Chapter 8: communication
interpersonal communication is central to health and well-being,
both at home and on the job.
Communication evokes a shared, or common, meaning in
another person.Interpersonal communication occurs
between two or more people in an organization. It is
central to health and well-being, both at home and on
the job. Reading, listening, managing and interpreting
information, and serving clients are among the
interpersonal communication skills identified by the
Department of Labor as necessary for success in the
workplace.* In Chapter 7, we noted that interpersonal
communication is the key to unlocking social support for
preventive stress management.* It is also important in
building and sustaining human relationships at
work. Recent advances in information technology and
data management cannot replace interpersonal
communication. Figure 8.1 illustrates the key elements of
interpersonal communication: the communicator, the
receiver, the perceptual screens, and the message.
FIGURE 8.1. A
Basic Interpersonal Communication Model
COLLECT STUDYBIT
Interpersonal communication is important in building and sustaining human
relationships at work. This kind of communication cannot be replaced by the
advances in information technology and data management that have taken place
during the past several decades. One model provides a basis for understanding the
four key elements of interpersonal communication: the communicator, the
receiver, perceptual screens, and the message. Match each of the communication
elements on the left side with their definitions on the right side.
Communicator
Data
Feedback
Information
Language
Message
Perceptual screen
Receiver
Richness
The ability of a medium or channel to elicit or evoke meaning in the receiver.
The person receiving a message.
Uninterpreted and unanalyzed facts.
The person originating a message.
The words, their pronunciation, and the methods of combining them used and
understood by a group of people.
A window through which we interact with people that affects the quality,
accuracy, and clarity of the communication.
The thoughts and feelings that the communicator is trying to elicit in the receiver.
Information fed back that completes two-way communication.
Data that have been interpreted, analyzed, and have meaning to a user.
SUBMIT
8-1a An Interpersonal Communication Model
The communicator is the person sending the
message. The receiver is the person accepting the
message. Perceptual screens are the windows through
which we interact. The communicator’s and the
receiver’s respective perceptual screens influence the
quality, accuracy, and clarity of the message. They can
allow the message to transmit smoothly, or they can
cause static and distortion. Perceptual screens are built
upon the sender’s and receiver’s individual attributes,
such as age, gender, values, beliefs, past experiences,
cultural influences, and individual needs. The degree to
which these screens are open significantly influences
both sent and received messages.
The message contains the thoughts and feelings that the
communicator intends to evoke in the receiver. The
message has two primary components.The thought, or
conceptual component, of the message (its content) is
contained in the words, ideas, symbols, and concepts
chosen to relay the message. The feeling, or emotional
component, of the message (its affect) is contained in the
intensity, demeanor, and gestures of the
communicator. The emotional component of the message
adds overtones of joy, anger, fear, or pain to the
conceptual component. This addition often enriches and
clarifies the message.
Feedback may or may not be activated in
communication. It occurs when the receiver provides the
communicator with a response to the message. More
broadly, feedback occurs when information is fed back to
the sender that completes two-way communication.
The language of the message is important. Language is a
broad term denoting the words, their pronunciations, and
the methods of combining them used and understood by
a group of people. Culture and situation dictate the
specific language utilized in a message.
Data are the uninterpreted, unanalyzed elements of a
message. Information is data with meaning to the person
who interprets or analyzes them. Since messages are
conveyed through a medium, such as a telephone or faceto-face discussion, they differ in richness according to the
ability of that medium to transmit meaning to a
receiver.* Despite the popularity of text messaging as a
communication medium, e-mail remains the preferred
method of workplace communication. A recent survey
found that workers are almost three times as likely to
send an e-mail to a colleague rather than a text message
to communicate work-related as well as non-workrelated information.* Table 8.1 compares different media
with regard to data capacity and richness. Such attributes
of communication media affect how influence-seeking
behavior is generated and perceived in organizations.*
Table 8.1. Communication Media: Information
Richness and Data Capacity
INFORMATION
MEDIUM
DATA CAPACITY
RICHNESS
Face-to-face
Highest
Lowest
Telephone
High
Low
Electronic
Moderate
Moderate
Blog
Moderate
Moderate
Individualized
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Low
High
discussion
mail
letter
Personalized
note or memo
Formal
written report
INFORMATION
MEDIUM
DATA CAPACITY
RICHNESS
Flyer or
Low
High
Lowest
Highest
bulletin
Formal
numeric
report
SOURCE: Adapted from E. A. Gerloff, “Information Richness: A New Approach to
Managerial Behavior and Organizational Design,” by R. L. Daft and R. H. Lengel
in Research in Organizational Behavior 6 (1984): 191–233. Reprinted by
permission of JAI Press Inc.
COLLECT STUDYBIT
8-1b Reflective Listening
Even though it isn’t explicitly noted in the
communication model, good listening is paramount to
effective communication. Reflective listening is the skill
of carefully listening to a message and immediately
repeating it back to the speaker. This technique helps the
communicator clarify the intended message and correct
inaccuracies or misunderstandings. Reflective listening
emphasizes the role of the receiver, or audience, in
interpersonal communication. Managers can use this
technique to understand other people and help them
solve problems at work.* Reflective listening better
enables the listener to comprehend the communicator’s
meaning, reduce perceptual distortions, and overcome
interpersonal barriers that lead to communication
failures. Especially useful in problem solving, reflective
listening can be learned in a short time. Given its positive
effects on behavior and emotion in the corporate
environment, reflective listening is a valuable skill to
possess.*
FAST FACT THIS IS YOUR BRAIN ON
HUMAN CONTACT
According to Harvard Medical School assistant clinical professor and
NeuroBusiness Group CEO Dr. Srini Pillay, our brains respond differently when
we interact with individuals face-to-face than virtually. The human brain contains
“mirror neurons” that help the brain mirror other’s behavior, resulting in feelings
of familiarity that the brain doesn’t register when communicating by telephone or
e-mail. During face-to-face interactions, the brain tucks away information about
who we are and what we feel so that it is easily accessible during future
interactions. Even if future interactions are by telephone, it is best to first meet
face-to-face.
Vladgrin/Shutterstock.com
COLLECT STUDYBIT
SOURCE: S. Dembling, “This is Your Brain on Human Contact” Entrepreneur 42
(2014): 28
Reflective listening can be characterized as personal,
feeling oriented, and responsive.* First, it emphasizes
the personal elements of the communication process. The
reflective listener demonstrates empathy and concern for
the communicator as a person, not an object. Second,
reflective listening emphasizes
the feelings communicated in the message—the receiver
must pay special attention to the feeling component as
she repeats the message. Third, reflective listening
emphasizes a rational and considerate response. Receivers
should distinguish their own feelings and thoughts from
those of the speaker. In other words, the conversation’s
focus must remain at all times on the ideas and emotions
of the speaker in order for the receiver to effectively
respond to them. Empathy and emotional self-control are
key emotional competencies in good reflective listening.
Reflective listening necessitates four levels of verbal
response: affirming contact, paraphrasing expressed
thoughts and feelings, clarifying implicit thoughts and
feelings, and reflecting core feelings not fully
expressed.Nonverbal behaviors, such as eye contact and
silence, are also important in reflective listening. Each of
these responses can be illustrated through an example:
the interaction between a software engineer, who has just
discovered a major problem in a large information system
she is building for a difficult customer, and her
supervisor.
