Curriculum and Development 4 Pretest 1. Typically developing children attain ­developmental milestones in approximately the same sequence and time frame. T/F 2. Children with developmental needs are best served in special education classrooms. T/F 3. Play is enjoyable for children but not ­connected to cognitive or social ­development. T/F 4. Time for play should be included in the daily schedule to give children a break from curriculum activities. T/F 5. Infant caregivers can use routines such as diapering and feeding to promote language and motor development. T/F Answers can be found at end of the chapter. © Wavebreaker Media / Thinkstock Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Describe the general characteristics of typically developing children. 2. Explain what special needs are and some of the ways in which teachers make adaptations to meet those needs. 3. Describe, from social and cognitive perspectives, how children’s play develops over time. 4. Explain how play is integral to important elements of curriculum. 5. Match developmental characteristics of different age groups with appropriate curriculum considerations. Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4 You have conducted home visits with the seventeen preschool children in your class. Their ages at the time of your visits ranged from 3 years, 11 months, to 4 years, 10 months. You read a story as one part of each visit, either from a book the child chose from those they had at home or one they chose from the three that you brought with you. After your visit, you made notes on each child, including these two entries: 1. Maria (age 4 years, 7 months) sat next to me on the sofa and introduced me to her stuffed monkey, which she used as a puppet to ask questions and respond to mine. She eagerly selected Curious George, telling me it was one of her favorite stories. She pointed out the title on the book’s cover, and the letters “C” and “G.” As I read the story, Maria pointed to and identified details in the illustrations, laughed at several points, predicted what would happen next, and turned the pages carefully each time I paused. After we finished, she clapped her hands and asked me to read the book again. 2. Marissa (age 3 years, 11 months) sat on her mother’s lap next to me on the sofa. When I asked if she had a book that she wanted me to read, she shook her head. When I asked if she would choose a book I had brought, she pointed to Eating the Alphabet (Ehlert, 1989). While I read, she was quiet and sucked her thumb with one hand and played with her mother’s hair with the other. She was very attentive, looking back and forth between my face and the book, but did not volunteer questions or comments. When we finished, I asked if she liked the book and she nodded her head. Although these anecdotal entries do not constitute a formal assessment, it should be clear that while both children are interested in age-appropriate books, you would have to provide different types of access to literacy curriculum activities for each child. Maria clearly appears enthusiastic about sharing what she already knows about books, stories that have characters and a plot, and letters (print). Marissa seems very interested in books, perhaps letters and the alphabet, but, given her demeanor, it might be difficult to tell what she knows about them and how likely it is that she will engage in reading activities independently. In this chapter, we will consider the relationship between development and curriculum; as you read, think about what © Comstock / Thinkstock these anecdotes reveal about teaching all areas of the curricuTeachers’ notes from home visits can provide information that will help lum from a developmental perspective. This chapter focuses to adapt curriculum to the individual on how developmental knowledge—both general and indineeds and interests of children. vidual—about infants, toddlers, preschoolers, kindergarteners, and primary-aged children should guide and inform decisions that teachers make about curriculum. We also consider the reciprocal and integrated relationship between play and development and the important role of play in the curriculum. 4.1 Teaching from a Developmental Perspective One of the primary goals of teachers as decision makers is to make sure that the curriculum “opens the door” to learning for all children in the group or class (Hull, Goldhaber, & Capone, 2002). Excellent teachers evaluate and adapt curriculum to respond to the interests, abilities, Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4 needs, and culture of every child. As explained in Chapter 1, developmentally appropriate curriculum for young children changes as their particular characteristics change over time. Universal Expectations vs. Individual Variations You already know that developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) addresses both the general characteristics of groups of children as well as unique variations from child to child at any particular point in time. A good curriculum will be one that is flexible enough to allow the teacher to use insights and observations of children to plan, adapt, and implement activities. The scenario from the opening vignette illustrates the need for a flexible curriculum. It is also advisable to describe and communicate curriculum decisions and adaptations in terms of the elements of DAP, so that families and administrators can understand the rationale for your choices (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011). To do this, teachers need to be aware of: • What is generally accepted as typical in each of the three major domains of development (physical, affective, cognitive) • What constitutes normal individual variations in both development and learning style • The influence of culture and family on development • How developmental delays and other special needs affect children’s learning and behavior patterns Further, we know that developmental researchers describe, from differing theoretical perspectives, how children grow and learn. Teachers need to be able to recognize when a curriculum is written or described from a particular point of view. The DAP position statement describes growth and development generally from a constructivist perspective (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). However, a behaviorist orientation emphasizing sequential learning and positive reinforcement for desired responses or actions can be seen in early childhood curricula as well, particularly those that focus on direct instruction. For example, teachers provide children with exploratory experiences (constructivist), by using materials like blocks, to promote acquisition of fundamental concepts about size, shape, balance, symmetry, and so on. But they also use rhymes, songs, and stories to provide intentional practice and positive reinforcement for rote counting (behaviorist). The constructivist influence can be seen in advocacy for standards and curriculum that are goal-oriented, while curriculum scope and sequence still display activities for development of discrete skills on a time line (Clements & Sarama, 2004). Teachers use their knowledge of diverse developmental perspectives to make decisions about curriculum that match what they observe about how individual children learn best. We expect to see children’s development follow a general trajectory over time as they master increasingly complex skills and gradually move from concrete to abstract thinking. For example, a 2-year-old will learn to put on his shoes, but by the time he is 4 or 5 he will also be able to tie them. That same 2-year-old may be able to name and differentiate between a horse and tiger, but 2 years later he will also be able to describe how they are similar and different. Within this predictable sequence, curriculum must account for and support uneven development from child to child and differences in personality, interests, and dispositions (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011). Some children are more physically active or assertive; others are passive or submissive; some children are very verbal; others are introspective and Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4 quiet. One child may hone fine motor skills primarily through the use of manipulative materials like Legos or puzzles; another might want to spend a lot of time cutting paper, painting, and drawing. And during any general age period, a child may seem to be surging ahead in one area of development seemingly to the exclusion of others. It all evens out eventually, but a “one-size-fits all” approach to curriculum for young children is not considered developmentally appropriate at any time. Typically Developing Children Typically developing children are those considered to be representative of most children in a population. The developmental progression of typically developing children is often expressed in terms of norms, benchmarks, or milestones. Growth and development are usually described with respect to specific domains, such as physical, social/emotional, cognitive, or creative. However, researchers and curriculum specialists also emphasize that growth and learning occur as an integrated process across multiple domains (Gestwicki, 2011; Hull, Goldhaber, & Capone, 2002; Levine & Munsch, 2011). For example, as Maria interacts with the story of Curious George in our opening vignette, she is using cognitive skills and language in different ways and demonstrating symbolic representation in her use of the monkey as a puppet and by pointing out letters. She uses fine motor skills to point, clap, and manipulate her puppet. Her attentiveness and engagement indicate emotional connection with the characters in the story and emerging understanding about the social roles of reader and listener. © iStockphoto / Thinkstock Children in any particular age group exhibit generally similar developmental characteristics, but with many variations for which teachers must adapt. A brief summary of typical developmental progression follows. Developmental progression will be discussed with respect to curriculum in greater detail later in the chapter. Physical Development From infancy throughout the early childhood period (birth to age 8), physical development typically progresses from the head downward (cephalocaudal) and from the center of the body outward (proximodistal). As the body lengthens and the head assumes a smaller proportion of the rest of the body, the child’s center of gravity gradually rises. Gross motor control progresses from nonlocomotive movements to eventual walking, running, hopping, skipping, and so forth. Control of fine motor processes involves everything from eye tracking to the highly controlled manual dexterity needed to draw, write, or play a musical instrument. The brain grows at a faster pace during early childhood than at any other time across the life span (Charlesworth, 2004; Levine & Munsch, 