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Running head: ABBREVIATED TITLE OF YOUR PAPER
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Note: The running head is an abbreviated title of the paper. The running head is located at the top
of pages of a manuscript or published article to identify the article for readers. The running head
should be a maximum of 50 characters, counting letters, punctuation, and spaces between words.
The words "running head" are on the cover page but not on the rest of the document. The running
head title is all CAPS. Page 1 begins on the cover page. The entire document should be doublespaced, have 1" margins on all sides, and use 12 pt. Times New Roman font.
The blue information in this paper is informational. After reading the information, please
delete it, and use the paper as a template for your own paper. Edit the black writing with
your own information for your paper to keep the correct format. Save this Template in a
file for future use and information.
Your Full Title of Your Paper
Learner's Full Name
Course Title
Assignment Title
Capella University
Month, Year
APA STYLE PAPER TEMPLATE
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Abstract (Optional, check with your instructor)
An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of a paper. It allows readers to
quickly review the key elements of a paper without having to read the entire document. This can
be helpful for readers who are searching for specific information and may be reviewing many
documents. The abstract may be one of the most important paragraphs in a paper because readers
often decide if they will read the document based on information in the abstract. An abstract may
not be required in some academic papers; however, it can still be an effective method of gaining
the reader's attention. For example, an abstract will not be required for Capella's First Course,
PSYC3002. The following sentences serve as an example of what could be composed as an
abstract for this paper. The basic elements of APA Style will be reviewed including formatting of
an APA Style paper, in-text citations, and a reference list. Additional information will address
the components of an introduction, how to write effective paragraphs using the MEAL plan, and
elements of a summary and conclusion section of a paper.
APA STYLE PAPER TEMPLATE
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APA Style Paper Template: A Resource for Academic Writing
Please change the titles in this document to fit your paper.
APA (American Psychological Association) Style is most commonly used to cite sources
within the social sciences. APA Style is used when writing papers in the psychology programs
offered at Capella University. This document serves as an APA Style template for learners to use
when writing their own papers, as well as a resource containing valuable information that can be
used when writing academic papers. For more information on APA Style, learners can refer to
the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (American Psychological
Association, 2010a).
The author demonstrates in the first section of this paper, how an introduction effectively
introduces the reader to the topic of the paper. In APA Style, an introduction never gets a
heading. For example, this section did not begin with a heading titled "introduction", similar to
the following section, which is titled "writing an effective introduction". The following section
will explain in greater detail a model that can be used to effectively write an introduction in an
academic paper. The remaining sections of the paper will continue to address APA Style and
effective writing concepts including section headings, organizing information, the MEAL plan,
the conclusion, and the reference list.
Writing an Effective Introduction
An effective introduction often consists of four main components including: (a) the
position statement, thesis, or hypothesis, which describes the author's main position; (b) the
purpose, which outlines the objective of the paper; (c) the background, which is general
information that is needed to understand the content of the paper; and (d) the approach, which is
the process or methodology the author uses to achieve the purpose of the paper. This information
APA STYLE PAPER TEMPLATE
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will help readers understand what will be discussed in the paper. It can also serve as a tool to
grab the reader's attention. Authors may choose to briefly reference sources that will be
identified later on in the paper as in this example (American Psychological Association, 2010a;
American Psychological Association, 2010b; Walker, 2008).
In an introduction, the writer will often present something of interest to capture the
reader's attention and introduce the issue. Adding an obvious statement of purpose helps the
reader know what to expect, while helping the writer to focus and stay on task. For example, this
paper will address several components necessary to effectively write an academic paper
including (a) how to write an introduction, (b) how to write effective paragraphs using the
MEAL plan, and (c) how to properly use APA style.
Level One Section Heading is Centered, Bold, Upper and Lowercase
Using section headings can be an effective method of organizing an academic paper. The
section headings should not be confused with the "running head", which is a different concept
described in the cover page of this document. Section headings are not required according to
APA Style, however, they can significantly improve the quality of a paper. This is accomplished
because section headings help both the reader and the author as will soon be discussed.
Level Two Section Heading is Flush Left, Bold, Upper and Lowercase
The heading style recommended by APA consists of five levels (American Psychological
Association, 2010a, p. 62). This document contains two levels to demonstrate how headings are
structured according to APA Style. Immediately before the previous paragraph, a Level 1
Section Heading was used. That section heading describes how a Level 1 Heading should be
written, which is centered, bold, and using upper and lowercase letters. For another example, see
the section heading "Writing an Effective Introduction" on page 3 of this document. The heading
APA STYLE PAPER TEMPLATE
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is centered, bold, and uses upper and lowercase letters (compared to all uppercase in the running
head at the top of each page). If used properly, section headings can significantly contribute to
the quality of a paper by helping the reader who wants to understand the information in the
document, and the author who desires to effectively describe the information in the document.