AFFIRMING CONTACT
The receiver (in this case, the supervisor of the software
engineer) affirms contact with the communicator (the
software engineer) by making periodic statements such as
“I see,” “Okay,” and “Yes, I understand.” The purpose of
an affirmation response is to communicate attentiveness,
not necessarily agreement. Affirming contact is especially
reassuring to a speaker in the early stages of expression,
and even more so when there may be some associated
anxiety or discomfort. As the problem is more fully
explored and expressed, it is increasingly important for
the receiver to employ other reflective responses.
PARAPHRASING THE EXPRESSED
After an appropriate length of time, the receiver (the
supervisor in our example) might paraphrase the
expressed thoughts and feelings of the speaker (the
engineer). Paraphrasing is useful because it tells the
speaker what the receiver heard and what the receiver’s
thoughts and feelings are about what he heard. This
verbal response enables the speaker and receiver to build
greater empathy, openness, and acceptance into their
relationship while ensuring the accuracy of the
communication process.
In the case of the software engineer, the supervisor may
find paraphrasing the engineer’s message particularly
useful for both of them in developing a clearer
understanding of the system problem. He might say, “I
can tell that you’re very upset about this problem. Even
though you’re not quite sure how it happened, it sounds
like you have a few good leads.” It is difficult to solve a
problem until it is clearly understood.
CLARIFYING THE IMPLICIT
People often communicate implicit thoughts and
feelings—that is, thoughts and feelings that are not
clearly or fully expressed—along with their explicitly
expressed message. The receiver may or may not assume
that this implicit component of the message is within the
awareness of the speaker. For example, the software
engineer may be anxious about how to approach a
difficult customer with the system problem. This may be
implicit in her discussion with her supervisor because of a
previous discussion about this customer. If her feelings of
anxiety are not expressed, the supervisor may want to
clarify them. He might say, “You seem particularly
stressed… were you worried about the client’s
reaction?” This would help the engineer shift the focus of
her attention from the main problem, which is in the
software, to the important issue of discussing the matter
with the customer.
REFLECTING CORE FEELINGS
Next, the receiver should look beyond the speaker’s
explicit and implicit messages to understand the
speaker’s core feelings, the speaker’s deepest and most
important emotions, beliefs, and values. If the software
engineer had not been aware of any anxiety in her
relationship with the difficult customer, her supervisor’s
ability to sense the tension and bring it to the engineer’s
awareness would exemplify the reflection of core
feelings.Emotional intelligence is especially important
here.
However, the receiver runs a risk of overreaching if a
secure, empathetic relationship with the speaker has not
already been established or if strongly repressed feelings
are reflected back. Even if the receiver is correct, the
speaker may not want those feelings brought to her
awareness. Therefore, it is important to exercise caution
and care in reflecting core feelings to a speaker.
SILENCE
Long periods of silence may cause discomfort or
embarrassment, but a certain amount of silence can help
both speaker and listener in reflective listening. From the
speaker’s perspective, silence may be useful in moments
of thought or confusion about how to express difficult
ideas or feelings. The software engineer may need some
patient silence from her supervisor as she thinks through
what to say next. Listeners can use brief periods of silence
to sort their own thoughts and feelings from those of the
speaker. In the case of the software engineer’s supervisor,
any personal feelings toward the difficult customer
should not intrude on the engineer’s immediate
problem. Silence provides time to identify and isolate the
listener’s personal responses and exclude them from the
dialogue.
EYE CONTACT
Eye contact is a nonverbal behavior that may promote
openness in communication between two people. During
a dialogue, the absence of appropriate eye contact tends
to close communication. However, the presence of
inappropriate eye contact can also hinder a
relationship. Cultural and individual differences
influence what constitutes appropriate and inappropriate
eye contact. For example, direct eye contact initiated by
women and children is discouraged in India. In fact, too
much direct eye contact, regardless of the individual or
culture, can have an intimidating effect.
Moderate direct eye contact communicates openness and
affirmation without causing either speaker or listener to
feel intimidated. Periodic aversion of the eyes allows for a
sense of privacy and control, even in intense
interpersonal communication. The software engineer and
the supervisor make eye contact throughout their
discussion, though each looks away periodically to ease
the tension of intimacy.
ONE-WAY VERSUS TWO-WAY
COMMUNICATION
Reflective listening encourages two-way communication,
an interactive form of communication in which there is
an exchange of thoughts, feelings, or both, and through
which shared meaning often occurs. Problem solving and
decision making are often examples of two-way
communication. One-way communication occurs when a
person sends a message to another person and no
feedback, questions, or interaction follows. Giving
instructions and giving directions are examples of oneway communication.
One-way communication tends to be efficient, although
how efficient it is depends on the amount and complexity
of information communicated and the medium
chosen. Even though it is faster than two-way
communication, one-way communication is often less
accurate. This is especially true for complex tasks that
require clarification for completion. When time and
accuracy are both important to the successful completion
of a task and two-way communication is not an option
(such as in combat or emergency situations), extensive
training prior to execution enhances accuracy and
efficiency.* Firefighters and military combat personnel
engage extensively in such training to minimize the need
for communication during emergencies.These highly
trained professionals rely on abbreviated one-way
communication as shorthand for more complex
information. However, this communication works only
within the range of situations for which the professionals
are specifically trained.
It is difficult to draw generalizations about individual
preference for one-way or two-way
communication. Communicators with a stronger need for
feedback or who are comfortable with conflict or
confusing questions may find two-way communication
more satisfying. By contrast, receivers who believe that a
message is straightforward may be satisfied with one-way
communication and be impatient with lengthy two-way
communication.
Interpersonal communication is a critical foundation for
effective performance and individual well-being in
organizations. Power is intertwined in the language of
communication between managers and their
employees.*This power dynamic is especially critical
when leaders are articulating an organizational vision and
attempting to achieve buy-in from employees.*One large
study of managers in a variety of industries found that
those with the most effective work units engaged in
routine communication with their employees, whereas
the managers with the highest promotion rates engaged
in networking activities with superiors.* A study of
banking managers found that higher performing
managers were more effective, less apprehensive
communicators than lower performing managers.* Oral
communication and managerial cooperation are
important contextual performance skills that have
positive effects on the psychosocial quality of the work
environment.*
Research on manager–employee communication
identifies five communication skills that distinguish good
supervisors from bad ones.* A good supervisor is an
expressive speaker, an empathetic listener, a persuasive
leader, a sensitive person, and an informative
manager. Some supervisors are effective without
possessing all of these skills, however, and some
organizations value one or two skills over the others. But
because dyadic relationships are at the core of much
organization-based communication, possessing all five
skills makes a supervisor that much more effective in
communicating to employees.*
Plant Fantasies (Comm)
Play Video
Copyright © Cengage Learning.
8-2a Expressiveness
Effective supervisors express their thoughts, ideas, and
feelings openly and aren’t afraid to voice opinions in
meetings. They tend toward extroversion.Supervisors
who are not talkative or who tend toward introversion
may at times leave their employees wondering what
they’re thinking about certain issues. Supervisors who
speak out let the people they work with know where
they stand, what they believe, and how they feel.
