debates over the relations between government and religion and over the definition of religious liberty—issues that are deeply rooted in the American experience. The Brief Edition also employs a bright new design for the text and its various elements. The popular Voices of Freedom feature—a pair of excerpts from primary source documents in each chapter that illuminate divergent interpretations of freedom—is present here. So too are the useful chapter P re f a c e xxi opening focus questions, which appear in the running heads of the relevant text pages as well. There are chapter opening chronologies and end-ofchapter review pages with questions and key terms. As a new feature in the Brief Edition there are marginal glosses in the text pages that are meant to highlight key points and indicate the chapter structure for students. They are also useful means for review. The Brief Edition features more than 400 illustrations and over 100 captioned maps in easy to read four-color renditions. The Further Readings sections appear in the Appendix along with the Glossary and the collection of key documents. The Brief Edition is fully supported by the same array of print and electronic supplements that support the other editions of Give Me Liberty! These materials have been revised to match the content of the Brief Edition. Americans have always had a divided attitude toward history. On the one hand, they tend to be remarkably future-oriented, dismissing events of even the recent past as “ancient history” and sometimes seeing history as a burden to be overcome, a prison from which to escape. On the other hand, like many other peoples, Americans have always looked to history for a sense of personal or group identity and of national cohesiveness. This is why so many Americans devote time and energy to tracing their family trees and why they visit historical museums and National Park Service historical sites in ever-increasing numbers. My hope is that this book will help to convince readers with all degrees of interest that history does matter to them. The novelist and essayist James Baldwin once observed that history “does not refer merely, or even principally, to the past. On the contrary, the great force of history comes from the fact that we carry it within us, . . . [that] history is literally present in all that we do.” As Baldwin recognized, the power of history is evident in our own world. Especially in a political democracy like the United States, whose government is designed to rest on the consent of informed citizens, knowledge of the past is essential—not only for those of us whose profession is the teaching and writing of history, but for everyone. History, to be sure, does not offer simple lessons or immediate answers to current questions. Knowing the history of immigration to the United States, and all of the tensions, turmoil, and aspirations associated with it, for example, does not tell us what current immigration policy ought to be. But without that knowledge, we have no way of understanding which approaches have worked and which have not—essential information for the formulation of future public policy. History, it has been said, is what the present chooses to remember about the past. Rather than a fixed collection of facts, or a group of interpretations that cannot be challenged, our understanding of history is constantly changing. There is nothing unusual in the fact that each generation rewrites history to meet its own needs, or that scholars disagree among x xii Pr e face themselves on basic questions like the causes of the Civil War or the reasons for the Great Depression. Precisely because each generation asks different questions of the past, each generation formulates different answers. The past thirty years have witnessed a remarkable expansion of the scope of historical study. The experiences of groups neglected by earlier scholars, including women, African-Americans, working people, and others, have received unprecedented attention from historians. New subfields—social history, cultural history, and family history among them—have taken their place alongside traditional political and diplomatic history. Give Me Liberty! draws on this voluminous historical literature to present an up-to-date and inclusive account of the American past, paying due attention to the experience of diverse groups of Americans while in no way neglecting the events and processes Americans have experienced in common. It devotes serious attention to political, social, cultural, and economic history, and to their interconnections. The narrative brings together major events and prominent leaders with the many groups of ordinary people who make up American society. Give Me Liberty! has a rich cast of characters, from Thomas Jefferson to campaigners for woman suffrage, from Franklin D. Roosevelt to former slaves seeking to breathe meaning into emancipation during and after the Civil War. The unifying theme of freedom that runs through the text gives shape to the narrative and integrates the numerous strands that make up the American experience. This approach builds on that of my earlier book, The Story of American Freedom (1998), although Give Me Liberty! places events and personalities in the foreground and is more geared to the structure of the introductory survey course. Freedom, and battles to define its meaning, has long been central to my own scholarship and undergraduate teaching, which focuses on the nineteenth century and especially the era of Civil War and Reconstruction (1850–1877). This was a time when the future of slavery tore the nation apart and emancipation produced a national debate over what rights the former slaves, and all Americans, should enjoy as free citizens. I have found that attention to clashing definitions of freedom and the struggles of different groups to achieve freedom as they understood it offers a way of making sense of the bitter battles and vast transformations of that pivotal era. I believe that the same is true for American history as a whole. No idea is more fundamental to Americans’ sense of themselves as individuals and as a nation than freedom. The central term in our political language, freedom—or liberty, with which it is almost always used interchangeably—is deeply embedded in the record of our history and the language of everyday life. The Declaration of Independence lists liberty among mankind’s inalienable rights; the Constitution announces its purpose P re f a c e xxi i i as securing liberty’s blessings. The United States fought the Civil War to bring about a new birth of freedom, World War II for the Four Freedoms, and the Cold War to defend the Free World. Americans’ love of liberty has been represented by liberty poles, liberty caps, and statues of liberty, and acted out by burning stamps and burning draft cards, by running away from slavery, and by demonstrating for the right to vote. “Every man in the street, white, black, red or yellow,” wrote the educator and statesman Ralph Bunche in 1940, “knows that this is ‘the land of the free’ . . . ‘the cradle of liberty.’” The very universality of the idea of freedom, however, can be misleading. Freedom is not a fixed, timeless category with a single unchanging definition. Indeed, the history of the United States is, in part, a story of debates, disagreements, and struggles over freedom. Crises like the American Revolution, the Civil War, and the Cold War have permanently transformed the idea of freedom. So too have demands by various groups of Americans to enjoy greater freedom. The meaning of freedom has been constructed not only in congressional debates and political treatises, but on plantations and picket lines, in parlors and even bedrooms. Over the course of our history, American freedom has been both a reality and a mythic ideal—a living truth for millions of Americans, a cruel mockery for others. For some, freedom has been what some scholars call a “habit of the heart,” an ideal so taken for granted that it is lived out but rarely analyzed. For others, freedom is not a birthright but a distant goal that has inspired great sacrifice. Give Me Liberty! draws attention to three dimensions of freedom that have been critical in American history: (1) the meanings of freedom; (2) the social conditions that make freedom possible; and (3) the boundaries of freedom that determine who is entitled to enjoy freedom and who is not. All have changed over time. In the era of the American Revolution, for example, freedom was primarily