Section Headings Help the Reader
Section headings serve multiple purposes including (a) helping the reader understand
what is being addressed in each section, (b) readers may be more likely to maintain an interest in
the paper, and (c) they can help readers choose what they want to read. For example, if the reader
of this document wants to learn more about writing an effective introduction, the previous
section heading clearly states that is where information can be found. When subtopics are needed
to explain concepts in greater detail, different levels of headings are used according to APA
Style.
Section Headings Help the Author
Section headings do not only help the reader, they help the author organize the document
during the writing process. Section headings can be used to arrange topics in a logical order, and
they can help an author manage the length of the paper. In addition to an effective introduction
and the use of section headings, each paragraph of an academic paper can be written in a manner
that helps the reader stay engaged. Capella University promotes the use of the MEAL plan to
serve this purpose.
The MEAL Plan
The MEAL plan is a model used by Capella University to help learners effectively
compose academic discussions and papers. Each component of the MEAL plan is critical to
writing an effective paragraph. The acronym "MEAL" is based on four components of a
APA STYLE PAPER TEMPLATE
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paragraph (M = Main point, E = Evidence or Example, A = Analysis, and L = Link). The
following section includes a detailed description and examples of each component of the MEAL
plan.
When writing the content sections of an academic paper (as opposed to the introduction
or conclusion sections), the MEAL plan can be an effective model for designing each paragraph.
A paragraph begins with a description of the main point, which is represented by the letter "M"
of the MEAL plan. For example, the first sentence of this paragraph clearly states the main point
is a discussion of the MEAL plan. Once the main point has been made, evidence and examples
can be provided.
The second component of a paragraph contains evidence or examples, which is
represented by the letter "E" in the MEAL plan. An example of this component of the MEAL
plan is actually (and ironically) this sentence, which provides an example of an example.
Evidence can be in the form of expert opinion examples from research. For example, evidence
shows that plagiarism can occur even when it is not intended if sources are not properly cited
(Marsh, Landau, & Hicks, 1997; Walker, 2008). The previous sentence provided evidence
supported why evidence is used in a paragraph.
Analysis, which is represented by the letter "A" of the MEAL plan, should be based on
the author's interpretation of the evidence. An effective analysis might include a discussion of the
strengths and weaknesses of the arguments, as well as the author's interpretations of the evidence
and examples. If a quote is used, the author will likely provide an analysis of the quote and the
specific point it makes for the author's position. Without an analysis, the reader might not
understand why the author discussed the information that the reader just read. For example, the
previous sentence was an analysis by the author of why an analysis is performed when writing
APA STYLE PAPER TEMPLATE
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paragraphs in academic papers. Even with the first three elements of the MEAL plan, it would
not be complete without the final component.
The letter "L" of the MEAL plan refers to information that "links" the current and the
subsequent paragraphs. The link helps the reader understand what will be discussed in the next
paragraph. It summarizes the author's reasoning and shows how the paragraph fits together and
leads (i.e., links) into the next section of the paper. For example, this sentence might explain that
once the MEAL plan has been effectively used when writing the body of an academic paper, the
final section is the summary and conclusion section.
Summary and Conclusion
A summary and conclusion section, which can also be the discussion section of an APA
Style paper, is the final opportunity for the author to make a lasting impression on the reader.
The author can begin by restating opinions or positions, and summarizing the most important
points that have been presented in the paper. For example, this paper was written to demonstrate
to readers how to effectively use APA Style when writing academic papers. Various components
of an APA Style paper that were discussed or displayed in the form of examples include a
running head, title page, introduction section, levels of section headings and their use, in-text
citations, the MEAL plan, a conclusion, and the reference list.
APA STYLE PAPER TEMPLATE
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References
American Psychological Association. (2010a). Publication manual of the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
American Psychological Association. (2010b). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of
conduct. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx
Marsh, R. L., Landau, J. D., & Hicks, J. L. (1997). Contributions of inadequate source
monitoring to unconscious plagiarism during idea generation. Journal of Experimental
Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23(4), 886-897. doi: 10.1037/02787393.23.4.886
Walker, A. L. (2008). Preventing unintentional plagiarism: A method for strengthening
paraphrasing skills. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 35(4), 387-395. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/213904438?accountid=27965
Always begin a reference list on a new page. Use a hanging indent after the first line of each
reference. The reference list is in alphabetical by first author’s last name. A reference list only
contains sources that are cited in the body of the paper, and all sources cited in the body of the
paper must be contained in the reference list.
The reference list above contains an example of how to cite a source when two documents are
written in the same year by the same author. The year is also displayed using this method for the
corresponding in-text citations as in the next sentence. The author of the first citation (American
Psychological Association, 2010a) is also the publisher, therefore, the word "Author" is used in
place of the publisher's name.