8-2b Empathy and Sensitivity
In addition to being expressive speakers, good supervisors
are willing, empathetic, reflective listeners. Empathetic
listeners are able to hear the emotional dimensions of the
messages people send them, as well as the content of the
ideas and issues. Good supervisors are approachable and
willing to listen to suggestions and complaints. In a
recent study of physicians, those with higher perceptions
of control were more open in their communication, and
patients found them more empathetic.* Good supervisors
are emotionally intelligent.
Good supervisors are also sensitive to the feelings, selfimages, and psychological defenses of their
employees. They know how and when to communicate
with employees to maximize psychological health. For
example, employees’ accomplishments, honors, and
achievements should be announced in public, while
criticism should be delivered in private. The best
supervisors are sensitive to the self-esteem of others.
8-2c Persuasiveness
All supervisors must exercise power and influence in
organizations if they want to ensure high performance
and achieve positive results. Effective supervisors tend to
be persuasive leaders, distinguished by their use of
persuasive language to influence others. They are not
deceitful or autocratic; they encourage results earnestly
instead of manipulating others.
Of course, sometimes emergencies and high-risk
situations necessitate the abandonment of sensitive and
subtle persuasion. In cases such as a fire at an oil rig or a
life-threatening trauma in an emergency room, a
supervisor must be direct and assertive.
8-2d Informative Managing Style
Good supervisors keep their employees well informed by
appropriately and selectively disseminating information.
Finally, good supervisors keep their employees well
informed by appropriately and selectively disseminating
information. Failing to effectively filter information may
lead to either information overload or a lack of sufficient
information for task accomplishment. Good supervisors
give advance notice of organizational changes and explain
the rationale for organizational policies. Good supervisors
are also transparent, communicating openly and honestly
with employees. Such transparency leads to increased
trust among employees, which, in turn, results in
increased employee engagement.*
A person may become a good supervisor even in the
absence of one of these communication skills. For
example, a manager with special talents in planning,
organizing, or decision making may compensate for a
shortcoming in expressiveness or sensitivity. No matter
their perceived skill level or effectiveness, when
supervisors and employees engage in open
communication and forward planning, they have a
greater number of agreements about the employee’s
performance and behavior.*
8-3
BARRIERS
AND
GATEWAYS
TO
COMMUNICATION
Topic 8-4
Barriers to communication are factors that distort,
disrupt, or even halt successful communication. They
may be temporary and easily resolved or long-lasting and
deeply rooted. Roughly 20% of all such barriers to
communication can be prevented or solved by
communication policy guidelines.* Gateways to
communication are the openings that break down
communication barriers. Awareness and recognition of
communication barriers are the first steps in opening the
gateways. Obvious barriers are physical separation
(employees in different geographic locations or buildings)
and status differences (related to the organizational
hierarchy). One apparent gateway for the separation of
geographically dispersed teams is to improve the
frequency of face-to-face interaction. Geographically
dispersed teams can also increase their performance by
targeting their use of information and communication
technologies (ICTs) to address specific coordination
needs. For example, if teams are responsible for
performing nonroutine tasks, their performance can be
enhanced by using ICTs to provide task knowledge.* Not
so obvious are the barriers caused by gender differences,
cultural diversity, and language.
8-3a Gender Differences
Communication barriers can be attributed in part to
differences in conversational styles.* When individuals of
different economic backgrounds converse, the receiver’s
understanding may not be the same as the speaker’s
meaning. In a similar vein, men and women tend to have
different conversational styles. For example, women
often prefer to converse face to face, whereas men are
comfortable conversing while sitting side by side,
concentrating on a focal point in front of them. Hence,
conversational differences may result in a barrier of
communication between men and women. Male–female
conversation is really cross-cultural communication. In a
work context, one study found that female employees
sent less information to their supervisors and experienced
less information overload than did male employees.*
An important gateway through the gender barrier is the
development of an awareness and appreciation of genderspecific differences in conversational style. These
differences can enrich organizational communication and
empower professional relationships.* A second gateway is
to actively seek clarification of the person’s meaning
rather than freely interpreting meaning from one’s own
frame of reference.
8-3b Cultural Diversity
Culturally influenced values and patterns of behavior can
be very confusing barriers to communication. Significant
differences in work-related values exist among people in
the United States versus those in Germany, the United
Kingdom, Japan, and other nations.* These differences in
value impact motivation, leadership, and teamwork in
work organizations.* Habitual patterns of interaction can
obstruct communication in any given culture. For
example, the German culture places greater value on
authority and hierarchical differences than does the
United States. It is therefore more difficult for German
workers to engage in open communication with their
supervisors than it is for U.S. workers.*
When a person from one culture views people from
another culture through the lens of a stereotype, she
discounts the individual differences that exist within that
foreign culture. For example, a stereotype of Americans
common throughout Asia is that they are aggressive and
arrogant, and thus insensitive and
unapproachable. Stereotypes of Asians common
throughout America are that they are studious,
subservient, and assimilative. Individuals who depend on
the accuracy of cultural stereotypes may unknowingly
create barriers in communicating with people from other
cultures.
One gateway through the barrier of diversity is increasing
cultural awareness and sensitivity. Part of that knowledge
is paying attention to message context when
communicating cross-culturally. Whereas Westerners are
categorized as being low-context communicators who
emphasize message content, Easterners, such as Japanese,
Korean, and Chinese, are categorized as high-context
communicators who focus more on the context of the
message rather than the explicit content.* Further,
companies can provide seminars for expatriate managers
as part of their training for overseas assignments.Bernard
Isautier, president and CEO of Petro Kazakstan, believes
that understanding and communication are two keys to
harmonious workplace diversity, an essential ingredient
for success in international markets.* A second gateway is
developing or acquiring a guide for understanding and
interacting with members of other cultures. One
approach to initiating diversity training is to describe a
nation by way of a suitable metaphor.* For example, Irish
pubs, the Spanish bullfight, and American football are
consensually derived metaphors for culturally specific
conversational styles that can enable those outside the
culture to understand members within.
BREAKING GENDER COMMUNICATION
BARRIERS IN MEETINGS
Men and women communicate differently. In no other workplace context is this
difference more pronounced than in meetings. Many women find it difficult to
present their ideas in business meetings, often feeling that their ideas are drowned
out or ignored. Many women are unable to find their way into conversations in
the first place. Even women who are subject-matter experts are not immune to
this phenomenon. The result is the inability of women to contribute to their full
potential. Researchers interviewed 65 top executives, males and females, to get an
idea of how gender plays out in high-level business meetings. They found that
women and men use different communication strategies before, during, and after
meetings. For example, women will typically arrive at meetings on time, sit
through the agenda items, then leave promptly after the meeting ends. Men will
come to meetings early to test out ideas and gather support. Once the meeting has
ended, men will likely hang around to finalize the discussion and move on to
other issues. During meetings, men will repackage ideas, using different words to
express yet amplify the same idea. Though this tactic may be effective, many
women strongly opposed “simply repeating others’ ideas in different
words.” Women are also encouraged to prepare for “off-the-cuff” remarks by
doing their homework about the issues and arming themselves with cogent
comments and questions to help them be part of the conversation. Companies
have a responsibility to ensure that everyone has a voice during meetings. Sixtyeight percent of women interviewed reported that no one had provided them with
feedback about their performance in meetings. Managers should be proactive
about pulling women into the conversation, asking them questions, or
encouraging them directly to contribute their ideas.