a set of rights enjoyed in public activity—including the right of a community to be governed by laws to which its representatives had consented and of individuals to engage in religious worship without governmental interference. In the nineteenth century, freedom came to be closely identified with each person’s opportunity to develop to the fullest his or her innate talents. In the twentieth, the “ability to choose,” in both public and private life, became perhaps the dominant understanding of freedom. This development was encouraged by the explosive growth of the consumer marketplace which offered Americans an unprecedented array of goods with which to satisfy their needs and desires. During the 1960s, a crucial chapter in the history of American freedom, the idea of personal freedom was extended into virtually every realm, from attire and “lifestyle” to relations between x xiv Pr efa ce the sexes. Thus, over time, more and more areas of life have been drawn into Americans’ debates about the meaning of freedom. A second important dimension of freedom focuses on the social conditions necessary to allow freedom to flourish. What kinds of economic institutions and relationships best encourage individual freedom? In the colonial era and for more than a century after independence, the answer centered on economic autonomy, enshrined in the glorification of the independent small producer—the farmer, skilled craftsman, or shopkeeper— who did not have to depend on another person for his livelihood. As the industrial economy matured, new conceptions of economic freedom came to the fore: “liberty of contract” in the Gilded Age, “industrial freedom” (a say in corporate decision making) in the Progressive era, economic security during the New Deal, and, more recently, the ability to enjoy mass consumption within a market economy. The boundaries of freedom, the third dimension of this theme, have inspired some of the most intense struggles in American history. Although founded on the premise that liberty is an entitlement of all humanity, the United States for much of its history deprived many of its own people of freedom. Non-whites have rarely enjoyed the same access to freedom as white Americans. The belief in equal opportunity as the birthright of all Americans has coexisted with persistent efforts to limit freedom by race, gender, class, and in other ways. Less obvious, perhaps, is the fact that one person’s freedom has frequently been linked to another’s servitude. In the colonial era and nineteenth century, expanding freedom for many Americans rested on the lack of freedom—slavery, indentured servitude, the subordinate position of women—for others. By the same token, it has been through battles at the boundaries—the efforts of racial minorities, women, and others to secure greater freedom—that the meaning and experience of freedom have been deepened and the concept extended into new realms. Time and again in American history, freedom has been transformed by the demands of excluded groups for inclusion. The idea of freedom as a universal birthright owes much to abolitionists who sought to extend the blessings of liberty to blacks and to immigrant groups who insisted on full recognition as American citizens. The principle of equal protection of the law without regard to race, which became a central element of American freedom, arose from the antislavery struggle and Civil War and was reinvigorated by the civil rights revolution of the 1960s, which called itself the “freedom movement.” The battle for the right of free speech by labor radicals and birth control advocates in the first part of the twentieth century helped to make civil liberties an essential element of freedom for all Americans. Freedom is the oldest of clichés and the most modern of aspirations. At various times in our history, it has served as the rallying cry of the P re f a c e xxv powerless and as a justification of the status quo. Freedom helps to bind our culture together and exposes the contradictions between what America claims to be and what it sometimes has been. American history is not a narrative of continual progress toward greater and greater freedom. As the abolitionist Thomas Wentworth Higginson noted after the Civil War, “revolutions may go backward.” While freedom can be achieved, it may also be taken away. This happened, for example, when the equal rights granted to former slaves immediately after the Civil War were essentially nullified during the era of segregation. As was said in the eighteenth century, the price of freedom is eternal vigilance. In the early twenty-first century, freedom continues to play a central role in our political and social life and thought. It is invoked by individuals and groups of all kinds, from critics of economic globalization to those who seek to export American freedom overseas. As with the longer version of the book, I hope that this Brief Edition of Give Me Liberty! will offer beginning students a clear account of the course of American history, and of its central theme, freedom, which today remains as varied, contentious, and ever-changing as America itself. x xvi Pr efa ce ACKNOWLEDGMENTS All works of history are, to a considerable extent, collaborative books, in that every writer builds on the research and writing of previous scholars. This is especially true of a textbook that covers the entire American experience, over more than five centuries. My greatest debt is to the innumerable historians on whose work I have drawn in preparing this volume. The Suggested Reading list in the Appendix offers only a brief introduction to the vast body of historical scholarship that has influenced and informed this book. More specifically, however, I wish to thank the following scholars, who generously read portions of this work and offered valuable comments, criticisms, and suggestions: Wayne Ackerson, Salisbury University Mary E. Adams, City College of San Francisco Jeff Adler, University of Florida David Anderson, Louisiana Tech University John Barr, Lone Star College, Kingwood Lauren Braun-Strumfels, Raritan Valley Community College James Broussard, Lebanon Valley College Michael Bryan, Greenville Technical College Stephanie Cole, The University of Texas at Arlington Ashley Cruseturner, McLennan Community College Jim Dudlo, Brookhaven College Beverly Gage, Yale University Monica Gisolfi, University of North Carolina, Wilmington Adam Goudsouzian, University of Memphis Mike Green, Community College of Southern Nevada Vanessa Gunther, California State University, Fullerton David E. Hamilton, University of Kentucky Brian Harding, Mott Community College Sandra Harvey, Lone Star College–Cy Fair April Holm, University of Mississippi David Hsiung, Juniata College James Karmel, Harford Community College Kelly Knight, Penn State University Marianne Leeper, Trinity Valley Community College Jeffrey K. Lucas, University of North Carolina at Pembroke Tina Margolis, Westchester Community College Kent McGaughy, HCC Northwest College James Mills, University of Texas, Brownsville Gil Montemayor, McLennan Community College Jonathan Noyalas, Lord Fairfax Community College Robert M. O’Brien, Lone Star College–Cy Fair P re f a c e xxvi i Joseph Palermo, California State University, Sacramento Ann Plane, University of California, Santa Barbara Nancy Marie Robertson, Indiana University–Purdue University Indianapolis Esther Robinson, Lone Star College–Cy Fair Richard Samuelson, California State University, San Bernadino Diane Sager, Maple Woods Community College John Shaw, Portland Community College Mark Spencer, Brock University David Stebenne, Ohio State University Judith Stein, City College, City University of New York George Stevens, Duchess Community College Robert Tinkler, California State University, Chico Elaine Thompson, Louisiana Tech University David Weiman, Barnard College William Young, Maple Woods Community College I am particularly grateful to my colleagues in the Columbia University Department of History: Pablo Piccato, for his advice on Latin American history; Evan Haefeli and Ellen Baker, who read and made many suggestions for improvements in their areas of expertise (colonial America and the history of the West, respectively); and Sarah Phillips, who offered advice on treating the history of the environment. I am also deeply indebted to the graduate students at Columbia University’s Department of History who helped with this project. Theresa Ventura offered invaluable assistance in gathering material for