When a digital object identifier (DOI) is available for a journal article, it should be placed at the
end of the citation. If a DOI is not available, a uniform resource locator (URL) should be used.
The Marsh, Landau, and Hicks (1997) reference is an example of how to cite a source using a
DOI. The Walker (2008) reference is an example of how to cite a source using a URL. Please
REMINDER: Delete all blue notes from your paper, as well as any extra information in
black that is not needed.
Cause of Depression Analysis Worksheet
Cause of Depression Analysis Worksheet
Purpose: The Cause of Depression Analysis Worksheet’s purpose is to guide your steps in analyzing the resources from the Causes of
Depression Resources list and Capella library regarding the cause of depression from the perspective you have chosen to research. This
worksheet will help lead you through the research process by providing you a systematic way to analyze the articles you have selected. As
you review sources, you will use the worksheet to analyze the authors’ positions on the issue and the arguments they present to support
their positions. To fill out the worksheet, work your way down through the analysis components for each individual article and record your
analysis for each component in the cell under the title of the article you are reviewing. You will submit your Cause of Depression Analysis
Worksheet for grading to the corresponding link.
Learner Name:
Name of Perspective:
Table 1: Cause of Depression Research Analysis
Analysis Components
APA reference for Cause of Depression
Research Article 1
APA reference for Cause of
Depression Research Article 2
The main purpose of this article is . . .
[State as accurately as possible the
author’s purpose for writing the article.
What is the author’s position or point of
view?]
The main arguments that the author
is making are . . . [Determine the main
arguments the author makes to support
his or her position.]
The evidence or facts the author
uses in this article to support his or
her arguments are . . . [Identify the
facts, data, or resources the author uses
to support his or her argument.
1
Cause of Depression Analysis Worksheet
The main conclusions and inferences
in this article are . . . [Identify the key
conclusions the author comes to and
presents in the article.]
The main assumptions underlying
the author’s thinking are . . . [Think
about what the author is assuming to be
true and what might be questioned. To
expand on this statement, you will need
to think about the larger context of the
topic.]
If we accept the author’s line of
reasoning, the implications are . . .
[What consequence does the author’s
argument have on our understanding of
current research and theory?]
If we reject the author’s line of
reasoning, the implications are . . .
[What consequence does rejecting the
author’s argument have on our
understanding of current research and
theory?]
The ethical implications of the
research and findings are . . .
[What ethics did the research address,
or what ethics would need to be
addressed in implementing the research
findings?]
2
Causes of Depression
Biological Perspective
Genetics
Roy, M., Tapadia, M. G., Joshi, S., & Koch, B. (2014). Molecular and genetic basis of
depression. Journal Of Genetics, 93(3), 879–892.
Elder, B. L., & Mosack, V. (2011). Genetics of depression: An overview of the current science.
Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 32(4), 192–202.
Nivard, M. G., Dolan, C. V., Kendler, K. S., Kan, K., Willemsen, G., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M.,
. . . Boomsma, D. I. (2015). Stability in symptoms of anxiety and depression as a function of
genotype and environment: A longitudinal twin study from ages 3 to 63 years. Psychological
Medicine, 45(5), 1039–1049.
Kendler, K., & Neale, M. (2014). The contributions of Lindon Eaves to psychiatric genetics.
Behavior Genetics, 44(3), 198–204.
Twin Studies
Mezuk, B., Myers, J. M., & Kendler, K. S. (2013). Integrating social science and behavioral
genetics: Testing the origin of socioeconomic disparities in depression using a genetically
informed design. American Journal of Public Health, 103(S1), S145–S151.
Silberg, J. L., Maes, H., & Eaves, L. J. (2010). Genetic and environmental influences on the
transmission of parental depression to children’s depression and conduct disturbance: An
extended children of twins study. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 51(6), 734–744.
Zavos, H., Rijsdijk, F., & Eley, T. (2012). A longitudinal, genetically informative study of
associations between anxiety sensitivity, anxiety, and depression. Behavior Genetics, 42(4), 592–
602.
Afari, N., Noonan, C., Goldberg, J., Roy-Byrne, P., Schur, E., Golnari, G., & Buchwald, D.
(2010). Depression and obesity: Do shared genes explain the relationship? Depression & Anxiety
(1091-4269), 27(9), 799–806.
Biochemical Studies
Kreinin, A., Lisson, S., Nesher, E., Schneider, J., Bergman, J., Farhat, K., ... Pinhasov, A. (2015).
Blood BDNF level is gender specific in severe depression. Plos ONE, 10(5), 1–11.