Andresr/Shutterstock.com
It’s becoming the norm for successful businesswomen to have the lead when it
comes to running a meeting.
COLLECT STUDYBIT
SOURCE: K. Heath, J. Flynn, and M. D. Holt, “Women, Find Your Voice,” Harvard
Business Review 92 (2014): 118-121.
8-3c Language
Language can be another barrier to
communication. Growing numbers of businesspeople are
bilingual or multilingual, but even subtle distinctions in
dialects within the same language can be barriers. For
example, the word chemist means a molecular scientist in
the United States and a drugstore worker in Great
Britain. Language barriers are created across disciplines
and professional boundaries by technical
terminology. Although acronyms and professional jargon
may be very useful tools of communication within a
discipline, they may serve only to confuse and derail any
attempt at clear understanding by those unfamiliar with
the profession. When doing business, it’s best to use
simple, direct, declarative language. One should speak in
brief sentences and employ terms or words already used
by one’s audience. As much as possible, one should speak
in the language of the listener. Above all else, one should
not use jargon or technical language except with those
who are already familiar with it.
Barriers to communication are factors that block or significantly distort successful
communication. Gateways to communication are pathways through the barriers
and serve as antidotes to the problems caused by communication barriers. These
barriers may be temporary and can be overcome. Awareness and recognition are
the first steps in formulating ways to overcome them. Match each of the below
scenarios with the barrier to communication being demonstrated.
Angie found herself with a headache after meetings with her Australian
counterparts. She had to strain to understand their accents and had her "Australian
Slang" online dictionary constantly open to look up words and phrases that made
no sense to her. Which barrier to communication is being demonstrated here?
David was continually asking Amina to engage in troubleshooting and to offer her
expert opinion. In Amina's culture, employees did not offer their own ideas in case
they were better than those of their supervisor – which would shame the supervisor.
Which barrier to communication is being demonstrated here?
Cultural diversity
Language
SUBMIT
8-4
CIVILITY AND INCIVILITY
Topic 8-5
While incivility can create a barrier between people and
jar people’s emotions, civility may be a gateway to
communication that smoothes troubled waters at
work. Those who practice incivility are often called
bullies, creeps, jerks, tyrants, tormentors, despots,
backstabbers, egomaniacs, and even worse. There are,
however, some instances in which incivility can have
positive effects when it is strategically used. In this
section, we examine the full range of consequences of
incivility and the blessings of civility. In addition, we
examine defensive and nondefensive communication that
may spring from civil and uncivil communication
behavior.
8-4a Consequences of Incivility
Workplace incivility can jar the emotions and cause a
range of adverse outcomes both in the workplace and at
home. Discourteousness, rudeness, impatience, and lack
of respect are very common forms of incivility. The
consequences of incivility depend on its source. Research
suggests that vulnerability to the negative effects of
workplace civility may also depend on ethnicity and
cultural values.* Much incivility originates with superiors
and those in powerful positions within the
organization. This type of incivility is often tolerated
even though it leads to a decline in satisfaction with the
supervisor. Coworkers may display incivility too. As we
would expect, someone subject to coworker incivility
experiences less satisfaction with the coworker and that
may generalize to all coworkers. In fact, observing
incivility at work may destroy perceptions of professional
conduct and cause the observer concern about whether
he or other coworkers will receive similar treatment.* In
addition, coworker incivility can trigger the perception of
being treated unfairly at work and may even lead to
depression. So the emotional and psychological adverse
effects of coworker incivility are quite real along with
additional costs from unfair treatment and depression.
Before rushing to judgment that all incivility is
destructive, we need to point out that there is a place in
the workplace for what may appear uncivil. Take, for
example, swearing. Annoyance swearing is a problem
because of the emotional jarring and stressful impact on
others, often disrupting social support within a team as
well as the team’s well-being. Social swearing, on the
other hand, can be a stress release for an individual
provided the language is not aimed at someone else. It
may even be something in which others can empathize
and vicariously share while building relationships and
camaraderie.
8-4b Blessings of Civility
The blessings of civility are found in its gracious and
positive nature. Civil communication and behavior carry
the potential to avoid hurt feelings, prevent harm and
damage to working relationships, and contribute to wellbeing in the workplace. Civility should not be confused
with the avoidance of difficult or complicated workplace
issues, which must be confronted and addressed. There
are several ways to create a more civil workplace: bring
difficult issues out in the open, write things down before
speaking, set enforcement guidelines for incivility, and be
consistent in enforcing those guidelines. Civility ensures
respect for the integrity and dignity of every member of
the workplace.
8-4c Defensive and Nondefensive Communication
In the workplace, defensive language creates barriers
between people, whereas nondefensive communication
helps to open and deepen relationships.* Defensive
communication includes aggressive, malevolent messages
as well as passive, withdrawn messages. Nondefensive
communication is assertive, direct, and powerful. Though
it can be misinterpreted as aggressiveness, assertiveness is
indeed nondefensive.Corporations today are increasingly
engaged in situations such as courtroom battles and media
exchanges that are fertile ground for defensive
communication yet benefit greatly from nondefensive
language and emotionally intelligent communication.
Defensive communication leads to a wide range of
problems, including injured feelings, communication
barriers, alienation in working relationships, destructive
and retaliatory behaviors, nonproductive efforts, and
problem-solving failures. When such problems arise in
organizations, people are prone to blame everyone else
for what is not working.* Defensive reactions such as
counterattack and sheepish withdrawal derail
communication. These responses tend to lend heat, not
light, to the process of communication.Defensive
communication often evokes still more defensive
communication.
Nondefensive communication, in contrast, provides a
positive and productive basis for asserting and defending
oneself against aggression without further damaging the
communication process. An assertive, nondefensive style
restores order, balance, and effectiveness in working
relationships. Further discussion of nondefensive
communication and defensive communication in the
workplace follows.
8-4d Defensive Communication at Work
The two basic patterns of defensiveness are dominant
defensiveness and subordinate defensiveness. Subordinate
defensiveness is characterized by passive or submissive
behavior. The psychological attitude of the subordinately
defensive person is “You are right, and I am
wrong.” People with low self-esteem may be prone to this
form of defensive behavior, as may people at lower
organizational levels. Individuals who are subordinately
defensive do not adequately assert their thoughts and
feelings. Their input is likely to be lost, even if it is
critical to organizational performance.* Passive-aggressive
behavior is a form of defensiveness that begins as
subordinate defensiveness and ends up as dominant
defensiveness. It is behavior that appears very passive,
though it actually masks underlying aggression and
hostility.
In contrast, dominant defensiveness is characterized by
overtly aggressive and domineering behavior. It is
offensive in nature, sometimes culminating in verbal or
physical harassment. The psychological attitude of the
dominantly defensive person is “I am right, and you are
wrong.” People who are egotistical or overcompensating
for low self-esteem may exhibit this pattern of behavior,
as may people in higher-level positions within the
organizational hierarchy.