the new sections placing American history in a global context. April Holm provided similar assistance for new coverage in this edition of the history of American religion and debates over religious freedom. James Delbourgo conducted research for the chapters on the colonial era. Beverly Gage did the same for the twentieth century. Daniel Freund provided all-round research assistance. Victoria Cain did a superb job of locating images. I also want to thank my colleagues Elizabeth Blackmar and Alan Brinkley for offering advice and encouragement throughout the writing of this book. Many thanks to Joshua Brown, director of the American Social History Project, whose website, History Matters, lists innumerable online resources for the study of American history. Nancy Robertson at IUIPUI did a superb job revising and enhancing the in-book pedagogy. Monica Gisolfi (University of North Carolina, Wilmington) and Robert Tinkler (California State University, Chico) did excellent work on the Instructor’s Manual and Test Bank. Kathleen Thomas (University of Wisconsin, Stout) helped greatly in the revisions of the companion media packages. x xviii Pr e face At W. W. Norton & Company, Steve Forman was an ideal editor— patient, encouraging, and always ready to offer sage advice. I would also like to thank Steve’s assistants, Justin Cahill and Penelope Lin, for their indispensable and always cheerful help on all aspects of the project; Ellen Lohman and Debbie Nichols for their careful copyediting and proof reading work. Stephanie Romeo and Donna Ranieri for their resourceful attention to the illustrations program; Hope Miller Goodell and Chin-Yee Lai for their refinements of the book design; Mike Fodera and Debra Morton-Hoyt for splendid work on the covers for the Fourth Edition; Kim Yi for keeping the many threads of the project aligned and then tying them together; Sean Mintus for his efficiency and care in book production; Steve Hoge for orchestrating the rich media package that accompanies the textbook; Jessica Brannon-Wranosky, Texas A&M University–Commerce, our digital media author for the terrific new web quizzes and outlines; Volker Janssen, California State University, Fullerton, for the helpful new online reading exercises; Nicole Netherton, Steve Dunn, and Mike Wright for their alert reads of the U.S. survey market and their hard work in helping establish Give Me Liberty! within it; and Drake McFeely, Roby Harrington, and Julia Reidhead for maintaining Norton as an independent, employee-owned publisher dedicated to excellence in its work. Many students may have heard stories of how publishing companies alter the language and content of textbooks in an attempt to maximize sales and avoid alienating any potential reader. In this case, I can honestly say that W. W. Norton allowed me a free hand in writing the book and, apart from the usual editorial corrections, did not try to influence its content at all. For this I thank them, while I accept full responsibility for the interpretations presented and for any errors the book may contain. Since no book of this length can be entirely free of mistakes, I welcome readers to send me corrections at ef17@columbia.edu. My greatest debt, as always, is to my family—my wife, Lynn Garafola, for her good-natured support while I was preoccupied by a project that consumed more than its fair share of my time and energy, and my daughter, Daria, who while a ninth and tenth grader read every chapter as it was written and offered invaluable suggestions about improving the book’s clarity, logic, and grammar. Eric Foner New York City July 2013 P re f a c e xxi x GIVE ME LIBERTY! AN AMERICAN HISTORY  Brief Fourth Edition CHAPTER 1 A NEW WORLD  7000 BC Agriculture developed in Mexico and Andes 900– 1200 AD Hopi and Zuni tribes build planned towns 1200 Cahokia city-empire along the Mississippi 1400s Iroquois League established 1434 Portuguese explore subSaharan African Coast 1487 Bartolomeu Dias reaches the Cape of Good Hope 1492 Reconquista of Spain Columbus’s first voyage to the Americas 1498 Vasco da Gama sails to the Indian Ocean 1500 Pedro Cabral claims Brazil for Portugal 1502 First African slaves transported to the Caribbean islands 1517 Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses 1519 Hernán Cortés arrives in Mexico 1528 Las Casas’s History of the Indies 1530s Pizarro’s conquest of Peru 1542 Spain promulgates the New Laws 1608 Champlain establishes Quebec 1609 Hudson claims New Netherland 1610 Santa Fe established 1680 Pueblo Revolt France Bringing the Faith to the Indians of New France. European nations justified colonization with the argument that they were bringing Christianity— without which freedom was impossible— to Native Americans. In this painting from the 1670s, an Indian kneels before a female representation of France. Both hold a painting of the Trinity. FOCUS QUESTIONS s What were the major patterns of Native American life in North America before Europeans arrived? s How did Indian and European ideas of freedom differ on the eve of contact? s What impelled European explorers to look west across the Atlantic? s What happened when the peoples of the Americas came in contact with Europeans? s What were the chief features of the Spanish empire in America? s What were the chief features of the French and Dutch empires in North America? 2 T he discovery of America,” the British writer Adam Smith announced in his celebrated work The Wealth of Nations (1776), was one of “the two greatest and most important events recorded in the history of mankind.” Historians no longer use the word “discovery” to describe the European exploration, conquest, and colonization of a hemisphere already home to millions of people. But there can be no doubt that when Christopher Columbus made landfall in the West Indian islands in 1492, he set in motion some of the most pivotal developments in human history. Immense changes soon followed in both the Old and New Worlds; the consequences of these changes are still with us today. The peoples of the American continents and Europe, previously unaware of each other’s existence, were thrown into continuous interaction. Crops new to each hemisphere crossed the Atlantic, reshaping diets and transforming the natural environment. Because of their long isolation, the inhabitants of North and South America had developed no immunity to the germs that also accompanied the colonizers. As a result, they suffered a series of devastating epidemics, the greatest population catastrophe in human history. Within a decade of Columbus’s voyage, a fourth continent—Africa—found itself drawn into the new Atlantic system of trade and population movement. In Africa, Europeans found a supply of unfree labor that enabled them to exploit the fertile lands of the Western Hemisphere. Indeed, of approximately 10 million men, women, and children who crossed from the Old World to the New between 1492 and 1820, the vast majority, about 7.7 million, were African slaves. From the vantage point of 1776, the year the United States declared itself an independent nation, it seemed to Adam Smith that the “discovery” of America had produced both great “benefits” and great “misfortunes.” To the nations of western Europe, the development of American colonies brought an era of “splendor and glory.” Smith also noted, however, that to the “natives” of the Americas the years since 1492 had been ones of “dreadful misfortunes” and “every sort of injustice.” And for millions of Africans, the settlement of America meant a descent into the abyss of slavery. Long before Columbus sailed, Europeans had dreamed of a land of abundance, riches, and ease beyond the western horizon. Europeans envisioned America as a religious refuge, a society of equals, a source of power and glory. They searched the New World for golden cities and fountains of eternal youth. Some of these dreams would indeed be fulfilled. To many European settlers, America offered a far greater chance to own land and worship as they pleased than existed in Europe, with its rigid, unequal social order and official churches. Yet the New World also became Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d What were the major patterns of Native American life in North America before Europeans arrived? the site of many forms of unfree labor, including indentured servitude, forced labor, and one of the most brutal and unjust systems, plantation slavery. The conquest and settlement of the Western Hemisphere opened new chapters in the long