Budania, S. K., Rathi, M., Singh, S., & Yadav, S. (2015). Serum cholesterol and depression: A
puzzle never finished. Journal of The Scientific Society, 42(2), 59–61.
Shapiro, G. D., Fraser, W. D., & Séguin, J. R. (2012). Emerging risk factors for postpartum
depression: Serotonin transporter genotype and omega-3 fatty acid status. Canadian Journal of
Psychiatry, 57(11), 704–712.
Munafo, M. R. (2012). The serotonin transporter gene and depression. Depression and Anxiety,
29(11), 915–917.
Cognitive-Behavioral Perspective
Rumination and Self-Concept
Wells, T. T., Vanderlind, W. M., Selby, E. A., & Beevers, C. G. (2014). Childhood abuse and
vulnerability to depression: Cognitive scars in otherwise healthy young adults. Cognition &
Emotion, 28(5), 821–833.
Liverant, G., Kamholz, B., Sloan, D., & Brown, T. (2011). Rumination in clinical depression: A
type of emotional suppression? Cognitive Therapy & Research, 35(3), 253–265.
Flynn, M., Kecmanovic, J., & Alloy, L. B. (2010). An examination of integrated cognitiveinterpersonal vulnerability to depression: The role of rumination, perceived social support, and
interpersonal stress generation. Cognitive Therapy & Research, 34(5), 456–466.
Starr, L., & Davila, J. (2012). Responding to anxiety with rumination and hopelessness:
Mechanism of anxiety-depression symptom co-occurrence? Cognitive Therapy & Research,
36(4), 321–337.
Gender
Røseth, I., Binder, P., & Malt, U. F. (2013). Engulfed by an alienated and threatening emotional
body: The essential meaning structure of depression in women. Journal of Phenomenological
Psychology, 44(2), 153–178.
Berger, J. L., Addis, M. E., Reilly, E. D., Syzdek, M. R., & Green, J. D. (2012). Effects of
gender, diagnostic labels, and causal theories on willingness to report symptoms of depression.
Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, 31(5), 439–457.
Costello, J. (2016). Men and perinatal depression. Therapy Today, 27(2), 14–17.
Ros, L., Ricarte, J. J., Serrano, J. P., Nieto, M., Aguilar, M. J., & Latorre, J. M. (2014).
Overgeneral autobiographical memories: Gender differences in depression. Applied Cognitive
Psychology, 28(4), 472–480.
Culture
McClelland, A., Khanam, S., & Furnham, A. (2014). Cultural and age differences in beliefs
about depression: British Bangladeshis vs. British Whites. Mental Health, Religion & Culture,
17(3), 225–238.
Cheng, Z. (2015). Asian Americans’ and European Americans' stigma levels in response to
biological and social explanations of depression. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology,
50(5), 767–776.
Toshitaka, H., & Laird, P. G. (2014). The effect of perfectionism and acculturative stress on
levels of depression experienced by East Asian international students. Journal of Multicultural
Counseling & Development, 42(4), 205–217.
Sadule-Rios, N. (2012). A review of the literature about depression in late life among Hispanics
in the United States. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 33(7), 458–468.
Running head: THE CAUSE OF DEPRESSION: BIOLOGICAL
The Cause of Depression: Biological or Cognitive-Behavioral?
Sample Learner
PSYC-FP3002 – Developing a Psychology Perspective
Causes of Depression Position Paper
Capella University
July, 2015
1
THE CAUSE OF DEPRESSION: BIOLOGICAL
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The Cause of Depression: Biological or Cognitive-Behavioral?
There are many factors that can contribute to the development, onset, and recurrence of
major depression and/or depressive disorder, whether age, socioeconomic status, marital status,
stressful life events, or even genetic predisposition. Whatever the contributors may be, the risk
factors can be subsequently broken down and categorized as being either biological or
psychological (cognitive-behavioral) in nature and origin (Nevid, Rathus, & Greene, 2011).
Depression is, in general, an episodic disorder, often recurring, and can plague its victims for
weeks, months, and even years without evident, measurable, or sustainable relief (Drevets,
2009).
Major depression, many say, can be attributed mainly to the cognitive-behavioral
perspective, meaning that there are psychological factors that are mainly attributable to the
development, onset, and recurrence of the disorder. However, the fact is that “not everyone who
encounters stress becomes clinically depressed” (Nevid et al., 2011, p. 256). In fact, there is
much evidence pointing to the likelihood that “people who possess variants of certain genes may
be more susceptible to developing depression following stressful life experiences” (Nevid, et al.,
2011, p. 256). Genetic markers for depression have been found and researched. Familial studies,
studies on genetic markers, and research on chemical imbalances, such as serotonin, all point to
the strength of biological factors in the onset of depression.