8-4e Defensive Tactics
Defensive tactics are subversive actions that employ
defensive communication. Unfortunately, these tactics
are common in many work organizations. Until
defensiveness and defensive tactics are recognized for
what they are at an organizational level, it is difficult to
address them or respond to them in nondefensive
ways. In many cases, defensive tactics raise ethical
dilemmas for victims and their supervisors. At what point
does simple defensiveness become unethical
behavior? Consider the following defensive tactics.
Power plays are tactics used to control and manipulate
others. Restricting the choices of employees, enforcing
either/or conditions, intentionally ignoring or insulting
others, bullying, and displaying overt aggression are all
power plays. The underlying dynamic in power plays is
that of domination and control. The aggressor attempts to
gain the upper hand in the relationship by making the
victim feel inferior and thus vulnerable to control.
Labeling is often used to portray another person as
abnormal or deficient.Medical and legal labels are often
used out of context for this purpose. The words paranoid,
retarded, and insane have specific, clinical meanings that
are discarded in defensive labeling. Similar to labeling is
publicly raising doubts about a person’s abilities, values,
sexual orientation, or other personal aspects. This tactic
breeds confusion and uncertainty, though it tends to lack
the specificity and clarity of labeling.
Disseminating misleading information, a form of
deception, is the selective presentation of information
intentionally designed to produce an inaccurate
impression in the listener’s mind. This obfuscated
information can be used to scapegoat, or pass the buck,
which shifts responsibility for an error or problem to the
wrong person. If information cannot be altered, defensive
individuals may simply blame others for their own
wrongdoing.
Finally, hostile jokes are a passive-aggressive defensive
tactic. Because a jocular framing is used to mask
aggressive and even overtly mean sentiments, hostile
jokes often go uncited. They should not be confused with
good humor, which is both therapeutic and
nondefensive. Jokes made at the expense of others are
destructive to self-esteem and workplace communication.
8-4f Nondefensive Communication
An individual who consistently communicates nondefensively
may be characterized as centered, assertive, controlled,
informative, realistic, and honest.
Nondefensive communication is a healthy alternative to
defensive communication in working relationships. An
individual who consistently communicates
nondefensively may be characterized as centered,
assertive, controlled, informative, realistic, and
honest. Nondefensive communication is powerful
because the speaker exhibits self-control and selfpossession without rejecting the listener. It should be
self-affirming without being self-aggrandizing—a
sometimes difficult balance to maintain.
Converting defensive patterns of communication to
nondefensive ones builds relationships at work. Behaviors
that build relationships simultaneously reduce adverse
responses, such as blame and anger, when negative events
occur at work.*
To strengthen nondefensive patterns, the subordinately
defensive person must learn to be more assertive. One
way to do this is to report what one intends to do and
invite confirmation instead of asking for permission to do
something. Another way is to stop using self-deprecating
phrases such as “I’m just following orders.” One should
drop the just and thereby convert the message into a selfassertive, declarative statement.
To strengthen nondefensive patterns, the dominantly
defensive person must learn to be less aggressive. This
may be especially difficult because it requires overcoming
the sense of certitude. Those who are working to
overcome dominant defensiveness should be particularly
sensitive to feedback from others about their behavior. To
change this behavior, one should stop giving and denying
permission. Instead, one should give others free rein
(except in situations where permission is essential to
clearance or the security of the task). Alternatively,
instead of becoming inappropriately angry, one should
provide information about the adverse consequences of a
particular course of action.
SEATTLE SEAHAWKS DEFENSIVE LINE USE
NONDEFENSIVE COMMUNICATION TO
ADDRESS MISTAKES
The NFL Seattle Seahawks arguably have the best defense in professional
football. The Seahawks finished the 2014 regular season leading the NFL in fewest
points and fewest yards allowed per game. It is not only the size and agility of the
players that help explain why the Seahawks have performed so well
defensively. When the players don’t perform so well as a unit, they don’t shy away
from confronting each other about the mistakes. When the defensive unit wasn’t
performing at the level they had when they won the Super Bowl a year ago, one
veteran member of the defense suggested that linemen and linebackers combine
their meetings so that they could confront each other directly and candidly about
mistakes they made rather than talk behind each other’s backs. No room for
passive-aggressive behavior there. Defensive players admit that at times, the brutal
honesty is a bit awkward, but others outside the league say that the defense’s
honesty policy has made the Seahawks locker room one of the healthiest and one
of the best in the NFL.
John Biever/Sports Illustrated/Getty Images
COLLECT STUDYBIT
SOURCE: K. Clark. “Why the Seahawks Like Confrontation,” Wall Street
Journal (January 8, 2015): D6.; B. Condatta. “Statistics Bear Out that Seahawks’
Defense Among Best, and Most Consistent Ever,” The Seattle Times (December 30,
2014), http://www.seattletimes.com/sports/seahawks/statistics-bear-out-thatseahawksrsquo-defense-among-best-and-most-consistent-ever/.
8-5
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
Topic 8-6
Whereas defensive and nondefensive communication
focus on the language used in delivering a message, most
of a message’s meaning (an estimated 65 to 90%) is
conveyed through nonverbal communication.* Nonverbal
communication includes all elements of communication
that do not involve words or language such as gestures
and the use of space.* The four basic types of nonverbal
communication that managers need to understand are
proxemics, kinesics, facial and eye behavior, and
paralanguage. Managers also need to understand that
nonverbal communication is influenced by both
psychological and physiological processes.*
The interpretation of nonverbal communication is
specific to the context of the interaction and the
actors. That is, the particular meaning of any nonverbal
cue relies on its sender, receiver, and the environment in
which the cue occurs. For example, some federal and
state judges attempt to curb nonverbal communication in
the courtroom. Though it may mean nothing outside the
courtroom, some nonverbal behavior may unfairly
influence jurors’ decisions if displayed during a
trial. Beyond the contextual element, nonverbal behavior
is also culturally bound. (Recall from Chapter 2 the
difference in meaning the “thumbs-up” sign has in
Australia versus the United States.)
8-5a Proxemics
The study of an individual’s perception and use of space,
including territorial space, is
called proxemics.* Territorial space refers to bands of
concentric space radiating outward from the body. These
bands are commonly known as comfort zones. Figure
8.2 illustrates the four zones of territorial space common
to U.S. culture.
FIGURE 8.2. Zones
of Territorial Space in U.S. Culture
•
Zone a,
intimate space: spouses, significant others, family members, and
others with whom one has an intimate relationship
•
Zone b,
personal distance: friends
•
Zone c,
social distance: business associates and acquaintances
•
Zone d,
public distance: strangers
image: iStockphoto.com/Andresr
COLLECT STUDYBIT
Territorial space varies greatly around the world. Both
the sizes of comfort zones and their acceptable modes of
interaction are culturally defined. And people often
become uncomfortable when operating in territorial
spaces different from those with which they are familiar.