2011). Affective Development Affective development describes how children behave and feel. Social competence, emotional character, and personality develop in highly individualized patterns influenced by the Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4 © Photodisc / Thinkstock Children achieve several significant milestones in their gross motor development as they acquire mobility, strength, and coordination. interplay of nature (biological processes) and nurture (environmental influences). Over time and as children acquire language, their affective responses become less outwardly focused— on physical needs (e.g., crying when hungry, tired, or wet)—and more internally focused—on emotional motivations such as pride, guilt, and wanting to belong. An ethic of sharing, caring, and moral reasoning develops as children gradually gain the ability to consider multiple perspectives and adapt to various forms of authority. Theories from many branches of psychology inform our understanding about the development of ego, personality, identity, empathy, and morality in young children (Charlesworth, 2004; Levine & Munsch, 2011) and lead to the different approaches that teachers use to guide children to function in socially acceptable ways. Cognitive Development Our views of intelligence, thinking, and understanding of neurological functions are changing as a result of significant research conducted over recent decades. We know that the brain receives, processes, and stores different kinds of information in specific locations. Neural connections, the development of hard and soft “wiring,” and brain density increase dramatically from the neonatal period throughout early childhood. Children’s thinking skills shift in focus from processing stimuli through their senses, to learning how to pay attention, understand and process information, and construct memory (Hull, Goldhaber, & Capone, 2002). Children learn to speak and develop language in predictable patterns that culminate in the ability to read, write, speak, and comprehend the nuances of language. Bilingual or multilingual children develop the ability to code switch back and forth between languages. Learning theories describe these mental processes differently but not necessarily in ways that are mutually exclusive. Constructivists believe that children acquire mental constructs or concepts through reciprocal processes of responding and adapting to experiences. Behaviorists believe that learning across the life span is represented by a continual process of operant conditioning based on positive and negative reinforcement (Charlesworth, 2004; Levine & Munsch, 2011). Developmental Delays and Special Needs When we observe that young children do not seem to be following the generally expected path of development in one or more domains, evaluation may be indicated to determine Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4 whether the child has a special need. Special needs include any kind of need—physical, emotional, or cognitive—that differs substantially from the normal range of abilities. The child could have a developmental delay, or she could be gifted. While it is not unusual, as discussed earlier, for an individual child’s growth and development to be uneven, at some point it may become apparent that the child is either not meeting or exceeding expected benchmarks or milestones. Sometimes special needs are apparent at birth, as in a child with a cleft palate. But in many instances it takes months or years for such needs to be recognized. You wouldn’t know, for example, if a child had speech articulation problems until that child was expected to be speaking clearly, between ages 3 and 4. Sometimes delayed progress, a physical condition, or atypical behavior is due to factors that can be addressed with the expectation that a child will “catch up.” For instance, a toddler with frequent ear infections may experience a hearing impairment resulting in delayed language fluency. While medical intervention and natural growth of the structures of the inner ear will eventually resolve the frequency of infections, speech therapy and hearing accommodations may be indicated for a period of time until the child has regained normal functioning. A child born with a congenital physical condition like club feet (abnormally rotated inward) may experience many surgeries to correct the condition. The child’s orthopedic disability may require adaptations to the arrangement of the classroom to accommodate leg braces or a wheelchair, with the expectation that the condition will eventually be corrected. But other developmental disabilities will require long-term support to address learning and emotional needs throughout the early childhood period and beyond. For example, a child who displays distinctive physical behavior such as hand-flapping, inability to make eye contact, or repeating the same words over and over again should be referred for evaluation to determine if the child has autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Once diagnosed with ASD, the child may be offered occupational, speech, and cognitive therapies. Other cases of physiological, biological, or genetically inherited conditions, such as cerebral palsy or Down syndrome, constitute special needs that require active intervention and support on a long-term basis. Table 4.1 describes various special needs conditions (Cook & Cook, 2005). Inclusion Federal law—the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)—requires that children with disabilities be included in regular classroom or care settings to the maximum extent possible and provides funding for resources to meet their special needs. (IDEA does not provide funds to address the special needs of gifted children; programs and funding for these children are localized.) Inclusion of children with disabilities serves several important purposes. First, typically developing young children who grow up within a diverse environment learn and internalize acceptance of their differently abled peers, which leads to higher levels of self-esteem among children who might otherwise feel marginalized or stigmatized. Second, separating children with disabilities and categorizing them by a single factor they may have in common (such as ADHD) risks grouping those who are otherwise very different from one another in many respects (Greenspan, Wieder, & Simons, 1998). Third, keeping children with delays or special needs isolated from their peers almost guarantees that they will be labeled for life in spite of the fact that except for their identified special need, they are like typically developing children in many other ways. Teaching from a Developmental Perspective Chapter 4 Table 4.1: Special Needs Special Need Description Physical (orthopedic) conditions Physical limitations caused by birth defects or injury that prevent or impair mobility and/or dexterity. Visual impairment Many potential causes that result in partial to total blindness or limited sight requiring corrective lenses. Hearing impairment Any condition that results in less than normal hearing; may be permanent or temporary; profoundly hearing-impaired children may also have limited speech. Speech/language impairment Difficulty in producing speech, or delayed development of language. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Difficulty paying or maintaining attention and organization, possibly accompanied by high activity levels and restlessness. Conduct (behavior) disorder Problems with authority, obedience, or anger/impulse control. Oppositional defiant disorder Learning disability Normal intelligence but difficulty learning due to a variety of perceptual problems such as reversing or inverting letters and numbers. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) Broad continuum of behaviors that range from mild (Asperger’s syndrome) to profound difficulties with sensory processing, social interaction, and communication. Intellectual disability Lower than normal intelligence that can be due to a number of factors, mostly genetic in origin. Giftedness Much higher than normal intelligence or aptitude in one or more developmental domains. Therefore teachers are expected to adapt all elements of the curriculum to serve and engage not only typically developing children but also those with special needs of all different kinds. Some teachers and caregivers without extensive training in special education may feel that they are not prepared to meet the needs of children with disabilities. Early childhood educators must remember that one of the key principles of DAP is that if we consider each child as a unique individual, we accept that all children have special needs (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Making decisions about how to individualize curriculum—including the environment, materials, and teaching strategies—is appropriate for all children. The key is a thorough understanding of development across all the domains, so that curriculum is implemented with sensitivity to each child’s strengths and challenges as he or she grows and learns. Adapting for Children with Special Needs Adaptations for children with disabilities are intended to provide as normal a school or child care setting experience for the child as possible. An adaptation is something we do to alter the physical environment, curricular materials, and/or teaching strategies to include the child in the daily life and learning opportunities of the classroom or child-care setting. IDEA requires that all states have a Child Find process to identify children with disabilities and provide services as early as possible. Communities administer special education services for preschool children in different ways. But if a child has been officially referred, evaluated, and diagnosed with a condition that qualifies under IDEA as a special need, a team of people—including the teacher, family, and specialists—will work together to provide support in the school or The Importance of Play Chapter 4 care setting. The team will work with an individualized plan (called an Individualized Family Service Plan [IFSP] for children from birth to age 3 or an Individualized Education Plan [IEP] for a child over 3 years of age) that identifies specific curricular and developmental goals, needed resources, adaptations, and support personnel, time lines, and follow-up measures. Table 4.2 provides examples of the kinds of adaptations that might be made for children with different kinds of special needs. Table 4.2: Examples of Adaptations for Special Needs Physical Limitations (Office of Head Start, 2012) Visual Impairments (Cox & Dykes, 2001; Monahan, 2011) Learning Disabilities and Behavioral Issues Gifted and Talented (Anderson, 2012) (Office of Head Start, 2012) (Cook & Cook, 2005) Speech and/ or Hearing Impairments Modify equipment for access (e.g., raising or lowering easel, taping feet to trike pedals). Maintain unobstructed pathways and keep furniture and materials always in the same place. Reduce background noise; make eye contact when speaking. Reduce distractions (e.g., give one material at a time, limit choices). Offer differentiated materials and activities that provide sufficient challenge. Arrange furniture for safe and easy access. Familiarize with locations of all spaces the child will use. Use hand signals to communicate needs; offer interpreter and/or sign language training. Use picture charts for step-by-step directions or schedules. Provide opportunities to work independently. Adapt materials so child can work as independently as possible. Arrange special lighting and/ or magnification devices. Maintain predictable routines. Work with children in small groups or individually. Work with children in small groups or individually. Allow extra time for physical tasks that are difficult, such as dressing or eating. Provide seating close to needed resources. Arrange seating close to the teacher. Seat distractible child in lap for large-group activities. Simplify routines to as few steps as possible. Provide reading matter with large or raised print; large, brightly colored or high-contrast toys; materials with textured surfaces. Provide amplification devices. Ensure that there is ample time and notice of transition times. 