Biological versus Psychological
Some argue that there are many types of faulty thinking that can lead toward, or intensify
depression. For example, a poor self-concept is risk factor for depression. A person with a poor
self-concept, may feel as if he or she is not good enough for other people who are significant in
the person’s life. According to Orth, Robins, and Roberts (2008), “The tendency to ruminate
THE CAUSE OF DEPRESSION: BIOLOGICAL
3
about negative aspects of the self is closely linked to depression” (p. 695). This can cause a
person to feel as if he or she is not deserving of enjoying the pleasures in life. However,
biological factors may be at play in low self-esteem. Studies into the serotonin system of the
brain have shown that serotonergic dysfunction plays a key role in the development of major
depression (Drevets, 2009). In fact, abnormalities within this system, whether through genetic
mutation or other medical or biological influence, have shown to have major effect on affected
individuals to effectively handle life stressors and/or other negative environmental factors
(Drevets, 2009).
Questions have been and are being asked as to whether psychotherapy can play a
significant role in the biological treatment depressive disorders such as endogenous depression
(Cornell, 1985). In one such study, “[t]hose patients diagnosed as endogenous subtype did better
with medication than psychotherapy” (Cornell, 1985, p. 22), lending even more credence to the
view that endogenous depression cannot be exclusively attributed to having been caused by
environmental or exogenous factors.
Familial Links
Depression is under much study as to whether environmental influences affect certain
familial traits and characteristics or whether certain familial predispositions are, in fact, to blame.
In one study, science is believed to have found some answers, and finds “major depression to be
a familial disorder, resulting from genetic influences” (Sullivan, Neale, & Kendler, 2000, p.
1552).
As stated before, this study also finds that biological and environmental influences work
in coordination to cause depressive disorder (Sullivan et al., 2000), but the major finds of interest
were “the prevalence of major depression in biological relatives” (Sullivan, et al., 2000, p. 1552),
THE CAUSE OF DEPRESSION: BIOLOGICAL
4
familial aggregation attributed to additive genetic effects, minimal environmental effects
common to siblings in twin studies, recurrence as attributed to familial aggregation, and that
“reports were consistent with genetic influences on liability to major depression” (Sullivan, et al.,
2000, p. 1552).
Biological Markers
Studies into the cause of depression have yielded much evidence as to biological markers
associated with the disorder, but not many answers as to the definitive causal factors or how to
effectively or permanently rid the affected individuals of the disorder plaguing so many people in
today’s world. Many advances have been made, however, and answers may lie on the horizon.
One study has shown biomarkers such as abnormal levels of Dehydroepiandrosterone Sulfate
(DHEA-S), an androne produced by the adrenal gland, and measured in the blood (Ryff et al,
2006). DHEA-S levels in affected individuals showing depressive symptoms were found to be
much higher, lending even more credence to the belief of biological influences being very much
at work in the development of depression (Ryff et al., 2006).
Also, studies into human genetics have found such biomarkers as brain-derived
neurotrophic factor (BDNF), the FK506 binding protein (FKBP5), tryptophan hydroxylase 2
(TPH2), hydroxytryptamine receptor 2A (HTR2A), and the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTT)
to be at work in the tracking of candidate genes in the implication of depression as a biological
disorder being derived from genetic influences (Drevets, 2009; McEwen, 2009).
Summary and Conclusion
The fact that many people who encounter stress and stressful life events do not, in fact,
develop major depression does not stand on its own as definitive proof that depression is mainly
attributable to biological factors or to the biological perspective (Nevid et al., 2011). What serves
THE CAUSE OF DEPRESSION: BIOLOGICAL
5
to further argue the point is the weighty evidence provided by studies of genetic biomarkers such
as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), the FK506 binding protein (FKBP5), tryptophan
hydroxylase 2 (TPH2), hydroxytryptamine receptor 2A (HTR2A), and the serotonin transporter
gene (5-HTT) (McEwen, 2009). These biological factors have been heavily investigated,
implicated, and marked as candidate genes due to their observed roles in the development, onset,
recurrence, and even treatment of major depression and major depressive disorder (McEwen,
2009).
The fact that these candidate genes “interact with the environment to create depression”
(McEwen, 2009), and that certain chemicals and andrones are at abnormal levels in affected
individuals (Ryff et al., 2006) is very evident. Although environmental factors, such as
circumstances and faulty thinking interact with biological factors, based on a growing body of
evidence, it appears that for many individuals genetic predispositions and chemical imbalances
tend to trigger the onset of depression more so than environmental factors.