histories of both freedom and slavery. THE FIRST AMERICANS The Settling of the Americas The residents of the Americas were no more a single group than Europeans or Africans. They spoke hundreds of different languages and lived in numerous kinds of societies. Most, however, were descended from bands of hunters and fishers who had crossed the Bering Strait via a land bridge at various times between 15,000 and 60,000 years ago—the exact dates are hotly debated by archaeologists. The New World was new to Europeans but an ancient homeland to those who already lived there. The hemisphere had witnessed many changes during its human history. First, the early inhabitants and their descendants spread across the two continents, reaching the tip of South America perhaps 11,000 years ago. As the climate warmed, they faced a food crisis as the immense animals they hunted, including woolly mammoths and giant bison, became extinct. Around 9,000 years ago, at the same time that agriculture was being developed in the Near East, it also emerged in modern-day Mexico and the Andes, and then spread to other parts of the Americas, making settled civilizations possible. Emergence of agriculture Indian Societies of the Americas North and South America were hardly an empty wilderness when Europeans arrived. The hemisphere contained cities, roads, irrigation systems, extensive trade networks, and large structures such as the pyramid-temples whose beauty still inspires wonder. With a population close to 250,000, Tenochtitlán, the capital of the Aztec empire in what is now Mexico, was one of the world’s largest cities. Farther south lay the Inca kingdom, centered in modern-day Peru. Its population of perhaps 12 million was linked by a complex system of roads and bridges that extended 2,000 miles along the Andes mountain chain. Indian civilizations in North America had not developed the scale, grandeur, or centralized organization of the Aztec and Inca societies to their south. Roads, trade networks, and irrigation systems THE FIRST AMERICANS 3 THE FIRST AMERICANS Chukc hi Peni nsula Be r in gS t ra i t Ale ut ia n Isl an ds NORTH AMERICA MOHAWK ONEIDA ONONDAGA CAYUGA SENECA ve r Pacific Ocean i io R Oh CHEROKEE ssi Mi ssippi R. Cahokia Chaco Canyon HOPI PUEBLO ZUNI CHICKASAW Poverty Point A t la n t ic Oc e a n CHOCTAW Gulf of Mexico Chichen Itzá AZ TEC Tenochtitlán S Monte Alban CE NT 0 0 500 500 1,000 miles 1,000 kilometers S AN Yu cat án MAY Pe n in su l a Palenque RAL Caribbean Sea AM ERIC A SOUTH AMERICA Possible migration routes I NC A S A map illustrating the probable routes by which the first Americans settled the Western Hemisphere at various times between 15,000 and 60,000 years ago. 4 Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d What were the major patterns of Native American life in North America before Europeans arrived? Map of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlán and the Gulf of Mexico, probably produced by a Spanish conquistador and published in 1524 in an edition of the letters of Hernán Cortés. The map shows the city’s complex system of canals, bridges, and dams, with the Great Temple at the center. Gardens and a zoo are also visible. North American Indians lacked the technologies Europeans had mastered, such as metal tools and machines, gunpowder, and the scientific knowledge necessary for long-distance navigation. No society north of Mexico had achieved literacy (although some made maps on bark and animal hides). Their “backwardness” became a central justification for European conquest. But, over time, Indian societies had perfected techniques of farming, hunting, and fishing, developed structures of political power and religious belief, and engaged in far-reaching networks of trade and communication. Justification for conquest Mound Build ers of the Mississippi River Valley Remarkable physical remains still exist from some of the early civilizations in North America. Around 3,500 years ago, before Egyptians built the pyramids, Native Americans constructed a large community centered on a series of giant semicircular mounds on a bluff overlooking the Mississippi River in present-day Louisiana. Known today as Poverty Point, it was a commercial and governmental center whose residents established trade routes throughout the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys. More than a thousand years before Columbus sailed, Indians of the Ohio River valley, called “mound builders” by eighteenth-century settlers who encountered the large earthen burial mounds they created, had traded across half the continent. After their decline, another culture flourished in the Mississippi River valley, centered on the city of Cahokia near present-day St. Louis, a fortified community with between 10,000 and “Mound builders” THE FIRST AMERICANS 5 30,000 inhabitants in the year 1200. It stood as the largest settled community in what is now the United States until surpassed in population by New York and Philadelphia around 1800. Western Indians Village life and trade A modern aerial photograph of the ruins of Pueblo Bonita, in Chaco Canyon in present-day New Mexico. The rectangular structures are the foundations of dwellings, and the circular ones are kivas, or places In the arid northeastern area of present-day Arizona, the Hopi and Zuni and their ancestors engaged in settled village life for over 3,000 years. During the peak of the region’s culture, between the years 900 and 1200, these peoples built great planned towns with large multiple-family dwellings in local canyons, constructed dams and canals to gather and distribute water, and conducted trade with groups as far away as central Mexico and the Mississippi River valley. The largest of their structures, Pueblo Bonita, in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, stood five stories high and had over 600 rooms. Not until the 1880s was a dwelling of comparable size constructed in the United States. After the decline of these communities, probably because of drought, survivors moved to the south and east, where they established villages and perfected the techniques of desert farming. These were the people Spanish explorers called the Pueblo Indians (because they lived in small villages, or pueblos, when the Spanish first encountered them in the sixteenth century). On the Pacific coast, another densely populated region, hundreds of distinct groups resided in independent villages and lived primarily by fishing, hunting sea mammals, and gathering wild plants and nuts. of religious worship. Indians of Eastern North America In eastern North America, hundreds of tribes inhabited towns and villages scattered from the Gulf of Mexico to present-day Canada. They lived on corn, squash, and beans, supplemented by fishing and hunting deer, turkeys, and other animals. Indian trade routes crisscrossed the eastern part of the continent. Tribes frequently warred with one another to obtain goods, seize captives, or take revenge for the killing of relatives. They conducted diplomacy and made peace. Little in the way of centralized authority existed until, in the fifteenth century, various leagues or 6 Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d What were the major patterns of Native American life in North America before Europeans arrived? confederations emerged in an effort to bring order to local regions. In the Southeast, the Choctaw, Cherokee, and Chickasaw each united dozens of towns in loose alliances. In present-day New York and Pennsylvania, five Iroquois peoples—the Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, and Onondaga— formed a Great League of Peace, bringing a period of stability to the area. The most striking feature of Native American society at the time Europeans arrived was its sheer diversity. Each group had its own political system and set of religious beliefs, and North America was home to literally hundreds of mutually unintelligible languages. Indians did not think of themselves as a single unified people, an idea invented by Europeans and only many years later adopted by Indians themselves. Indian identity centered on the immediate social group—a tribe, village, chiefdom, or confederacy. When Europeans first arrived, many Indians saw them as simply one group among many. The sharp dichotomy between Indians and “white” persons did not emerge until later in the colonial era. Diversity of Native American society Native American Religion Nonetheless, the diverse Indian societies of North America did share certain common