4.2 The Importance of Play Whatever their needs, we know that all young children learn through all their senses, and that a good curriculum will provide activities that encourage looking, listening, tasting, smelling, and touching. Early childhood educators and researchers agree that young children are primarily active learners. They should not spend long periods of time in whole-group or drilland-skill activities; that is, hands-on experiences with objects and materials and time to move The Importance of Play Chapter 4 and use their bodies are the best match for this developmental period. The primary focus of a curriculum for young children should be the integration of experiences across all of a child’s developmental domains and learning through play. The child’s right to play was expressed as a global concern in 1989 in the form of a U.N. General Assembly resolution at the Convention on the Rights of the Child (International Play Association, 2009). Article 31 states the following: That every child has the right to rest and leisure, to engage in play and recreational activities appropriate to the age of the child and to participate freely in cultural life and the arts. That member governments shall respect and promote the right of the child to participate fully in cultural and artistic life and shall encourage the provision of appropriate and equal opportunities for cultural, artistic, recreational and leisure activity. What Is Play? Most early childhood educators agree that play is an active and enjoyable activity that is internally motivated, process-oriented, and directed by the players. The International Play Association (2009) has this to say about play: [It should be] controlled by children rather than adults, and . . . undertaken for its own sake and not for prescribed purposes. The term “free play” is often used to distinguish this from organized recreational and learning activities, which of course also have important roles in child development. However, the characteristics of free play— such as control, uncertainty, flexibility, novelty, non-productivity—are what produce a high degree of pleasure and, simultaneously, the incentive to continue to play. Recent neurological research indicates that this type of behavior plays a significant role in the development of the brain’s structure and chemistry. Play seems to be a universal. Left to their own devices, all children play, regardless of parental or teacher involvement. We examine and research play, then, in terms of how children engage and the influence and impact that play has on child development and learning. Benefits of Play Neuroscientists have become increasingly focused on the connections between play and brain development. A theory of mind has emerged that describes how the child’s process of understanding the difference between reality and the abstract develops through symbolic play (Bodrova & Leong, 2007). When a 3-year-old begins to use wooden blocks to represent a road or pieces of colored paper to represent fish in an imaginary aquarium, the foundation is laid for later representation of sounds with the squiggles we call letters or the measurement of temperature by a column of mercury in a thermometer. Much has also been learned over time about the role of language as children develop play scripts (Bateson, 1976). When one child announces to another, “Let’s play veterinarian—I’ll be the doctor and you be the puppy,” we see them acquiring the ability to assume roles that may be based on reality or what they clearly know to be absurd. They demonstrate a tentative understanding about the relationships between doctors and patients or the difference The Importance of Play Chapter 4 © Smith Collection / Getty Images All children are motivated to play. In 1989 the United Nations expressed the conviction that every child has a right to play. between doctors who treat humans and those who treat animals. As they share their ideas about how to act out this theme, perhaps arguing or changing the direction of the story line, they practice using words to be persuasive, solve problems, and give each other feedback on how the play is going. Some studies have also confirmed that play promotes higher-order thinking. This is characterized by children’s ability to carry on an internal dialogue, essentially self-talking their way through the decision-making process by weighing options, analyzing information, and making subsequent choices. Children develop cognitive control as they stifle impulsivity and learn to focus and concentrate (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Bunge & Crone, 2009). This happens when they are encouraged to make their own activity choices, learn through trial and error, and construct and apply rules to different situations. Cognitive science is helping teachers learn when, how, and how much to intervene to promote the kind of complex play scenarios that develop executive functioning. Play provides powerful natural consequences and opportunities for children to use language so that the play can continue. Adults tell children to use their words to solve problems, but children need practice that play provides in order to do so. Let’s say that four children have proceeded to set up the veterinarian’s office, with one child assuming the role of a sick puppy. As they act out bringing the puppy to the examining table, he is creeping on all fours as a puppy would but using words to tell how he feels sick. The other three children complain and claim that he is ruining their play because “puppies don’t talk, they whine or whimper when they are sick. If you don’t act like a puppy, someone else will have to be the puppy.” They have given the puppy actor the information he needs to modify his actions so he can continue to be included in the play. While the children have had a difference of opinion, they have also used matter-of-fact language to explain their feelings without being hurtful. It’s important for children to have time and the opportunity to invent their own games and direct their own play if they are to understand the value of rules and consequences and the importance of consensus. The Importance of Play Chapter 4 Play is where everything children experience in isolation comes together. It’s where they begin to make sense of the present world and to imagine the future. It happens inside a bubble of safety that allows mistakes to occur without punishment, encourages experimentation without the pressure of accountability, and supports risk taking without fear of disapproval or a bad grade. It is where creativity, imagination, and problem solving are rewarded with acceptance, joy, and satisfaction (Jaruszewicz, 2008). Play Perspectives Most modern research and theory about play falls into two categories: play as cognitive construct and play as social construct. Both of these perspectives are important and provide a useful framework for teachers to observe and interpret children’s play as a part of the curriculum planning and implementation process. © Brand X Pictures / Thinkstock Dramatic play is important to development in many ways. Cognitive Perspectives Piaget described qualitative changes to play over the early childhood period; he saw play development as a series of stages that paralleled the child’s increasing complexity of thought and reasoning. Practice play is characterized by reflexive, repetitive, or functional actions, as when a toddler pounds large pegs into a block of wood with matching holes. Also known as functional play, this type of activity takes place during the sensorimotor stage of development in infants and toddlers. Symbolic play develops during the preoperational period from ages 2 to 7 but includes two distinct types of representational play. In the early part of this stage, children begin to use one thing to represent another, such as a block for a truck or, on the playground, wood chips and water to make soup in a bucket. A higher and more complex form of symbolic play occurs as 4- and 5-year olds begin to develop and engage in pretend play with roles and themes. Play that focuses on games with rules emerges as children move from preoperational to concrete operational thinking. At the early part of this stage, children in kindergarten and first grade attempt to play games with rules, understanding their purpose but not necessarily the concept that for a game to work, all players must be using the same ones! For instance, while playing tag, with the very simple rule that when you are tagged you are out, different children may have very different ideas of what constitutes a “tag”—one child may interpret a tag as a touch while another equates a tag with a tackle. As they gain an understanding of the need for constancy, children embrace and enjoy all kinds of board and card games as well as sports and active games, and they make up games with their own rules. During this period, children also become consumed with the concept of fairness, since they often interpret what is fair according to their developing understanding of rules. The Importance of Play Chapter 4 Social Perspectives In 1932 Mildred Parten described a continuum of four increasingly interactive social levels of play. She named these solitary, parallel, associative, and cooperative to correspond with children’s level of involvement with others during play. Although the time frames Parten initially described have been shown to be more fluid than was first thought, early childhood educators still widely accept this way of characterizing the social aspects of play over time (Howes, Unger, & Matheson, 1992). In solitary play, the older infant