THE CAUSE OF DEPRESSION: BIOLOGICAL
6
References
Cornell, D. G. (1985). Psychoanalytic and biological perspectives on depression: Contradictory
or complementary? Psychoanalytic Psychology, 2(1), 21–34.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0736-9735.2.1.21
Drevets, W. (2009). The serotonin system and depression. In Cold Springs Harbor, Genes to
Cognition (G2C) Online. (2009). Retrieved from http://www.g2conline.org/#Depression
McEwen, B. (2009). BDNF-brain derived neurotrophic factor. In Cold Springs Harbor, Gene to
Cognition (G2C) Online. Retrieved from http://www.g2conline.org/#Depression
Nevid, J. S., Rathus, S. A., & Greene, B. (2011). Abnormal psychology in a changing world (8th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Orth, U. R., Robins, R.W., & Roberts, B. W. (2008). Low self-esteem prospectively predicts
depression in adolescence and young adulthood. Personality and Social Psychology,
95(3), 695–708.
Ryff, C. D., Love, G. D., Urry, H. L., Muller, D., Rosenkranz, M. A., Friedman, E. M., & Singer,
B. (2006). Psychological well-being and ill-being: Do they have distinct or mirrored
biological correlates? Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 75(2), 85–95.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000090892
Sullivan, P. F., Neale, M. C., & Kendler, K. S. (2000). Genetic epidemiology of major
depression: Review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(10),
1552–1562.
Running head: CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
Causes of Depression
Sitara Monnappa
Capella University
Copyright © 2016 Capella University. Copy and distribution of this document is prohibited.
1
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
2
Are the Causes of Depression Biological or Cognitive-Behavioral?
Depression is a serious mood disorder that interferes with normal functioning and daily life. It
affects how a person thinks, feels, and handles daily activities, such as working, eating, or
sleeping. Depression is characterized by a difficulty in decision-making and concentrating,
decreased energy, and feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, and guilt (National Institute of
Mental Health, 2016a). Depression may result from abuse (physical, emotional, or sexual),
certain medications such as corticosteroids, conflicts with family or friends, or grief resulting
from the loss of a loved one. A family history of depression may also increase the risk of
developing the disorder (National Institute of Mental Health, 2016b).
Many mental health practitioners attribute depression to biological processes. In the brain, the
transmission of nerve impulses occurs by means of neurotransmitters such as serotonin that
controls mood regulation. Depression is attributed to the insufficient serotonin in the brain.
Another biological cause of depression is the overproduction of stress hormones (Tyrell &
Elliott, 2016). However, these phenomena could be the result of increased negative introspection
and fewer pleasure-giving activities, such as interacting with loved ones, that a depressed person
indulges in. This implies that depression has a cognitive-behavioral basis rather than a biological
one. The results of various studies on the effects of certain thinking patterns and the beliefs of
society on depression strongly support a cognitive-behavioral basis for depression.
Cognitive-Behavioral Factors of Depression
Cognitive-behavioral factors influence the onset of depression. Depressive rumination and
poor self-concept are two cognitive-behavioral patterns that could cause depression. Rumination
is the tendency to respond to a negative mood by focusing on its causes, meanings, and
consequences. A study was conducted with the assumption that rumination, as a result of
Copyright © 2016 Capella University. Copy and distribution of this document is prohibited.
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
3
anxiety, led to depression in some cases. The study involved a group of undergraduate students,
with 302 females, 164 males, and 4 individuals who did not report gender, who were asked to
answer a Response to Anxiety Questionnaire (RAQ). The mean age of the study group was 20 22 years. The RAQ was based on the existing validated measures of hopelessness and
rumination. The result of the study was that anxiety leads to depression by provoking
maladaptive responses such as hopelessness and rumination about the source of the anxiety. This
study implies that depressive symptoms and anxiety could co-occur in individuals who tend to
respond to anxiety with rumination, helplessness, and hopelessness (Starr & Davila, 2012). This
finding strongly supports the assumption that rumination could lead to the onset of depression.
The result of this study agrees with the principles of Seligman’s learned depression theory,
which proposes that people attribute perceived helplessness to a cause. Some people cannot
control or escape a shock and show a pattern of cognitive, emotional, and motivational deficits.
They feel that they do not have control over their surroundings and passively accept the shock;
this inability to control the environment gives rise to “learned helplessness” (Maier, Peterson, &
Schwartz, n.d.). Having control over one’s environment and producing desired results are
important to a person’s overall mental wellbeing (Leotti, Iyengar, & Oschner, 2010). The loss of
this control leads to feelings of helplessness and, in turn, depression. This finding is important
because it helps psychologists understand the possibility of a relationship between depression
and certain patterns of thinking. The research involves individuals of only a certain age group
and, hence, may need to be checked if it is applicable to older individuals, too. Accepting this
finding implies that psychologists can diagnose people who have a habit of rumination with
depression and the possible onset of depression can be prevented in people with anxiety.
Copyright © 2016 Capella University. Copy and distribution of this document is prohibited.