characteristics. Their lives were steeped in religious ceremonies often directly related to farming and hunting. Spiritual power, they The Village of Secoton, by John White, an English artist who spent a year on the Outer Banks of North Carolina in 1585–1586 as part of an expedition sponsored by Sir Walter Raleigh. A central street links houses surrounded by fields of corn. In the lower part, dancing Indians take part in a religious ceremony. THE FIRST AMERICANS 7 NATIVE WAYS OF LIFE, ca. 1500 TLINGIT INUIT Hudson Bay INUIT TSHIMSHIAN ro n thin L. Michig Hu an thinly KWAKIUTLS MICMAC populated SHUSWAP CREE PENOBSCOT NOOTKIN ABENAKI KOOTENAY CHIPPEWA BLACKFEET ASSINIBOINE ALGONQUIAN perior SKAGIT L. Su CHEYENNE SIOUX WALLA WALLA L. CHINOOK FLATHEAD CHIPPEWA NEZ WAMPANOAG HIDATSA HURON Ontario MOHEGAN PERCE CAYUSE OTTOWA L. SIOUX PEQUOT MENOMINEE TILLAMOOK MANDAN NEUTRAL IROQUOIS ARAPAHO NARRAGANSETT KLAMATH rie KIOWA WINNEBAGO L. E POMO MODOC IOWA SUSQUEHANNOCK PAWNEE ERIE SHOSHONE POTAWATOMI MOSOPELEA MAIDU SAUK SHAWNEE COSTANO KICKAPOO te d ILLINOIS PAMLICO UTE KASKASKIA WICHITA CHEROKEE TUSCARORA SOUTHERN CHEMEHUEVI PAIUTE CHUMASH CHICKASAW SERRANO COMANCHE LUISENO HOPI ZUNI TEWA CREEK CAHUILLA CADDO YAMASEE DIEGUENO MESCALERO TIMUCUA CHOCTAW APALACHEE NATCHEZ JUMANO ly po pu la CONCHO YACHI Pa c i f i c O c ean KABANKAWA Gulf of Mexico COAHUILTEC 0 0 Ways of Life in North America, AD 1515 Arctic hunter-gatherers Subarctic hunter-fisher-gatherers Northwest coast marine economy Plains hunter-gatherers Plains horticulturalists CALUSA LAGUERNO 250 250 500 miles ARAWAK 500 kilometers Non-horticultural rancherian peoples Rancherian peoples with low-intensity horticulture Rancherian peoples with intensive horticulture Pueblos with intensive horticulture Seacoast foragers Marginal horticultural hunters River-based horticultural chiefdoms Orchard-growing alligator hunters Tidewater horticulturalists Fishers and wild-rice gatherers The native population of North America at the time of first contact with Europeans consisted of numerous tribes with their own languages, religious beliefs, and economic and social structures. This map suggests the numerous ways of life existing at the time. 8 Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d What were the major patterns of Native American life in North America before Europeans arrived? believed, suffused the world, and sacred spirits could be found in all kinds of living and inanimate things—animals, plants, trees, water, and wind. Through religious ceremonies, they aimed to harness the aid of powerful supernatural forces to serve human interests. Indian villages also held elaborate religious rites, participation in which helped to define the boundaries of community membership. In all Indian societies, those who seemed to possess special abilities to invoke supernatural powers—shamans, medicine men, and other religious leaders—held positions of respect and authority. In some respects, Indian religion was not that different from popular spiritual beliefs in Europe. Most Indians held that a single Creator stood atop the spiritual hierarchy. Nonetheless, nearly all Europeans arriving in the New World quickly concluded that Indians were in dire need of being converted to a true, Christian faith. Indian religious rituals Land and Property Equally alien in European eyes were Indian attitudes toward property. Generally, village leaders assigned plots of land to individual families to use for a season or more, and tribes claimed specific areas for hunting. Unclaimed land remained free for anyone to use. Families “owned” the right to use land, but they did not own the land itself. Indians saw land as a common resource, not an economic commodity. There was no market in real estate before the coming of Europeans. Land as a common resource A Catawba map illustrates the differences between Indian and European conceptions of landed property. The map depicts not possession of a specific territory, but trade and diplomatic connections between various native groups and with the colony of Virginia, represented by the rectangle on the lower right. The map, inscribed on deerskin, was originally presented by Indian chiefs to Governor Francis Nicholson of South Carolina in 1721. This copy, the only version that survives, was made by the governor for the authorities in London. It added English labels that conveyed what the Indians had related orally with the gift. THE FIRST AMERICANS 9 Gift giving Nor were Indians devoted to the accumulation of wealth and material goods. Especially east of the Mississippi River, where villages moved every few years when soil or game became depleted, acquiring numerous possessions made little sense. However, status certainly mattered in Indian societies. Tribal leaders tended to come from a small number of families, and chiefs lived more splendidly than average members of society. But their reputation often rested on their willingness to share goods with others rather than hoarding them for themselves. Generosity was among the most valued social qualities, and gift giving was essential to Indian society. Trade, for example, meant more than a commercial transaction—it was accompanied by elaborate ceremonies of gift exchange that bound different groups in webs of mutual obligation. “There are no beggars among them,” reported the English colonial leader Roger Williams of New England’s Indians. Gender Relations Matrilineal societies Indian women planting crops while men break the sod. An engraving by Theodor de Bry, based on a painting by Jacques Le Moyne de Morgues. Morgues was part of an expedition of French Huguenots to Florida in 1564; he escaped when the Spanish The system of gender relations in most Indian societies also differed markedly from that of Europe. Membership in a family defined women’s lives, but they openly engaged in premarital sexual relations and could even choose to divorce their husbands. Most, although not all, Indian societies were matrilineal—that is, centered on clans or kinship groups in which children became members of the mother’s family, not the father’s. Under English law, a married man controlled the family’s property and a wife had no independent legal identity. In contrast, Indian women owned dwellings and tools, and a husband generally moved to live with the family of his wife. Because men were frequently away on the hunt, women took responsibility not only for household duties but for most agricultural work as well. destroyed the outpost in the following year. European Views of the Indians Europeans tended to view Indians in extreme terms. They were regarded either as “noble savages,” gentle, friendly, and superior in some ways to Europeans, or as uncivilized and brutal savages. Over time, however, negative images of Indians came to overshadow positive ones. Early European descriptions of North American Indians as barbaric centered on three areas—religion, land use, and gender relations. Whatever their country of origin, European newcomers concluded that Indians 10 Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d What were the major patterns of Native American life in North America before Europeans arrived? lacked genuine religion, or in fact worshiped the devil. Whereas the Indians saw nature as a world of spirits and souls, the Europeans viewed it as a collection of potential commodities, a source of economic opportunity. Europeans invoked the Indians’ distinctive pattern of land use and ideas about property to answer the awkward question raised by a British minister at an early stage of England’s colonization: “By what right or warrant can we enter into the land of these Savages, take away their rightful inheritance from them, and plant ourselves in their places?” While the Spanish claimed title to land in America by right of conquest and papal authority, the English, French, and Dutch came to rely on the idea that Indians had not actually “used” the land and thus had no claim to it. Despite the Indians’ highly developed agriculture and well-established towns, Europeans frequently described them as nomads without settled communities. In the Indians’ gender division of labor and matrilineal family structures, Europeans saw weak men and mistreated women. Hunting and fishing, the primary occupations of Indian men, were considered leisure activities in much of Europe, not “real” work. Because Indian women worked in the fields, Europeans often described them as lacking freedom. Europeans insisted that by subduing