or young toddler (1 to 2 years old) is absorbed in her own actions, independent of other children, manipulating objects and engaging in the type of practice or functional play Piaget described. The next three stages of social play occur during Piaget’s cognitive stage of symbolic play and occur as the child becomes more interested in friendship and playing with others. Parallel play continues with 2- and 3-year-olds, who play separately but with increasing curiosity in the activities of other children nearby. You might see two children playing side by side with wooden tracks and toy cars, watching each other and one perhaps imitating what the other is doing but not choosing to share their cars and build a road together. Between 3 and 4 years of age, preschoolers begin to engage in associative play, which involves sharing play items with another child, taking turns, and showing interest in play activities with a shared goal. For instance, you might see two 3½-year-olds both pushing a big truck to move a pile of wooden blocks across the floor. Cooperative play is the highest form of social play. Observed in 4- and 5-year-olds, it is characterized by group play and differentiated roles. Although children may negotiate or argue about details, they will commit to a general understanding of how they want the play to evolve. Play as an Organizing Element of the Curriculum A convincing body of evidence confirms the importance of play in the setting of early childhood education. As the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) stated in a 2011 clinical report, “Play is essential to the social, emotional, cognitive, and physical wellbeing of children beginning in early childhood. It is a natural tool for children to develop resiliency as they learn to cooperate, overcome challenges, and negotiate with others (Milteer, Ginsburg, Council on Communications and Media and Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, 2011, p. e203). Nonetheless, pressures on early childhood educators to limit play in favor of more “academic” activities remain, especially in grades 1 to 3. All major early childhood curricula either suggest or direct classroom organization to support play and exploration. Let’s look at the ways in which teachers and caregivers provide for integrated play across the curriculum. Environment Activity areas or centers provide a means for children to move freely and efficiently within the environment. Early childhood teachers establish clearly defined spaces for both focused and integrated play activities. Table 4.3 describes typical dedicated play spaces that support different types of development and learning. The Importance of Play Chapter 4 All teachers must consider the characteristics and limitations of their classroom’s physical indoor and outdoor spaces so that play can occur safely. They also make decisions about planning the environment for play based on their knowledge about how children play at different ages. Early childhood curricula encourage an organizational scheme that provides for a balance of quiet and active play. Finally, teachers arrange materials and equipment to encourage independence and responsibility without disrupting the flow of play. Materials Play requires materials that children can use to explore their physical limits, to learn about natural phenomena, to employ imagination and make believe, and to develop language and conceptual understandings. An extensive commercial market offers an array of choices targeted to the needs and interests of young children. However, a teacher must be able to distinguish between items that are flexible and open-ended versus those needed for the development of specific skills. For example, © Ross Whitaker / Getty Images Classroom space is defined for specific activities, in this case an area for block play. Table 4.3: Types of Activity Centers Dedicated Space Play Focus Dramatic play Pretend play with props (themed materials) that allows children to take on roles and develop play scenarios about familiar themes Construction Building with blocks and other materials that can be put together and taken apart; woodworking Language and literacy Reading, listening to tapes and stories, learning about letters and sounds, emergent writing Art Using a variety of materials to explore line, color, shape, texture, and dimension; exposure to works of art that are pleasing and interesting to children Music Exposure to many genres of music and opportunities to sing and make music with different kinds of instruments Science Opportunities to explore physical and natural properties of organisms and the environment Math Materials, games, and activities that help children develop concepts about number, quantity, measurement, and time Sensory Materials and activities that engage the senses, such as sand, water, and modeling dough Fine motor Experiences with objects that develop manual dexterity and eye-hand coordination Gross motor Room, equipment, and materials that encourage the development of large muscles The Importance of Play Chapter 4 children can use wooden blocks and props such as animals, people, or vehicles to build an airport, racetrack, or space station. But they need writing implements such as pencils, markers, and chalk that allow for their emerging fine motor skills, and scissors designed to help them safely coordinate the motions needed to cut on a line without becoming frustrated. Children also need materials that will help them to explore and develop their ideas about both real and imaginary worlds. Teachers can easily purchase ready-made puppets, dress-up clothes, pretend foods and dishes, but a trip to the local thrift shop for pots, utensils, oven mitts, and other items can also provide tools for play—tools that children recognize and can practice using as they create scenarios and roles around a theme. © Ryan McVay / Thinkstock Real-world materials help children make connections in make-believe play. © Scholastic Studio 10 / Getty Images Children need extended periods of time to fully develop their ideas. Block structures, for example, can take several days to complete. Similarly, many print and online resources are available with recipes for everything from play dough to paint and paste that help teachers stretch their budgets and also generate opportunities to involve children in making play materials. Parents and families can sometimes contribute items like cell phones, old clothes and scarves, or restaurant menus. The Reggio Emilia preschools make such extensive use of recyclable materials that there is a dedicated community Remida (an Italian word meaning “recycle”) center for the collection, organization, and display of such materials as well as for teacher training in how to use reclaimed objects of all kinds for creative and useful purposes (AGAC, 2004). The Challenge of Time Time is one of the biggest challenges for teachers who want to use play as the foundation for their curricula. Curricula may be divided into segmented blocks of time that may be inadequate for optimal focus and engagement. Consider children playing with blocks. Block building involves a developmental sequence of increasingly complex skills. If playtime is restricted, there is only a limited supply of blocks and props, and all the blocks must be put away at the end of each play period, children may lose interest in block building The Importance of Play Chapter 4 A Box with Three Lives On a Monday morning, Owen’s dad brought a large cardboard box to the class after a weekend delivery of a new washing machine. The teacher, Ms. Mary, set the box in the middle of the meeting circle and said, “Hmmm, I wonder what we could do with this, would you like to play with it?” A chorus of voices ensued with many children talking all at once. Ms. Mary said, “Let’s get a big piece of paper and write down all of our ideas and then maybe we can decide.” A few minutes later, the list included turning the box into a space ship, boat, zoo, race car, and bus. The children decided after much discussion that it should become a spooky house. Ms. Mary helped the children generate a list of needed materials, create a design team, and assign jobs. After the house was finished and the children had played in it for several days, they decided they wanted to share it with the children in another classroom. They made additional items such as spiders, paper ghosts, and bats. They recorded a sound track of scary noises and wrote invitations, and, when the other children came to visit the house, took turns as tour guides using dress-up clothes from the dramatic play area. © Alistair Berg / Getty Images With some craftwork and creativity, a simple cardboard box can become almost anything. When Ms. Mary noticed that the children’s interest in the box had waned, she asked them if they were finished. Instead of discarding it, the children decided that since it already had windows and doors, they could repaint it to turn it into the Three Little Pigs’ brick house, which they worked on over the next two weeks. Play in the box ended only when it finally collapsed, but then, since it had been painted on the outside to look like bricks, they cut it up to make a road on the playground. One box, weeks of inventive play! ▶ Stop and Reflect Can you think of other materials that might provide the kind of open-ended play described above? What might be the pros and cons of each? altogether. When they are repeatedly denied the time they need to acquire block-building skills, children can become frustrated or disinterested and the potential value of this play is diminished. Teachers may be reluctant to encourage block play when they observe it devolving into seemingly random or destructive activity. However, children will benefit from more, rather than less, building time to fully engage with the process. In classrooms where time and supply must be limited, teachers can create ways in which structures in progress can be preserved from one play period to the next, and they or the children can document or photograph the children’s work. Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 Early childhood curricula may diverge significantly in the logic and labels applied to center locations, how boundaries are established, the level of emphasis devoted to specific areas, or materials and strategies used to support children’s interactions. For example, Montessori classrooms include an area called “practical life,” in which children use everyday things like pitchers, spoons, brooms and dusters that would be consistent with the concept of a housekeeping center in other models. But the intended outcomes of these two seemingly comparable activity centers and the means by which they are achieved are very different. Regardless of interpretation, all early childhood curricula devote considerable effort to articulating the way in which play serves as an organizing element for the curriculum. 