Comment [DSMGUAA1]: Sitara,
Wonderful job connecting the findings of this
study to psychological principles. Seligman’s
work on learned helplessness has clear
implications for the cause of depression as
noted in Starr’s study.
The source you used for this is not scholarly,
though it might be considered credible. What
questions did you ask to determine the
sources credibility?
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
4
Rejecting this finding might cause a wrong diagnosis of people who ruminate often and increase
the severity of depression in such people.
Another factor to consider in the study of depression is self-concept—a person’s fundamental
frame of reference that comprises the images that a person has about oneself and others. Every
individual interacts with others in a manner that confirms the images of the self-concept (Selfconcept theory, 2006). A study was conducted with the assumption that there was a relationship
between interpersonal stress, as a result of poor self-concept, and depression. The participants in
the study included 122 undergraduate students who completed assessments on perceptions of
social support, depressive rumination, depressive symptoms, and life stress three times over a
period of one-and-a-half years. The findings revealed an association between dependent
interpersonal stress and depressive rumination, both of which led to depression over time (Flynn,
Kecmanovic, & Alloy, 2010). The findings of this study are consistent with the assumption that
depression can be a result of poor self-concept. Damage to one’s self-concept can lead to
depression. Since the research involved only a certain age group of people, it may be prudent to
check its applicability to older populations. Accepting this finding implies that poor self-concept
can be associated with depression. Rejecting this finding may increase the chances of not treating
depression in people with a poor self-concept.
The Influence of Gender on Depression
Depression is associated with a different set of causal agents in each gender. This difference
has been established through numerous research studies. Understanding the basis for this gender
difference is essential to treat and prevent depression.
A review of research studies on depression was conducted with an assumption that there is a
difference in the prevalence of depression in men and women. The review revealed that girls
Copyright © 2016 Capella University. Copy and distribution of this document is prohibited.
Comment [DSMGUAA2]: This resource
does not meet the criteria for a scholarly
resource. Though it is credible.
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
5
exhibited more rumination and anxiety than boys. During childhood, girls have two-fold higher
rates of separation anxiety and social phobias. These problems arise from the fear of being
judged or criticized, which could lead to the onset of depression. Because the review has
considered the different biological, cultural, and experiential factors during the course of
women’s lives, including adolescence to the menopausal phase, the findings can be considered
valid. This finding proves the assumption as correct. Depression was more prevalent in women
than in men (Altemus, Sarvaiya, & Epperson, 2014). A study that was conducted with the
assumption that the causes of depression are different in men and women revealed that women
are twice as likely as men to burden themselves with any guilt or shame from the past. They try
to distract themselves from this misery by overworking or by taking on the problems of others.
Ultimately, all these emotions converge and overwhelm them, which could lead to depression
(Røseth, Binder, & Malt, 2013). Although the study has a philosophical perspective rather than a
clinical one, the findings are valid and applicable to the practice of Psychology. The findings of
both the review and the study are important as they emphasize the significance of understanding
the underlying causes of depression, such as phobias and past traumas, while treating female
patients with the disorder.
The causes of depression in men are different from those in women. From a young age, boys
are taught to avoid expressing their emotional vulnerability. Men are told to have emotional
control and tend to internalize their feelings, which could lead to depression (Costello, 2016).
Knowing that women are more likely than men to suffer from depression could also dissuade
men to report the disorder because they see it as a weakness (Dallas, 2015). A study was
conducted with the assumption that the number of cases of depression reported by men was less
than that reported by women. The study involved a diverse community sample that revealed that
Copyright © 2016 Capella University. Copy and distribution of this document is prohibited.
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
6
men prefer to talk with a psychotherapist to other forms of professional help-seeking. The study
also showed that the men who adhere to patriarchal norms resist medication more than those who
do not. Men were also more likely to seek professional treatment if a psychotherapist suggested
it rather than medical personnel or romantic partners. It was revealed from the study that men
who adhere to masculine norms are less willing to seek professional help (Berger, Addis, Reilly,
Syzdek, & Green, 2013). Thus, the assumption that men are less likely to report depression than
women holds true. The findings could be applicable to the general male community because the
study was conducted with a sample of men from different cultural and social backgrounds. These
findings are consistent with the principles of the cognitive developmental theory of psychology
that states that once a child positively values his or her gender identity, the child tends to behave
only in ways that are aligned with that notion. This aspect of cognitive development is consistent
with the concept of gender constancy—the belief that one’s own gender is fixed and irreversible.
Gender refers to the different roles, behaviors, and characteristics deemed appropriate for men
and women by the society (West, 2015). So individuals attempt to behave in ways that are
consistent with their gender, which could lead to anxiety and, in turn, depression.