the Indians, they were actually bringing them freedom—the freedom of true religion, private property, and the liberation of both men and women from uncivilized and unchristian gender roles. A seventeenth-century engraving by a French Jesuit priest illustrates many Europeans’ view of Indian religion. A demon hovers over an Iroquois longhouse, suggesting that Indians worship the devil. INDIAN FREEDOM, EUROPEAN FREEDOM Indian Freed om Although many Europeans initially saw Indians as embodying freedom, most colonizers quickly concluded that the notion of “freedom” was alien to Indian societies. European settlers reached this conclusion in part because Indians did not appear to live under established governments or fixed laws, followed their own—not European—definitions of authority, and lacked the kind of order and discipline common in European society. Indians also did not define freedom as individual autonomy or tie it to the ownership of property—two attributes important to Europeans. What were the Indians’ ideas of freedom? The modern notion of freedom as personal independence had little meaning in most Indian societies, but individuals were expected to think for themselves and did not always have to go along with collective decision making. Far more important Freedom in the group INDIAN FREEDOM, EUROPEAN FREEDOM 11 than individual autonomy were kinship ties, the ability to follow one’s spiritual values, and the well-being and security of one’s community. In Indian culture, group autonomy and self-determination, and the mutual obligations that came with a sense of belonging and connectedness, took precedence over individual freedom. Ironically, the coming of Europeans, armed with their own language of liberty, would make freedom a preoccupation of American Indians, as part and parcel of the very process by which they were reduced to dependence on the colonizers. Christian Liber ty Freedom as a spiritual condition On the eve of colonization, Europeans held numerous ideas of freedom. Some were as old as the city-states of ancient Greece, others arose during the political struggles of the early modern era. Some laid the foundations for modern conceptions of freedom, others are quite unfamiliar today. Freedom was not a single idea but a collection of distinct rights and privileges, many enjoyed by only a small portion of the population. One conception common throughout Europe understood freedom less as a political or social status than as a moral or spiritual condition. Freedom meant abandoning the life of sin to embrace the teachings of Christ. “Christian Liberty,” however, had no connection to later ideas of religious toleration, a notion that scarcely existed anywhere on the eve of colonization. Every nation in Europe had an established church that decreed what forms of religious worship and belief were acceptable. Dissenters faced persecution by the state as well as condemnation by church authorities. Religious uniformity was thought to be essential to public order; the modern idea that a person’s religious beliefs and practices are a matter of private choice, not legal obligation, was almost unknown. Freedom and Authority Hierarchy in the family 12 In its secular form, the equating of liberty with obedience to a higher authority suggested that freedom meant not anarchy but obedience to law. The identification of freedom with the rule of law did not, though, mean that all subjects of the crown enjoyed the same degree of freedom. Early modern European societies were extremely hierarchical, with marked gradations of social status ranging from the king and hereditary aristocracy down to the urban and rural poor. Inequality was built into virtually every social relationship. Within families, men exercised authority over their wives and children. According to the widespread legal doctrine known as “coverture,” when a woman married she surrendered her legal identity, which became Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d How did Indian and European ideas of freedom differ on the eve of contact? “covered” by that of her husband. She could not own property or sign contracts in her own name, control her wages if she worked, write a separate will, or, except in the rarest of circumstances, go to court seeking a divorce. The husband had the exclusive right to his wife’s “company,” including domestic labor and sexual relations. Everywhere in Europe, family life depended on male dominance and female submission. Indeed, political writers of the sixteenth century explicitly compared the king’s authority over his subjects with the husband’s over his family. Both were ordained by God. Liberty and Liberties In this hierarchical society, liberty came from knowing one’s social place and fulfilling the duties appropriate to one’s rank. Most men lacked the freedom that came with economic independence. Property qualifications and other restrictions limited the electorate to a minuscule part of the adult male population. The law required strict obedience of employees, and breaches of labor contracts carried criminal penalties. European ideas of freedom still bore the imprint of the Middle Ages, when “liberties” meant formal, specific privileges such as self-government, exemption from taxation, or the right to practice a particular trade, granted to individuals or groups by contract, royal decree, or purchase. Only those who enjoyed the “freedom of the city,” for example, could engage in certain economic activities. Numerous modern civil liberties did not exist. The law decreed acceptable forms of religious worship. The government regularly suppressed publications it did not like, and criticism of authority could lead to imprisonment. Nonetheless, every European country that colonized the New World claimed to be spreading freedom—for its own population and for Native Americans. Hierarchy in society THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE It is fitting that the second epochal event that Adam Smith linked to Columbus’s voyage of 1492 was the discovery by Portuguese navigators of a sea route from Europe to Asia around the southern tip of Africa. The European conquest of America began as an offshoot of the quest for a sea route to India, China, and the islands of the East Indies, the source of the silk, tea, spices, porcelain, and other luxury goods on which international trade in the early modern era centered. For centuries, this commerce had been conducted across land, from China and South Asia to the Middle East Sea route to the East THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE 13 and the Mediterranean region. Profit and piety—the desire to eliminate Islamic middlemen and win control of the lucrative trade for Christian western Europe—combined to inspire the quest for a direct route to Asia. Chinese and Portuguese Navigation Zheng He’s voyages New techniques of sailing and navigation Portuguese explorations At the beginning of the fifteenth century, one might have predicted that China would establish the world’s first global empire. Between 1405 and 1433, Admiral Zheng He led seven large naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean. The first convoy consisted of 62 ships that were larger than those of any European nation, along with 225 support vessels and more than 25,000 men. On his sixth voyage, Zheng explored the coast of East Africa. Had his ships continued westward, they could easily have reached North and South America. But as a wealthy land-based empire, China did not feel the need for overseas expansion, and after 1433 the government ended support for longdistance maritime expeditions. It fell to Portugal, far removed from the overland route to Asia, to begin exploring the Atlantic. Taking advantage of new long-distance ships known as caravels and new navigational devices such as the compass and quadrant, the Portuguese showed that it was possible to sail down the coast of Africa and return to Portugal. No European sailor had seen the coast of Africa below the Sahara. But in that year, a Portuguese ship brought a sprig of rosemary from West Africa, proof that one could sail beyond the desert and return. Little by little, Portuguese ships moved farther down the coast. In 1485, they reached Benin, an imposing city whose craftsmen produced bronze sculptures that still inspire admiration for their artistic beauty and superb casting techniques. The Portuguese established fortified trading posts on the western coast of Africa. The profits reaped by these Portuguese “factories”—so named because merchants were known as “factors”— inspired other European powers to follow in their footsteps. Portugal also began to colonize Madeira, the Azores, and the Canary and Cape Verde Islands, which lie in the Atlantic off the African coast. The Portuguese established plantations on the Atlantic islands, eventually replacing the native populations with thousands of slaves shipped from Africa—an ominous precedent for the New World. Freedom and Slavery in Africa Slavery in Africa long predated the coming of Europeans. Traditionally, African slaves tended to be criminals, debtors, and captives in war. They worked within the households of their owners and had well-defined rights, such as possessing property and marrying free persons. It was not uncom14 Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d What impelled European explorers to look west across the Atlantic? THE OLD WORLD ON THE EVE OF AMERICAN COLONIZATION, ca. 1500 SCOTLAND IRELAND ENGLAND HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE FRANCE Genoa PORTUGAL SPAIN Azor e s Lisbon Me d Venice iter OT TOM A Ma de i ra I s. Can ar y I s. rane Crete an Sea Cyp ru s N EMPIRE S AH AR A D E S E RT Cap e Ve rd e I s. PERSIA CHINA Horm uz He INDIA ng Zhe MALI d aG am a OTTOMAN EMPIRE Z he n gH e NETHERLANDS BENIN da G CHAMPA ama Ce y l on MALACCA Dias Pa c i f i c Ocean EAST INDIES S um a t ra Ja va Indian Ocean Atlantic Ocean Cap e o f Go o d Ho p e 0 0 1,000 1,000 mon for African slaves to acquire their freedom. Slavery was one of several forms of labor, not the basis of the economy as it would become in large parts of the New World. The coming of the Portuguese, soon followed by traders from other European nations, accelerated the buying and selling of slaves within Africa. At least 100,000 African slaves were transported to Spain and Portugal between 1450 and 1500. Having reached West Africa, Portuguese mariners pushed their explorations ever southward along the coast. Bartholomeu Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope at the continent’s southern tip in 1487. In 1498, Vasco da Gama sailed around it to India, demonstrating the feasibility of a sea route to the East. With a population of under 1 million, Portugal established a vast trading empire, with bases in India, southern China, and Indonesia. But six years before da Gama’s voyage, Christopher Columbus had, he believed, discovered a new route to China and India by sailing west. 2,000 miles 2,000 kilometers In the fifteenth century, the world known to Europeans was limited to Europe, parts of Africa, and Asia. Explorers from Portugal sought to find a sea route to the East in order to circumvent the Italian city-states and Middle Eastern rulers who controlled the overland trade. THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE 15 The Voyages of Columbus Norse settlement Columbus’s Landfall, an engraving from La lettera dell’isole (Letter from the Islands). This 1493 pamphlet reproduced, in the form of a poem, Columbus’s first letter describing his voyage of the previous year. Under the watchful eye of King Ferdinand of Spain, Columbus and his men land on a Caribbean island, while local Indians flee. A seasoned mariner and fearless explorer from Genoa, a major port in northern Italy, Columbus had for years sailed the Mediterranean and North Atlantic, studying ocean currents and wind patterns. Like nearly all navigators of the time, Columbus knew the earth was round. But he drastically underestimated its size. He believed that by sailing westward he could relatively quickly cross the Atlantic and reach Asia. No one in Europe knew that two giant continents lay 3,000 miles to the west. The Vikings, to be sure, had sailed from Greenland to Newfoundland around the year 1000 and established a settlement, Vinland. But this outpost was abandoned after a few years and had been forgotten, except in Norse legends. For Columbus, as for other figures of the time, religious and commercial motives reinforced one another. A devout Catholic, he drew on the Bible for his estimate of the size of the globe. Along with developing trade with the East, he hoped to convert Asians to Christianity and enlist them in a crusade to redeem Jerusalem from Muslim control. Columbus sought financial support throughout Europe for the planned voyage. Eventually, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain agreed to become sponsors. Their marriage in 1469 had united the warring kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. In 1492, they completed the reconquista—the “reconquest” of Spain from the Moors, African Muslims who had occupied part of the Iberian Peninsula for centuries. With Spain’s territory united, Ferdinand and Isabella—like the rulers of the Italian city-states—were anxious to circumvent the Muslim stranglehold on eastern trade. It is not surprising, then, that Columbus set sail with royal letters of introduction to Asian rulers, authorizing him to negotiate trade agreements. CONTACT Columbus in the New World On October 12, 1492, after only thirty-three days of sailing from the Canary Islands, where he had stopped to resupply his three ships, Columbus and his expedition arrived at the Bahamas. Soon afterward, he encountered the far larger islands of Hispaniola (today the site of Haiti and the Dominican Republic) and Cuba. When one of his ships ran aground, he abandoned it and left thirty-eight 16 Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d What happened when the peoples of the Americas came in contact with Europeans? men behind on Hispaniola. But he found room to bring ten inhabitants of the island back to Spain for conversion to Christianity. In the following year, 1493, Columbus returned with seventeen ships and more than 1,000 men to explore the area and establish a Spanish outpost. Columbus’s settlement on the island of Hispaniola, which he named La Isabella, failed, but in 1502 another Spanish explorer, Nicolás de Ovando, arrived with 2,500 men and established a permanent base, the first center of the Spanish empire in America. Columbus went to his grave believing that he had discovered a westward route to Asia. The explorations of another Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, along the coast of South America between 1499 and 1502 made plain that a continent entirely unknown to Europeans had been encountered. The New World would come to bear not Columbus’s name but one based on Vespucci’s—America. Vespucci also realized that the native inhabitants were distinct peoples, not residents of the East Indies as Columbus had believed, although the name “Indians,” applied to them by Columbus, has endured to this day. Hispaniola settlement Vespucci Exploration and Conquest Thanks to Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in the 1430s, news of Columbus’s achievement traveled quickly, at least among the educated minority in Europe. Other explorers were inspired to follow in his wake. John Cabot, a Genoese merchant who had settled in England, reached Newfoundland in 1497. Soon, scores of fishing boats from France, Spain, and England were active in the region. Pedro Cabral claimed Brazil for Portugal in 1500. But the Spanish took the lead in exploration and conquest. Inspired by a search for wealth, national glory, and the desire to spread Catholicism, Spanish conquistadores, often accompanied by religious missionaries and carrying flags emblazoned with the sign of the cross, radiated outward from Hispaniola. In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa trekked across the isthmus of Panama and became the first European to gaze upon the Pacific Ocean. Between 1519 and 1522, Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to sail around the world, encountering Pacific islands and peoples previously unknown to Europe. The first explorer to encounter a major American civilization was Hernán Cortés, who in 1519 arrived at Tenochtitlán, the nerve center of the Aztec empire, whose wealth and power rested on domination of numerous subordinate peoples nearby. The Aztecs were violent warriors who engaged in the ritual sacrifice of captives and others, sometimes thousands at a time. This practice thoroughly alienated their neighbors. Spain takes the lead Cortés CONTACT 17 VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY Vinland EUROPE Cabot (1497) NEWFOUNDLAND NORTH AMERICA ) Columbus (1492 ( rtés 151 Co ) 13 Pa c i f i c Ocean ) 1493 AFRICA Atlantic Ocean Columbus (14 98) Magell an ( 151 Ves 9-1 puc 522 c i ) (150 Ca 1-15 bra 02) l (15 00) (15 B al bo a 9) b us ( Colum ) 2 0 5 (1 bus lum Co SOUTH AMERICA Ma ge lla n( 15 19 -15 22 ) 0 0 1,000 1,000 2,000 miles 2,000 kilometers Christopher Columbus’s first Atlantic crossing, in 1492, was soon followed by voyages of discovery by English, Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian explorers. 