4.3 Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years This final section of the chapter examines how the developmental characteristics of children at different times influence the way curriculum is conceived to meet their needs and interests. Infants and Toddlers Good curriculum for infants and toddlers is significantly different from curriculum for preschoolers and older children in many ways, but it is grounded in the same principles of DAP (described in Chapter 1) that apply throughout the early childhood years (Gestwicki, 2011). Curricula for children from birth to age 3 focus on developing a warm and secure relationship between child and adult and providing an environment that is safe, calm, orderly, predictable, responsive to the child’s needs, and engaging (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011). A key to planning a curriculum for infants and toddlers is applying the concept of the zone of proximal development—that is, anticipating what skills are likely to emerge soon, actively working on what is current, and practicing what has already been mastered (Deiner, 2009, p. 515). Curricular goals for infants and toddlers focus on attainment of expected milestones in each of the developmental domains, primarily: • Locomotion and control of large muscles • Acquisition of self-help skills through fine motor control • Comprehending and beginning to express language • Developing secure attachments with adults • Acquiring an emerging sense of self • E  xpressing curiosity about others and the environment (Miller & Albrecht, 2001; South Carolina Program for Infant and Toddler Care, 2009) Physical Domain Infants are completely dependent on adults to meet their physical needs and move them from place to place. As they become mobile and develop an “upright” perspective (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009), older infants and toddlers become more interested in exploring their surroundings; they need freedom to move about while maintaining their sense of security and safety. Infant-toddler curriculum that supports the acquisition of locomotion will include: • S  upporting the head, body, and limbs as the infant gains control and balance of the upper and lower trunk Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 The “Jump, Jump” Song for Toddlers Learning to jump involves coordinating the legs and body to move upward of one surface and land in the same place or on another surface, such as a lower step. Children learn to jump from one foot to another, jump off a surface with both feet, and develop the skill to jump from increasingly high levels. To encourage children to develop this skill, one toddler teacher uses what she calls the “Jump, Jump” song as part of the children’s daily greeting circle. (You can view a short video clip of a group of children engaged in this activity here, in the section on physical development.) The song serves four purposes. It (1) helps children learn names of friends, (2) encourages and motivates children to develop their jumping skill, (3) encourages coordination of fine (clapping) and gross (jumping) motor skills, and (4) provides a means to monitor skill development of individual children. Children love this activity and take increasing delight over time as their jumping skill develops. Learning to jump in this kind of safe environment also helps them develop the control they will need in using their emerging ability to jump in less structured environments such as the playground. The activity proceeds as follows: • Children sit in a small circle with the teacher on the floor. • The teacher invites a child to the center of the circle to jump. The child may accept or decline, choosing to watch other children instead. • While the child inside the circle jumps,the teacher and children clap and chant or sing, “There was a child in a class and [insert name of child] was her name-o; jump, jump [name of child]; jump jump [name of child]; jump, jump [name of child]; we’re glad you’re here today.” The activity is repeated until all children who want to jump have had a chance to do so. ▶ Stop and Reflect In addition to development of motor skills, what other benefits do the children gain from this kind of activity? • D  uring routines such as diapering or floor play, moving the infant’s arms and legs in motions that mimic those needed for later crawling and walking • Providing room and time to creep and crawl; using motivators such as a soft squeaking toy to entice the child to move toward the adult holding the toy • Manual and environmental assistance for the child attempting to stand and take tentative steps, such as standing behind the child, letting him or her grasp the adult’s fingers for support • Placement of low furniture that the child can use for cruising, which means holding onto objects to move around the room • Opportunities to practice walking forward, backward, and sideways on different kinds of surfaces both barefoot and with shoes • Opportunities to practice climbing and walking on steps and stairs safely • Time and space for learning to run, stop, and regulate speed (Deiner, 2009) Like gross motor development, fine motor movements of the hands and feet involve the integration of vision, perception, and muscle control to master reaching, grasping, holding, and coordinating movements of the hands, fingers, and feet (Deiner, 2009). These movements Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 are necessary for all eventual self-help skills such as dressing, feeding, and maintaining balance and control of locomotion. An infant-toddler curriculum for fostering fine motor skills will include: • H  elping infants develop their visual tracking ability by moving a small toy or object across their field of vision or, for example, providing a rotating mobile above the crib. Providing incentives for children to reach out by placing interesting objects in front of them • L etting the infant practice grasping an adult’s fingers and small toys • C  oordinating movements with both hands and/ or feet, such as clapping, playing peek-a-boo, and so on © iStockphoto / Thinkstock Babies’ development is rapid, and they quickly become interested in exploring their surroundings, starting with the parts of their bodies. • P roviding a selection of interesting objects, materials, and toys that give older infants and toddlers opportunities to practice and refine their fine motor skills and coordinate eye-hand movements. Objects must be sized appropriately—small enough to be managed without frustration but not so small they pose a choking hazard. Objects that are small should be tested with a choke tube Affective Domain Human beings are social creatures, and early affective development is highly dependent on the extent to which the child learns to trust adults, form secure attachments, and feel secure that her needs will be met consistently. If an infant is consistently left wet, tired, hungry, or alone most of the time, it isn’t hard to see why it will be more difficult for her to develop a cheerful disposition and interest in others (Maslow, 1943). Many mid-twentieth-century studies of institutionalized infants who had only their physical needs met but were otherwise deprived of interaction with adults reported failure to thrive physically, severe delays and/or intellectual deficits, and even death (Bowlby, 1940; Ribble, 1944; Spitz, 1945). These and similar findings were so alarming that, in the United States, they led to replacement of institutionalized care with the foster home system. Adults are also reminded, for example, that toddlers are motivated to test their boundaries and may use temper tantrums to express what they have not yet developed the ability to communicate efficiently in words. A good curriculum for infants’ and toddlers’ social and emotional development is likely to feature: • Pairing each infant with a single or primary caregiver or teacher to the extent possible • Giving prompt attention to the child’s physical needs • Helping children manage separation from their families Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 • Allowing time for cuddling, holding, and soothing • Acknowledging the child’s emerging personality • Offering activities that promote a sense of self, gender identity, and belonging • Supporting the toddler’s increasing desire for independence within an atmosphere of acceptance for an emerging capacity for verbal communication • Providing opportunities to engage with other children and adults • Providing opportunities to help with simple chores and classroom care routines © iStockphoto / Thinkstock Infants and toddlers become very interested in mirrors and other reflective surfaces as part of the developmental process of forming a self-image. Curricula for infants and toddlers also address the need to help children acquire self-control. Teachers are expected to provide encouragement and maintain reasonable expectations. They also manage the environment and daily schedule so that children are not overwhelmed or overstimulated with too many choices, activities, or materials. Cognitive Domain While many of the behaviors of very young infants are driven by instinctive survival needs, they react, respond, and begin to acquire mental concepts (schema) as a result of interaction with their environment from birth. Infancy and the toddler periods are incredibly important for cognitive development, as all later intellectual functioning is based on earlier learning; therefore infants and toddlers need stimulation and exposure to new experiences, objects, and language (Deiner, 2009). Long before children can speak, they recognize voices, tone and inflection, and are fascinated by words and language. Important curriculum features for cognitive development include: • Access and opportunities to observe their surroundings and the people in them • Games and activities that promote the concept of object permanence, awareness that objects or people that are out of sight still exist • Opportunities to play with toys and sensory materials that develop early concepts of cause and effect • Simple sorting activities and materials • Naming and narrating what is happening during care routines • Reinforcing words and the names of people and objects • Frequent opportunities to handle board books, picture cards, and other materials that introduce shapes, objects, words, animals, and so on • Reading to children individually and in small groups frequently throughout the day • Predictable routines that help children develop a rudimentary sense of sequence and time Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 Preschool Young children are perpetual motion machines! In addition to developing increasing control over their bodies, 3- to 5-year old preschoolers use language to express their feelings, questions, and thoughts. With preschoolers, much of the guesswork about their needs and interests is replaced by the need to provide a wider variety of experiences and materials that (1) challenge them to refine their physical skills, (2) help them begin to form friendships and navigate social relationships and conflicts, (3) explore their theories about how things work, (4) foster emergent literacy, and (5) develop a love of learning. Further, beyond the infant-­ toddler period, preschoolers have acquired the ability to engage in much more complex play that provides a platform for highly integrated development of thoughts, feelings, and conceptual understandings (Gestwicki, 2011). Critical considerations for preschool curriculum from the perspective of DAP (Copple & Brekekamp, 2009) include the following: 1. A preschool curriculum should represent real learning in the present, not preparation for later (p. 111). 