According to leading proxemics researcher Edward Hall,
Americans working in the Middle East tend to back away
to a comfortable distance when conversing with Arabs
because Arabs’ comfortable conversation distance is
closer than that of Americans. As a result, Arabs
sometimes perceive Americans as cold and aloof. One
Arab wondered, “What’s the matter? Does he find me
somehow offensive?”* The circumference of personal
space tends to be larger in cultures with cool climates,
such as the United States, Great Britain, and northern
Europe, and smaller in cultures with warm climates, such
as southern Europe, the Caribbean, India, and South
America.*
Our relationships shape our use of territorial space. For
example, we hold hands with or put an arm around
significant others to pull them into intimate
space. Conversely, we can use territorial space to shape
our interactions. A four-foot-wide desk pushes business
interactions into the social distance zone. Not
comfortable with that definition of space, one SBC
manager met with her seven first-line supervisors
crowded around her four-foot desk, putting them elbow
to elbow with each other. As a result of being placed in
one another’s intimate space, they appeared to act more
like friends and frequently talked about their children,
favorite television shows, and other personal
concerns. When the manager moved the staff meetings to
a larger room and thus relocated the supervisors into each
others’ social distance zones, the personal exchanges
ceased, and they acted more like business associates again.
Seating dynamics, another aspect of proxemics, is the art
of seating people in certain positions according to their
purpose in communication. Figure 8.3 depicts some
common seating dynamics. To encourage cooperation,
one should seat the adjoining party beside oneself, facing
the same direction. To facilitate direct and open
communication, one should seat the other party across a
corner of one’s desk or in another place where he will be
at right angles. This allows for more honest disclosure. To
take a competitive stand with someone, one must
position the person directly across from oneself.Suppose a
manager holds a meeting around a conference table, and
two of the attendees are disrupting the meeting by
chatting loudly. Where should they be seated? If the
manager places the two disruptive attendees on either
side of herself, the talking should be stifled (unless one is
so bold as to lean in front of the manager to keep
chatting).
FIGURE 8.3. Seating
Dynamics
COLLECT
STUDYBIT
8-5b Kinesics
Kinesics is the study of body movement and
posture.* Like proxemics, kinesics is bound to
culture. With this in mind, we can interpret some
common U.S. gestures. Rubbing one’s hands together
while inhaling sharply indicates anticipation. Stress is
indicated by balled fists, clenched teeth, hand wringing,
and rubbing the temples. Nervousness may be indicated
by drumming fingers, pacing, or jingling coins in one’s
pocket. Kinesics also includes insulting gestures like
giving someone “the finger.”
8-5c Facial and Eye Behavior
The face is a rich source of nonverbal
communication. Facial expression and eye behavior are
used to communicate an emotional state, reveal
behavioral intentions, and cue the receiver. It may even
give unintended clues to emotions the sender is trying to
hide.* Unintended facial movements can undermine the
illusion of truthfulness, especially in stressful situations.*
Culture, environment, and specific actors must be taken
into consideration when interpreting smiles, frowns,
raised eyebrows, and other expressions.One study of
Japanese and U.S. students illustrated the point. The
students were shown a stress-inducing film, and their
facial expressions were videotaped. When alone, the
students had almost identical expressions.When in the
presence of others, however, the Japanese students
masked their facial expressions of unpleasant feelings
much better than the American students did.*
As mentioned earlier, eye contact can enhance reflective
listening. Along with smiling, eye contact is an easy way
to express honesty and positive emotion.*However, eye
contact must be understood in a cultural context. A direct
gaze indicates dedication, truthfulness, and forthrightness
in the United States.This may not be true in other
cultures. For example, Barbara Walters was
uncomfortable interviewing Libyan head of state
Muammar al-Gaddafi because he refused to look directly
at her. However, in Libya it is a serious offense for a man
to look directly at a woman.* In many Asian cultures, it is
considered polite to bow in deference to a superior rather
than to look into the supervisor’s eyes.
8-5d Paralanguage
Paralanguage consists of variations in speech, such as
pitch, loudness, tempo, tone, duration, laughing, and
crying.* People make assumptions about the
communicator by deciphering paralanguage cues. A
female’s high-pitched, breathy voice may lead coworkers
to stereotype her as a “dumb blonde.”Rapid, loud speech
may be taken as a sign of nervousness or
anger.Interruptions such as “mmm” and “okay” may be
used to speed up the speaker so that the receiver can get
in a few words. Clucking of the tongue and the tsk-tsk
sound are used to shame someone. All these cues relate to
how something is said.
8-6
POSITIVE, HEALTHY COMMUNICATION
Topic 8-7
The absence of heartfelt communication in relationships
leads to loneliness and social isolation. This condition has
been labeled communicative disease by James
Lynch.* Communicative disease has adverse effects on the
heart and cardiovascular system and can ultimately lead
to premature death.According to Lynch, the only cure for
communicative disease is to reengage in thoughtful,
heartwarming conversation with friends and loved
ones. Yet, even though feelings may be more important
to the communication process than cognition, a stable
balance between the two is integral. This balance
between head and heart is achieved when a person
displays positive emotional competence and can maintain
a healthy internal conversation between his thoughts and
emotions.
Positive, healthy communication is an important aspect
of working together—that is, cooperating to reach a
shared goal—in both the interpersonal and intrapersonal
settings.* Such communication requires trust and
truthfulness.However, it does not exclude honest
competition within the workplace, which in fact is
consistent with the concept of working together. Sincere,
well-managed competition can bring out the best in all
those involved.
Healthy communication is at the core of personal
integrity and managerial success, as is evident in the lives
of most successful executives, including those in the
executive branch of the U.S. government.* President
Ronald Reagan was nicknamed “the great communicator”
for his ability to connect with the American people. He
conveyed strong ethical character, personal integrity, and
simplicity in his communication. Reagan exemplified
Lynch’s concept of heartfelt communication because his
language in speeches and interviews seemed to stem from
core values and sincere aspirations.Communication from
the heart is communication anchored in personal
integrity and ethical character.
Personal integrity is a product of emotional competence
and a stable balance of head and heart, as mentioned
earlier. Psychologist Karol Wasylyshyn has shown that
one method of developing personal integrity is to coach
an executive in developing her capacity to talk through
challenging issues, both personally and
professionally.* James Campbell Quick and Marilyn
Macik-Frey developed a similar coaching program that
works to cultivate executives’ inner selves through deep,
interpersonal communication.* This executive coaching
model relies on what Lynch might call a “healing
dialogue” between executive and coach. In addition to
improving interpersonal communication between
executives and employees, this model can enhance
positive, healthy communication in a wider range of
human relationships.
ETHICAL DILEMMA COMMUNICATION
Dan Neville is the manager for a team of engineers at RFC, Inc. He is responsible
for coordinating his team’s efforts on a daily, weekly, and monthly basis, as well as
assuring that they are keeping on schedule with teams in other offices around the
country. Dan regularly communicates with his own team via e–mail, attaching
memos and instructions prior to their regular face–to–face meetings. Clear,
consistent, and timely communication is an essential element of Dan’s job.
Dan usually has no trouble with any member of the team understanding his
instructions, except for Kyle Trenton. Kyle always seems to misunderstand or
misinterpret Dan’s messages, even during face–to–face meetings. Kyle doesn’t
seem to be deliberately being obstinate; he honestly derives other meanings from
Dan’s communications, reading into the words Dan chooses and coming up with
implied ideas that Dan never intended.
Inevitably, Dan has to meet with Kyle separately to be certain that Kyle
understands the tasks at hand. If left to his own devices, Kyle wouldn’t come to
Dan to question his interpretation of the message, because he sincerely believes he
"gets it." However, Kyle is rarely clear about Dan’s meanings, and Dan must
devote extra time and energy to reorient Kyle. Dan tries to be sympathetic,
because Kyle is a nice person and a good worker, but Kyle requires twice as much
time from Dan as everyone else and it is frustrating. Dan does worry that if Kyle
would happen to misunderstand critical directions on a building project which are
not corrected, someone could legitimately get hurt.