18 Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d What happened when the peoples of the Americas came in contact with Europeans? With only a few hundred European men, Cortés conquered the Aztec city, relying on superior military technology such as iron weapons and gunpowder, as well as shrewdness in enlisting the aid of some of the Aztecs’ subject peoples, who supplied him with thousands of warriors. His most powerful ally, however, was disease—a smallpox epidemic that devastated Aztec society. A few years later, Francisco Pizarro conquered the great Inca kingdom centered in modern-day Peru. Pizarro’s tactics were typical of the conquistadores. He captured the Incan king, demanded and received a ransom, and then killed the king anyway. Soon, treasure fleets carrying cargoes of gold and silver from the mines of Mexico and Peru were traversing the Atlantic to enrich the Spanish crown. The Demographic Disaster Engravings, from the Florentine Codex, of the forces of Cortés The transatlantic flow of goods and people is sometimes called the Columbian Exchange. Plants, animals, and cultures that had evolved independently on separate continents were now thrown together. Products introduced to Europe from the Americas included corn, tomatoes, potatoes, peanuts, and tobacco, while people from the Old World brought wheat, rice, sugarcane, horses, cattle, pigs, and sheep to the New. But Europeans also carried germs previously unknown in the Americas. No one knows exactly how many people lived in the Americas at the time of Columbus’s voyages—current estimates range between 50 and 90 million, most of whom lived in Central and South America. In 1492, the Indian population within what are now the borders of the United States was between 2 and 5 million. The Indian populations of the Americas suffered a catastrophic decline because of contact with Europeans and their wars, enslavement, and especially diseases like smallpox, influenza, and measles. Never having encountered these diseases, Indians had not developed antibodies to fight them. The result was devastating. The population of Mexico would fall by more than 90 percent in the sixteenth century, from perhaps 20 million to under 2 million. As for the area that now forms the United States, its Native American population fell continuously. It reached its lowest point around 1900, at only 250,000. Overall, the death of perhaps 80 million people—close to one-fifth of humankind—in the first century and a half after contact with Europeans marching on Tenochtitlán and assaulting the city with cannon fire. The difference in military technology between the Spanish and Aztecs is evident. Indians who allied with Cortés had helped him build vessels and carry them in pieces over mountains to the city. The codex (a volume formed by stitching together manuscript pages) was prepared under the supervision of a Spanish missionary in sixteenthcentury Mexico. Decline of Indian populations CONTACT 19 represents the greatest loss of life in human history. It was disease as much as military prowess and more advanced technology that enabled Europeans to conquer the Americas. THE SPANISH EMPIRE Extent of the empire By the middle of the sixteenth century, Spain had established an immense empire that reached from Europe to the Americas and Asia. The Atlantic and Pacific oceans, once barriers separating different parts of the world, now became highways for the exchange of goods and the movement of people. Spanish galleons carried gold and silver from Mexico and Peru eastward to Spain and westward to Manila in the Philippines and on to China. Stretching from the Andes Mountains of South America through present-day Mexico and the Caribbean and eventually into Florida and the southwestern United States, Spain’s empire exceeded in size the Roman empire of the ancient world. Its center was Mexico City, a magnificent capital built on the ruins of the Aztec city of Tenochtitlán that boasted churches, hospitals, monasteries, government buildings, and the New World’s first university. Unlike the English and French New World empires, Spanish A late-seventeenth-century painting of the Plaza Mayor (main square) of Mexico City. The image includes a parade of over 1,000 persons, of different ethnic groups and occupations, dressed in their characteristic attire. 20 Cha pt er 1  A N ew W or l d What were the chief features of the Spanish empire in America? America was essentially an urban civilization. For centuries, its great cities, notably Mexico City, Quito, and Lima, far outshone any urban centers in North America and most of those in Europe. Governing Spanish America At least in theory, the government of Spanish America reflected the absolutism of the newly unified nation at home. Authority originated with the king and flowed d...
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Running Head: AMERICAN REVOLUTION

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AMERICAN REVOLUTION

In what ways did political and religious liberties expand after the Revolution?
The American Revolution was a political cataclysm that took place between 1765 and 1783 that
aimed at ending British control of America. The effect of this revolution was many with the most
significant being the independence of United States. The America nation felt the impact of this
revolution in many ways. Apart from getting independence, the political social and religious
sphere of the American people got liberated in different ways "The Revolution unleashed public
debates and political and social struggles that enlarged the scope of freedom and challenged
inherited structures of power within America" (169). Political rights of the citizens got expanded
in many ways, and entrenchment of democracy in the constitution formed the foundation USA
nation. As noted by Jefferson’s seemingly straightforward assertion in the Declaration of
Independence that “all men are created equal” announced radical principle whose full
implications no one could anticipate (169)
In Most British colonies, inequality was exercised with a lot of brutality and America was no
exception. Britain and its colonies, a well-ordered society was widely thought to depend on
obedience to authority—the power of rulers over their subjects, husbands over wives, parents
over children, employers over servants and apprentices, slaveholders over slaves. "Inequality had
been fundamental to the subject social order; the Revolution challenged it in many ways "(169)."
Ideas of equality formed the foundation of new America nation, mostly equality before the law,
equality in political rights, equality of economic opportunity, and, for some, equality of condition
“169).

AMERICAN REVOLUTION
The political space also expanded in the new America after the revolution. More citizens who
were not able to participate in politics could do this with more freedom and without fear.
Election campaigns became freewheeling arguments on the fundamentals of government.
Universal male suffrage, religious toleration, and even the abolition of slavery were discussed
not only by the educated elite but also by artisans, small farmers, and laborers, now emerging as
a self-conscious element in politics (170).
For democracy to thrive, it always depends on more people participating in an election where
they chose leaders of their choice freely. Before independence few citizens were around to take
part in the election, limiting factors including property rights and slavery. With the revolution,
such limiting factors got abolished. "States like Pennsylvania adopted a new state constitution
that sought to institutionalize democracy by concentrating power in one house legislature elected
annually by all men over age twenty-one who paid taxes. It abolished the office of governor,
dispensed with property qualifications for office holding, and provided that schools with low fees
be established in every county"(170)
"After the revolution, many states adopted new constitutions, and nearly all Americans now
agreed that their governments must be republics, meaning that their authority rested on the
consent of t...


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