2. Three- to five-year-olds bring an already wide variety of experiences to the preschool setting, which should serve to inform curricular decisions. 3. The curriculum should support and integrate cultural knowledge. 4. Scaled-down versions of curricula for older children are not appropriate. © Antoine Juliette / Oredia / Oredia Eurl / SuperStock Access to plenty of writing materials can help encourage preschoolers to develop their fine motor skills. Physical Domain The goals of curricula for physical development focus on developing coordination and fluidity of movement. Children are growing so fast during this time that their body image may lag behind their actual physical appearance, and they may have difficulty with spatial awareness. Preschoolers are also, compared with adults, farsighted, and may not yet have firmly established “handedness,” bolstering the case against using work sheets and small print with children of this age (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Many of the physical developmental needs of preschoolers can be supported by careful planning of the environment and blocking out indoor and outdoor time periods where children are free and expected to make choices, direct their own play, and moderate their personal behavior; thus the curriculum can be largely intentional without being overly teacher-directed. This is not to say that specific activities focused on movement and exercise should be excluded. Many fine resources and activities are included in comprehensive preschool curricula, including supplementary programs specifically directed at physical growth and health activities and practices for 3- to 5-year-olds. Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 In general, curricular considerations for supporting and promoting physical development indoors include: • O  rganizing the classroom or care setting for high mobility (Gestwicki, 2011)—allowing for freedom of movement from center to center and with room for children to play on the floor • D  isplaying and labeling materials so that children can retrieve, move/carry, and replace independently • Access to age-appropriate games that encourage movement and dexterity • A  ccess to a wide variety of materials in each activity area that encourage refinement of fine motor skills while allowing for differences in interests and ability levels • P  lentiful formal and informal opportunities for learning to use and practice with writing tools Extending the curriculum for physical development to the out-of-doors should be intentional to ensure plentiful opportunities for the development of physical strength, agility, coordination, and endurance. Increasing concern about obesity among young children in particular points to outdoor play as a critical strategy for encouraging children to be more active. Outdoor curriculum is addressed in more detail in Chapter 8, but in general the curriculum should include the following: • Opportunities for swinging, sliding, rolling, climbing, jumping, running, throwing, kicking, and riding (Gestwicki, 2011, p. 105) • Organized games and activities intended to develop particular skills and learning about rules • Engaging interest areas that provide additional opportunities for active play, such as digging, gardening, water play, dramatic play, and so on, which support the development of fine motor and perceptual skills Affective Domain Curricula for preschoolers support the affective domain primarily by promoting the development of identity, community and friendship, and self-regulation. The emergence of the social self takes center stage and with it attention to cultural and gender identity, making and being friends, and solving problems without coming to blows or hurting someone else’s feelings. Children at this age are also emerging from what Erikson called the psychological stage of trust vs. mistrust into the period of autonomy vs. shame/doubt. In other words, infants and toddlers have learned to trust and feel secure in their relationships with those who are most significant in their daily lives and care. Now, as preschoolers, they are ready to venture into a wider circle of people, places, things, and ideas, but they are perhaps not always confident and sure about how to do so. Children of this age are also highly motivated by the desire to please the adults they care about, and are apt to forge significant bonds with, and admiration for, their teachers. Sensitive teachers channel these tendencies toward the development of prosocial behaviors while also realizing that the bravado often displayed by a 3-, 4-, or 5-year-old child may camouflage a surprisingly fragile and easily damaged ego. How children navigate their way through this new territory can significantly impact their social competence for the rest of their lives (Gestwicki, 2011). Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 The curriculum supports preschoolers’ affective development with an environment, activities, ample time, and materials that provide opportunities for: • E xploring identity (gender, culture, language, personality) • C  reating an ethic of acceptance, respect, and caring for self and others • M  odeling and practicing effective strategies for problem solving and conflict resolution • E xtended sociodramatic and pretend play © Stockbyte / Thinkstock Preschool children are just beginning to learn how to make and keep friends; they need a lot of practice and understanding as they develop socially. • Identifying and communicating feelings and ideas with words • D  eveloping resilience, or the ability to cope with stress and a range of emotions that can be volatile and difficult to manage at this age Cognitive Domain Preschool curricula abound with ways to promote and extend cognitive development. Key goals in this area include development of memory, attention, symbolic representation, logic and reasoning, language and literacy, multiple perspectives, and the acquisition of concepts fundamental to later learning across all content areas. Balance in curriculum is extremely important in the preschool years, so teachers must not concentrate on this area of development to the exclusion of the other important domains. Curriculum supports preschool children’s cognitive development with activities, materials, room, and extended periods of time for: • Sorting, classifying, and grouping objects • Exploring number, quantity, matching, and patterning • Observing objects and processes • Learning about the physical properties of objects • Pretend play focused on themes with ready access to props • Drawing, painting, writing Finally, an increasing number of studies confirm the highly integrated nature of learning at this age. Healthy social, emotional, and physical development in preschoolers provides a foundation for future academic success and is closely correlated with it (Bodrova & Leong, 2007; Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). Preschoolers’ experiences with curriculum have a significant impact on their long-term attitudes toward learning and school. High levels of natural energy, enthusiasm, and curiosity can be nurtured or destroyed during this time! Many states currently recognize these connections with a section of their early learning standards that addresses “Approaches to Learning” (South Carolina Department of Education, Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 2012). These are dispositions that represent a merging of social, emotional, and cognitive development such as initiative, persistence, engagement, risk taking, creativity, compliance, and reflection. Preschool curricula that support development in these integrated domains include: • Daily chances for children to make and be accountable for choices • Regular practice in planning and communicating actions and intentions • Having a voice in discussion of issues and events that are important to the classroom community • Ways to include and respect the interests of children about topics and ideas in curriculum content • Documentation and sharing of children’s ideas, efforts, and products with others Primary Grades Of paramount concern to early childhood educators is maintaining a developmentally appropriate approach to curriculum for children in kindergarten through third grade in the face of increasing pressures to test, pace, and standardize curricular goals and content. The NAEYC states that “Education quality and outcomes would improve substantially if elementary teachers incorporated the best of preschool’s emphases and practices (e.g., attention to the whole child; integrated, meaningful learning; parent engagement)” (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009, p. 2). Many schools use a patchwork of limited-scope curricula to address learning standards and desired outcomes in defined content areas such as language arts, mathematics, science, and so on. It can be especially difficult, therefore, to ensure that children’s developmental needs are addressed in an integrated fashion within and across domains. Unfortunately, many of the practices that characterize primary classrooms are those that are least connected with the ways in which children of this age learn and grow, including: • Segmented curricula with many transitions from one subject to another during the day • A curriculum that does not allow for children to work at their own pace or provide for a range of interests and abilities • Large-group instruction or small group instruction (e.g., reading groups) that leaves the remaining children to do seat work or using work sheets and spending a lot of time waiting for the next activity • Using appropriate activities as incentives or rewards rather than as primary learning modes (special projects, learning centers, outdoor play) • Large amounts of time spent in solitary, silent work with limited opportunities for using oral language and conversation • Limited or no opportunities for children to make choices (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009; Gestwicki, 2011) In the face of such challenges, well-prepared teachers of children in K-3 settings do need to know how curriculum for this age group can be developmentally oriented to effectively promote learning and growth across all domains. Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 Physical Domain Primary aged children still have a great need for activity, although their rate of growth slows over this time period and much of their activity serves to refine skills that have already emerged. A number of recent research studies confirm strong positive correlations between physical activity/exercise and intelligence, academic achievement, and learning (Smith & Lounsberry, 2009; Tomporowski, Davis, Miller, & Naglieri, 2008; Tubic & Golubovic, 2010). In other words, active children are smarter and learn better! Experts recommend that 14 to 26 percent of the elementary-aged child’s time be spent in physical activity (Smith & Lounsberry, 2009). For a typical week in a school with a seven-hour day, that amounts to approximately 5 to 8 hours per week of not sitting. It is highly preferable, therefore, that the primary classroom be arranged and organized with many of the same features as that for younger children so as to allow as much freedom of movement as possible. The curriculum should prioritize the use of learning/activity centers and continue to emphasize real, concrete materials over paper-and-pencil activities. Since many elementary school classrooms are not large enough to accommodate individual desks and learning centers, tables and chairs distributed around the classroom in activity areas can also serve as work areas for times when children do need to be seated for instructional purposes. Primary children still need extensive opportunities for active hands-on learning, which is also helpful for refining the fine-motor skills they now need for writing and developing advanced manual dexterity, strength, and coordination. They should have time to play outdoors or with a trained physical education specialist at least thirty to sixty minutes per day. © Photodisc / Thinkstock Children of primary school age should have at least thirty to sixty minutes per day of unstructured and unguided time to engage in games, movement, and strength/coordination activities. Affective Domain Erikson characterizes the years when children are in the primary grades as those when they are highly motivated psychologically to be industrious but also extremely vulnerable to feelings of inferiority. The primary school curriculum should therefore provide for an individualized approach that encourages children to use their energy and motivation to become fully engaged in learning and experience success and feelings of competence. A good primary curriculum promotes acceptance and respect for social, cultural, and intellectual differences. It is also flexible, allowing for in-depth investigations of topics that interest and engage children rather than surface learning of facts and concepts unrelated to children’s prior experiences. Learning centers as well as individual and small-group times should also be emphasized, rather than largegroup instruction. Development and Curriculum across the Early Childhood Years Chapter 4 The years from kindergarten to grade 3 are also a time when children are passionately involved in making and maintaining friendships. They do this on a much more sophisticated level than preschoolers, who are just taking their first tentative steps into the social world. Compliments and insults, real or imagined, affect primary school children deeply, as they are losing their egocentric perspective and really beginning to develop empathy, compassion, and concern for others (along with parallel negative feelings of envy, jealousy, and rejection). Their strong need for belonging lends itself to a curriculum that fosters collaboration, cooperation, and working in pairs and small groups. Cognitive Domain Given the characteristics of primary children previously mentioned, curriculum for this age group best complements cognitive development with organization and content that promote and/or include: • Thematic or project-based inquiry to allow for in-depth integrated learning across content/ subject areas • Large blocks of time for work that allow children to pace themselves, stay involved, and work interactively with other children • Opportunities for children to engage in planning and making choices directly connected to children’s learning experiences A literacy-rich environment in the primary years is critical to the development of the written and oral communication skills and comprehension that are so necessary for later academic success. Primary school children benefit greatly from daily opportunities to interact with meaningful printed materials that become part of the curriculum, such as charts, lists, schedules, labels, and notes, which represent practical applications of language. Literacy materials should be available in all areas of the classroom, so that children can incorporate reading and writing in all of their activities and play. Books and other curricular materials for reading and writing should be plentiful, varied, and reflect the cultural experiences and real lives of children in the classroom. © iStockphoto/Thinkstock The cognitive development of children in the primary grades is best supported when they can engage in integrated learning that is closely related to their interests; this kindergarten child is working on her science journal. Primary curricula are typically designed with good intentions by knowledgeable people to meet specific needs and goals; this is not a guarantee, however, that all the important domains of development will be addressed adequately or evenly. It may indeed be challenging for teachers in the primary grades to forge a comprehensive, developmentally appropriate approach from multiple separate subject area curricula, but it is not impossible, and such teachers have an opportunity to advocate for best practices that can make the school lives of children more productive, effective, and developmentally appropriate. Posttest Chapter 4 Chapter Summary • Developmental knowledge about infants, toddlers, preschoolers, kindergarteners, and children in the primary grades should guide and inform the decisions that teachers make about curriculum. • While we expect children to achieve specific developmental milestones in the physical, affective, and cognitive domains, growth and learning occur in a highly integrated and gradual process. • Curriculum must account for and support the needs and interests of both typically developing children and those with special needs. Specific supports, processes, and adaptations are implemented when children exhibit developmental delays or other special needs. • A large body of research confirms the benefits of play across all developmental domains. Early childhood curriculum should incorporate support for play as a primary means of integrating experience and learning. • Theories about play describe it as a developmental process from both cognitive and social perspectives; they are useful for teachers as they plan for, observe, and facilitate children’s play activities. • In developmentally appropriate classrooms, teachers typically provide for play with designated activity or learning centers, materials that support development in many different ways, and large blocks of time that allow children to engage deeply in various activities. • Curriculum for infants centers on care routines and developing secure relationships with adults. • Toddler curriculum supports their increasing mobility and desire for exploration, acquisition of language, and emerging social behaviors. • Curriculum for preschoolers focuses on the refinement of gross and fine motor skills, developing social relationships, fostering emergent literacy, and internalizing a love of learning through exploration of their environment. • Classrooms for children in the primary grades should look in many ways similar to those for younger children. Curricula for children from kindergarten through third grade include an increased emphasis on literacy and mathematics but should continue to balance learning in an integrated and individualized fashion. Posttest 1. Applying universal developmental expectations for children means that: a. Teachers understand that while children vary individually, they develop along a generally sequential and predictable time line. b. If a child isn’t talking by the time he is 18 months old, he is delayed. c. Teachers should test children regularly to make sure they are on target developmentally. d. Teachers can confidently plan whole group lessons assuming that such lessons are developmentally appropriate for children of the same age. Posttest Chapter 4 2. The following statement best describes children’s physical development: a. Small muscles develop before large muscles. b. The body’s center of gravity lowers as children grow taller. c. The body generally develops from the head downward and the center of the body outwards. d. Physical growth during the early childhood period is almost as rapid as during adolescence. 3. When children with special needs are placed in regular classrooms and care settings, a. It interferes with the teacher’s ability to provide all the children in the class individual attention. b. Typically developing children don’t accept them, leading to rejection and poor achievement outcomes. c. All the children can learn that they are alike and different in unique ways. d. They are almost guaranteed to be labeled for life in spite of the fact that they are like typically developing children in many other ways. 4. Children with developmental delays: a. Will never catch up with typically developing children, even with early intervention services. b. Will only catch up with typically developing children if their delay is due to a condition that can be corrected with surgery. c. Must wait until elementary school to receive services. d. May be delayed for a variety of reasons, some of which are temporary and others that may require long-term support. 5. Play is an important feature of early childhood curriculum primarily because: a. It promotes the physical, social, and emotional development of children and is closely connected to the development of higher order thinking. b. Without it, teachers find it difficult to plan activities that will catch the children’s attention. c. It’s the only way children can burn off the extra energy they accumulate from sitting too long. d. Only children play, so if they don’t get to play in the early years, they will be developmentally delayed as adults. 6. Piaget’s description of the cognitive stages of play includes: a. Parallel play. b. Associative play. c. Cooperative play. d. Games with rules. Discussion Questions Chapter 4 7. Teachers integrate play across the curriculum when they: a. Provide at least thirty to sixty minutes of time for outdoor play every day. b. Provide dedicated space and materials that support different areas of learning. c. Encourage children to make friends with others while they play. d. Show children how to solve problems by themselves. 