Dan has an opportunity to move Kyle onto a new position, where he would no
longer have to work with Dan’s current team and Dan would no longer have to
communicate with Kyle.However, Dan knows that Ken Rothberg is the head of
that team, and Ken is known for being a very poor communicator. Dan suspects
that Ken wouldn’t take any additional time to make certain that Kyle understood
his instructions, and that could cause even more critical problems.
8-7
COMMUNICATING
THROUGH
NEW
TECHNOLOGIES AND SOCIAL MEDIA
Topic 8-CR
Nonverbal behaviors can be important in establishing
trust in working relationships, but modern technologies
may challenge our ability to maintain that trust. Too
much emphasis on technology tools in communication
may have an adverse impact on rich interpersonal
communication and relationships. On the positive side,
lawyers and legal consultants use Facebook and Twitter
to do background checks on potential jurors.* Brian J.
Dunn, the CEO of Best Buy, uses social media to spot
trends and communicate with customers and
employees.* Finally, information technology can
encourage or discourage moral dialogue, and these types
of conversations are central to addressing ethical issues at
work.*
WHAT WOULD YOU DO? SMART PHONES:
PROMOTING COMMUNICATION
CONNECTEDNESS OR DISCONNECTEDNESS?
CASE STUDY
In early 2007, Anjali Athavaley, writing in The Wall Street Journal, observed that
“[w]ireless email devices used to be largely the domain of harried executives and
professionals. Now, the so-called CrackBerry effect is beginning to afflict the
masses. The BlackBerry has become ingrained in daily life, much like the
cellphone and computer.”* Indeed, since this observation was penned, Smart
Phones, like the BlackBerry, have become ubiquitous in the general
population. Increasingly, people from all walks of life, young and old, all socioeconomic strata, etc. have embraced the potential of Smart Phones for
communicating with others, searching for information, doing work, playing
games, and a myriad other applications. “[E]veryone from stay-at- home parents
to college students is depending on BlackBerrys or similar … devices for basic
daily tasks, such as checking sports scores, finding directions, emailing the
children’s baseball coach and keeping in up-to-the-minute touch with
friends.”* “They are talking on mobile phones, checking email on handheld
computers or integrated communicators, or getting an instant or a text message on
either device. Some are listening to music and playing games on personal game
consoles, while others are checking sports scores, watching replays, or even
making dinner reservations. No matter age, gender, national identity, or socioeconomic status, broad mobile device adoption seems to know no bounds.”*
There are numerous potential applications for Smart Phones like the
BlackBerry. Nick Wingfield, writing in The Wall Street Journal, notes that
“mobile workers have been ditching their desktop computers for laptops that they
can take wherever they go. Now road warriors are starting to realize that they can
get even more portability—and lots of computing punch—from [S]mart
[P]hones.”* Many business “travelers are now using [S]mart [P]hones the way they
once used laptops—and laptops the way they once used desktop computers,” and
some traveling business people are even “ditching their laptops entirely and doing
all their mobile work from [S]mart [P]hones.”*
Interestingly, with the increased popularity of Smart Phones and all they can do to
facilitate communications, they have also undermined verbal communication and
promoted incivility in the communications process. “[F]riends hardly call each
other. People resist protocols that call for verbal communication…. People don’t
like using their phones to make calls or listen to voice mails.”* Texting seems to be
the preferred mode, especially for younger people, when communicating with
others.
Among college students, texting is a dominant form of communication—and as
most any college student knows, texting goes on at inappropriate times. For
instance, texting during class—even when it’s not allowed—is an all-too-common
occurrence. “In a survey of 1,043 college students at the University of New
Hampshire, almost half said they feel guilty about texting during class when it’s
not allowed. Even so, texting is quite common: 65 percent said they send at least
one text message during a typical class.”*
“People calling, texting and responding to e-mails at inappropriate times and
places have become an issue in both a professional and business context.”* Joseph
De Avila, reporting for The Wall Street Journal, notes there is a pervasive
expectation that people have instant access to email, and rapid replies to one’s
messages are also expected.*
Incivility in interpersonal communication also is manifested in the level of
empathy that people display toward each other. “Recent research has shown a
marked decline in empathy…. A new University of Michigan study finds that
empathy among college students has declined 40% in the past two
decades. Researchers say one factor may be our reliance on social media. We’re
more apt to be empathetic when we communicate face to face.”*
Yet there is some backlash to the pull of technological connectivity. “In an
increasingly connected world, some CEOs prefer to kick it old school, avoiding the
short attention span that comes with being plugged in. They have assistants that
handle all their communication, prefer reading printed out e-mails, and don’t dip
their toes in any social media. That level of isolation is unrealistic for most
executives, but learning when to connect and when to disconnect is essential in
today’s business culture.”*
As people in all walks of life are becoming more connected technologically, are
they becoming increasingly disconnected interpersonally?
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Can the basic interpersonal communication model be used as an aid in
understanding the impact of Smart Phone usage? If so, how?
2. How have Smart Phones transformed the way in which business people
communicate with regard to fulfilling their job responsibilities?
3. How have Smart Phones transformed the way in which college students
communicate?
4. Do you think that as people become more connected technologically they become
less connected interpersonally? Why or why not?
SOURCE: This case was written by Michael K. McCuddy, The Louis S. and Mary L.
Morgal Chair of Christian Business Ethics and Professor of Management, College of
Business Administration, Valparaiso University.
8-7a Written Communication
Even though many organizations are working toward
paperless offices and paperless interfaces with their
customers, written communication is far from dead—
many types of written communication are still necessary
to business.Manuals and reports are generally the longest
forms of written communication found in the
office. Policy manuals are important in organizations
because they establish guidelines for decision making and
codes of conduct. Operations and procedures manuals
explain how to perform various tasks and resolve
problems that may occur at work. Reports, such as annual
company finance reports, may summarize the results of a
committee’s or department’s work or provide information
on progress toward certain objectives.
Letters and memorandums (memos) are briefer than
manuals and reports and are more frequently used in
larger organizations. Letters are used to communicate
formally with individuals and businesses outside the
organization. They vary substantially in length and
topic. Memos are also used for formal, internal
communication within an organization. They are
sometimes used as historical records of specific events or
occurrences that individuals within the organization can
refer back to later.
The shortest kind of written communication is the form,
which may be used to collect information inside or
outside the organization.
8-7b Communication Technologies
Computer-mediated communication influences virtually
all behavior in the work environment. E-mail, voice mail,
instant messaging, and facsimile (fax) machines have been
common in the business world for more than a
decade.Recently, large information databases have
become relatively commonplace.These databases provide
a tremendous amount of information at the push of a
button. An example of an information database is the
electronic card catalog system used in university libraries
throughout the world. These systems, sometimes linked
with each other to form massive networks of data, store
information about books’ and journals’ contents,
distributions, and availability.