Research studies about gender differences in the causes of depression help psychologists
understand that men and women may have different psychological needs, which if ignored can
lead to ineffective treatment. Different diagnosis and treatment methods may have to be used to
treat patients of each gender.
Culture and Its Effect on Depression
Different cultures have different expectations that are to be followed by people. The failure to
meet these expectations puts considerable pressure on people and can lead to depression. A
study, which was conducted with the assumption that cultural aspirations caused depression,
Copyright © 2016 Capella University. Copy and distribution of this document is prohibited.
Comment [DSMGUAA3]: This citation is
perfect! With up to five authors, we include all
the authors’ last names in the citation the first
time that it is introduce in the work. Well
done!
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
7
revealed that stress resulting from migration to a new country can lead to depression. It involved
52 East Asian international students and 126 North American students. The results revealed that
the pressure of adjusting to a new environment and achieving academic perfection led to stress
and, in turn, depression in the East Asian students (Toshitaka & Laird, 2014). According to the
principles of psychology, stress in a biological system is the state exhibited as a specific
syndrome that consists of nonspecifically-induced changes within the system. Stress causes the
production of certain hormones such as cortisol (Selye, n.d.). Prolonged stress causes increased
production of these hormones, which leads to depression (Herbert, 2013). This study proves the
assumption that cultural characteristics cause stress in people, leading to depression. However,
this study is limited to only East Asians. More research will help decide whether cultural
aspirations lead to depression in other cultures as well.
Research studies often illustrate the difference in the attitude toward depression among
different age groups across cultures. A study involving British Bangladeshis and British Whites
was conducted with the assumption that a variation in the attitudes toward depression existed
among communities, which possibly increased the severity of depression in varying degrees. A
questionnaire with general questions about depression, its causes, anti-depressive behavior, and
treatments for the disorder was given to 364 participants. A negative attitude toward depression
increased with age among British Bangladeshis. Depression was considered a shameful disorder
among older British Bangladeshis. This opinion of the disorder could prevent people from
reporting depression as they fear social rejection, which further aggravates the disorder.
Negativity did not increase with age among the British Whites but older citizens in both
communities tended to believe that psychological intervention did not help treat depression.
However, the youth in both ethnic groups had a positive attitude toward the treatment of
Copyright © 2016 Capella University. Copy and distribution of this document is prohibited.
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
8
depression through psychological treatment. Migrant communities thus require accessible and
culturally sensitive services, which pay particular attention to senior citizens, to treat depression
(McClelland, Khanam, & Furnham, 2014). The conclusion that there are cultural variations in
the beliefs associated with depression can thus be drawn. The finding mostly supported the
assumption stated above and can be considered valid as it had a large number of participants
from two different communities.
These research findings help psychologists understand the reasons behind depressive
symptoms in migrant patients belonging to specific communities. This research implies that
ignoring the cultural and social influences on patients with depression can lead to
misinterpretation of symptoms and overlooking of any cultural bias that may influence patients.
The Importance of Research in Psychology
Research is essential to the practice of psychology as it helps psychologists provide care that
is customized for individual patients. Research findings prompt psychologists to consider
different social, cultural, and personal influences when performing patient analysis and
diagnosis. It is essential to consider these influences while treating depression as it would help
psychologists provide effective treatment to patients based on their cultural and social
backgrounds. Research findings also help psychologists decide whether certain influences are
serious or not. Because so many studies on depression have been conducted, each with an
interest for a particular influence, psychologists have to decide which influences to consider
while treating different patients. Finally, research findings show the effect of small
manipulations in research methods. Even though there may be several studies on depression that
were done with the same methods, reading about the small differences in these methods could
help to discover different research findings about the disorder (Smedslund & Ross, 2014).
Copyright © 2016 Capella University. Copy and distribution of this document is prohibited.
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
9
Research literature on depression would help psychologists understand the complexity of the
disorder and alter their perception about it, thereby leading to improved treatment.
Psychologists may discover contradictory research findings while reading research studies on
a particular topic in Psychology. They may have to accept some findings and reject the rest.
Psychologists need to be cautious while making these decisions because they may reject research
findings that may actually prove beneficial to clients if implemented in practice (“Rejecting or
ignoring research findings,” 2016).
Conclusion
Depression is a mental disorder that can affect people of all cultures and backgrounds. A
complex interplay of cultural, gender-based, behavioral, and cognitive factors controls the onset
of depression. Psychologists have to consider the different influences that affect a patient’s
psyche to provide effective treatment. Depression can be controlled through counselling,
medication, or a combination of both.
Copyright © 2016 Capella University. Copy and distribution of this document is prohibited.
Comment [DSMGUAA4]: Sitara, Very
nicely done! Indeed, research is essential to
helping clinicians treat clients.
CAUSES OF DEPRESSION
10
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