The newest technology to impact the work environment
is the smartphone, which is nearly as ubiquitous at work
as standard cell phones are in our personal
lives. Smartphones combine the capabilities of advanced
cell phones with computer-like applications and
connectivity. Examples include the Apple iPhone, the
HTC Thunder-Bolt, and the Nokia N9. The smartphone’s
introduction was particularly transformative for sales jobs
involving travel. While they are widely used, not all
reactions to smartphones are positive. For example, one
oil producer did not want his daily commute disturbed by
outside interference; he used driving as a time for
thought and relaxation. Some estimates suggest that using
a phone while driving is as risky as driving while under
the influence of alcohol. For this reason, some states have
outlawed cell phone talking or texting while driving a
motor vehicle.
8-7c How Do Communication Technologies Affect Behavior?
Information communication technology (ICT) is an
extensive category of new developments in interpersonal
communication that allow fast, even immediate, access to
information. E-mail, teleconferencing, and Wi-Fi are all
classified as ICT. It can facilitate the instant exchange of
information in minutes or seconds across geographic
boundaries and time zones. With adequate ICT
implementation, schedules and office hours become
irrelevant in that considerations of time and distance that
once beleaguered international and intranational business
become far less important in the exchange. Given its
impact on the way business is done, ICT has a significant
influence on people’s behavior.
Computer-mediated communication is impersonal in
nature. Instant messaging, e-mail, and other forms of
online communication can therefore depreciate the
richness of personal interaction. Studies show that using
these technologies may increase one’s likelihood to
flame—that is, to make rude, needlessly argumentative or
obscene comments by means of computer-mediated
communication.* Employees’ interpersonal skills such as
tact and graciousness subside online, and managers tend
to be more blunt when using electronic media. People
who normally participate in discussions quietly and
politely may become more intimate, impolite, or
uninhibited when they communicate using computer
conferencing or electronic mail.*
Another effect of computer-mediated communication is
that the nonverbal cues we rely on to decipher a message
are absent. Gesturing, touching, facial expressions, and
eye contact are not possible, so the emotional aspect of
the message is difficult to discern. Even in
teleconferencing, where users can see each others’ faces,
it is often difficult to perceive nonverbal cues.* Clues to
power such as organizational position and departmental
membership may not be available, so the social context of
the exchange is often altered.
HOT TREND AVOID E-MAIL OVERLOAD
The ever-present nature of e-mail has the potential to lead to e-mail
overload. Here are five ways to prevent that from happening. First, don’t try to
solve problems using e-mail. Huddling the right people into a brief 7–15 minute
meeting at the same time each week is more productive than spending 90 minutes
e-mailing back and forth. Keep your e-mail subject lines specific to prevent others
from wasting precious time searching inboxes for messages. Next, insist that emails are “Twitter-tight,” not exceeding specified maximum number of words or
characters. Fourth, avoid e-mails with multiple parts. Opt instead to one topic per
e-mail.Finally, close e-mails quickly. Try putting a simple yes-or-no response in
the subject line followed by “EOM” meaning “end of message.” That way,
recipients will not have to open the e-mail.
SOURCE: V. Harnish. “Five Ways to Liberate Your Team From Email
Overload,” Fortune 169 (2014): 52.
StockLite/Shutterstock.com
New technologies encourage multitasking.
COLLECT STUDYBIT
Communication via technology also changes group
dynamics by equalizing participation. As a result,
charismatic or higher-status members may lose some
power.* Studies of group decision making have shown
that computer-mediated groups took longer to reach
consensus than face-to-face groups. In addition, they
were less cooperative, more uninhibited, and there was
less influence from any one dominant person. Another
study found that ICTs, especially e-mail and e-meetings,
reduce tension caused by intercultural
communication.* Groups that communicate via computer
seem to experience a breakdown of social and
organizational barriers.
The potential for information overload is particularly
great when individuals are first introduced to new
communication technologies. Both the sheer volume of
information available and its speed of delivery are
staggering. An individual can easily become
overwhelmed by information and must learn to be
selective about its access.
While modern ICT may make work easier and increase
employees’ productivity, it can also prove precarious for
managers. In the wake of mobile e-mail, instant
messaging, and texting, managers are more accessible to
coworkers, subordinates, and the boss today than they’ve
ever been.Researchers coined the term workplace
telepressure to describe the pressure employees feel when
they perceive asynchronous communication methods as
having the same requirements for response time as
synchronous communication methods have. Typically,
sending an e-mail will give individuals flexibility and
additional time to respond, unlike communicating faceto-face. Face-to-face communications require an
immediate response.Viewing ICTs as having the same
properties as face-to-face communication may cause
employees to prioritize these communication methods
similarly, making it more difficult for employees to
disengage.*
Further, many new technologies encourage polyphasic
activity, or multitasking (i.e., doing more than one thing
at a time). Managers can simultaneously make phone
calls, send instant messages, and work on
memos. Polyphasic activity has its advantages in terms of
getting more done—but only up to a point. Paying
attention to more than one thing at a time splits a
person’s attention and may reduce effectiveness at
individual tasks. At its extreme, focusing on multiple
tasks can become a destructive habit, making it
psychologically difficult for a person to let go of work.
Finally, new technologies may make people less patient
with face-to-face communication. The speed of electronic
media may lead to expectations of acceleration in all
forms of communication. However, if they spend too
much time communicating online, individuals may come
to miss social interaction with others, and may find their
social needs unmet. Communicating via computer often
means the end of small talk. In the name of speed,
amenity is sacrificed for efficiency. Managers can use
new technologies more efficiently and effectively by
keeping in mind the suggestions presented in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2. Channel Etiquette
FACEBOOK
TWITTER
YOUTUBE
LINKEDIN
•
•
•
•
•
>
>
>
>
Take sensitive
Begin with an
Develop a
Join groups
queries into a
introduction if
thick
and
private sphere
used for outreach
skin.Many
contribute
online or
or active
comments
information
offline.
engagement.
are not
about
constructive,
relevant
so do not
experience.
>
•
>
Remember all
Develop a tone of
wall posts are
voice and
public; don’t
personality.
take such
comments to
heart or
•
>
FACEBOOK
write
TWITTER
•
YOUTUBE
>
anything
Keep requests for
there that is
re-tweets to a
not for wider
minimum.
consumption.
•
>
•
>
•
LINKEDIN
argue;
Answer
defensive
questions,
reactions
and
only fan the
contribute to
flames.
share pages
and
>
communities
Keep tweets as
Ensure that
short and sweet as
all updates
•
•
>
because these
140 characters).
and relevant
.
replies
possible (less than
are frequent
but not too
Use video
>
frequent.
can be
Avoid asking
powerful and
for
a good way
references
to spread a
unless the
message.
person is
Avoid pure self•
>
Use language
relevant to
the channel
and to the
target
promotion.Twitte
r is a knowledgesharing and
•
>
someone
already
conversation
channel.
Acknowledg
e comments,
and thank
those who
known or if
the company
has
FACEBOOK
•
TWITTER
YOUTUBE
LINKEDIN
demographics
are being
genuinely
.
positive
delivered
about a
great service.
>
brand.
•
>
Show
•
appreciation,
Support
and
unsolicited
acknowledge
contacts
positive
with a full
comments.
explanation
>
of who is
contacting
Follow up
and respond
to any
feedback.
and why;
don’t assume
that contacts
will view the
underlying
profile.
COLLECT STUDYBIT
•
TOPIC 8-6
•
TOPIC 8-CR
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