8. The following statement best describes how materials should be selected to support play: a. Materials should be purchased only from reliable early childhood education suppliers. b. Play materials should primarily be ones that promote the development of literacy skills to prepare them for first grade. c. Play materials should offer children opportunities for both open-ended play and skill development. d. Infants should not have toys because they might choke on them. 9. The primary goals of curriculum for infants and toddlers are: a. Developing secure relationships and helping them achieve developmental milestones in all the domains of development. b. Making sure they know their colors and can count to five by the time they are 3 years old. c. Toilet training and language development. d. Teaching them emotional control and how to make friends. 10. According to NAEYC, curriculum for preschoolers should be designed to: a. Focus on what they need to know in the future. b. Parallel the kinds of curriculum that are used in the primary grades so they will be prepared for success. c. Support and integrate what children already know with new experiences. d. Help them conform to mainstream culture and values. Answers: 1 (a); 2 (c); 3 (c); 4 (d); 5 (a); 6 (d); 7 (b); 8 (c); 9 (a); 10 (c) Discussion Questions 1. What do you think will be most challenging as you work at learning and understanding how to teach from a developmental perspective? 2. Think about your experiences playing as a child; what kind of things did you enjoy doing the most and how do you think your play experiences supported your growth and development? 3. What themes can you identify that run throughout early childhood curriculum? Key Terms Chapter 4 Answers and Rejoinders to Chapter Pretest 1. True. Development proceeds in universally predictable sequences considered “typical”; time lines can vary considerably from child to child and still be considered normal. 2. False. IDEA legislation requires children with special needs be included in classrooms with typically developing children to the extent possible. 3. False. Play has many cognitive and social benefits. 4. False. Play is an integral part of curriculum for young children. 5. True. Caregiving routines provide opportunities for verbal interactions and practice using large and small muscles. Key Terms Adaptation Modifications made to environments, materials, curriculum content, or strategies Affective development The domain of development that focuses on social and emotional growth Associative play Social stage of play when children begin to share and play together without necessarily sharing a desired goal or theme Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) Broad continuum of behaviors related to difficulties with sensory processing, social interaction, and communication Choke tube A small tube open on both ends that is the approximate size of a baby’s airway, used to determine whether a toy or material presents a choking hazard Code switch The ability to shift seamlessly between one language and another Cooperative play Highest social level of play, when groups of children play together with a shared purpose or theme Cruising Holding onto furniture or other objects placed close together to move from one spot to another Developmental delay Exists when a child does not meet benchmarks or milestones typically expected for children in a particular stage of development Domain Patterns or sequences of development or learning specific to a particular dimension of the human organism, such as the cognitive (thinking), affective (social/emotional) or physical (gross/fine motor and brain) domain Games with rules The highest stage of cognitive play, which parallels concrete operations; groups of children play games with common understanding of rules or make up their own rules for games they want to play Gifted Characteristics indicative of intellectual capacity beyond what is considered typical References Chapter 4 Inclusion A practice that places children with special needs in regular classroom or care settings with typically developing children Individualized education plan (IEP) A plan developed for an individual child with special needs 3 years of age or older that includes curricular and developmental goals, needed resources, adaptations, and support personnel, time lines, and follow-up measures Individualized family service plan (IFSP) Service plan developed for children from birth to 3 years of age with services sometimes delivered in the home Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) A federal law requiring that children with disabilities be included in regular classrooms or care settings to the maximum extent possible, also providing funding for resources to meet these children’s special needs Object permanence A developmental milestone achieved when an infant realizes that an object or person out of sight continues to exist Parallel play Playing side by side but not interacting with another child Practice play Cognitive stage of play that parallels the sensorimotor stage, when children engage in repetitive or reflexive activities Primary caregiver An adult designated as the principal caregiver for a child or children Solitary play Characteristic of infant and young toddlers, playing without awareness of or interest in others Special need A condition or set of characteristics or behaviors that is not typical for other children of the same age, requiring resources or support services Symbolic play A cognitive stage of play that occurs during the preoperational period, characterized by using objects to represent other objects and pretend Typically developing child A child whose observable characteristics conform to those reported and/or observed in the majority of children in a given population References AGAC. (2004). Remida day. Reggio Emilia, Italy: Friends of Reggio Children Association, Muncipal Infant-Toddler Centers and Preschools of Reggio Emila. Anderson, K. (2012). Parents Know. Retrieved February 4, 2012, from Minnesota Department of Education Parents Know: http://parentsknow.state.mn.us/parentsknow/ index.html. Bateson, G. (1976). A theory of play and fantasy. A. &. J. S. Bruner (Eds.), Play: Its role in development and evolution (pp. 119–129). New York: Basic Books. Bodrova, E., & Leong, D. J. (2007). Tools of the mind: The Vygotskian approach to early childhood education (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. References Chapter 4 Bowlby, J. (1940). The influence of early environment. International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 154–178. Bunge, S., & Crons, E. A. (2009). Neural correlates of the development of cognitive control. M. J. Rumsey (Ed.), Neuroimaging in developmental clinical neuroscience (pp. 22–37). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Charlesworth, R. (2004). Understanding child development (7th ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning. Clements, D. A., & Sarama, J. (Eds.). (2004). Engaging young children in mathematics: Standards for early childhood mathematics education. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Cook, J. A., & Cook, G. (2005). Child development: Principles and perspectives. Boston: Pearson. Copple, C., & Bredekamp, S. (Eds) (2009). Key messages of the position statement. Reprinted from Developmentally appropriate practices for programs serving children birth-age eight. Retrieved February 14, 2012, from National Association for the Education of Young Children: http://www.naeyc.org/positionstatements/dap. Cox, P. R., & Dykes, M. K. (2001). Effective classroom adaptations for students with visual impairments. Teaching Exceptional Children, 33(6), 68–74. Deiner, P. (2009). Infants and toddlers: Development and curriculum planning (2nd ed.). Clifton Park, NY: Delmar Cengage Learning. Ehlert, L. (1989). Eating the alphabet. New York: Scholastic. Gestwicki, C. (2011). Developmentally appropriate practice: Curriculum and development in early childhood education (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning. Greenspan, S. I., Wieder, S., & Simons, R. (1998). The child with special needs: Encouraging intellectual and emotional growth. Reading, MA: Perseus Books. Howes, C., Unger, O., & Matheson, C. C. (1992). The collaborative construction of pretend: social pretend play functions. Albany: State University of New York Press. Hull, K. G., Goldhaber, J., & Capone, A. (2002). Opening doors: An introduction to inclusive early childhood education. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. International Play Association (IPA) World. (2009). Retrieved February 5, 2012, from International Play Association: promoting the child’s right to play. Retrieved from: http://ipaworld.org/general-comment-on-31/uncrc-article-31/ un-convention-on-the-rights-of-the-child-1/. Jaruszewicz, C. (November 11, 2008). The continuing importance of play. Keynote Speech at Charleston County First Steps Annual Meeting. Charleston, SC. Levine., L. E., &. Munsch, J. (2011). Child development: An active learning approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396. Miller, L. G., & Albrecht, K. (2001). Infant & toddler curriculum: Trainer’s guide. Beltsville, MD: Gryphon House. References Chapter 4 Milteer, R., Ginsburg, K. R., Council on Communications and Media, & Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. (2011). The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bond: focus on children in poverty. American Academy of Pediatrics. Retrieved from: http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/early/2011/12/21/peds.2011-2953.full.pdf+. Monahan, E. (November 22, 2011). Adaptations for young children that are visually impaired. Retrieved February 4, 2012, from LiveStrong.com: http://www.livestrong.com/ article/130693-adaptations-young-children-visually-impaired/. Office of Head Start. (2012). Early childhood learning and knowledge center: Adaptations for children with disabilities. Retrieved February 4, 2012, from U.S. Department of Health and Human Serviced: http://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/hslc/tta-system/teaching/eecd/Curriculum/ Teaching%20Strategies/edudev_art_00602_121305.html. Ribble, M. A. (1944). Infantile experience in relations to personality development. J. M. Hunt (Ed.), Personality and the behavior disorders (pp. 621–651). New York: Ronald Press. Smith, N.J., & Lounsberry, M. (January, 2009). Promoting physical education: The link to academic achievement. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance 80(1), 39–43. South Carolina Department of Education. (2012). South Carolina Good Start Grow Smart Task Force. South Carolina good start grow smart early learning standards. Columbia, SC: South Carolina Department of Education and Department of Social Services. South Carolina Program for Infant and Toddler Care. (2009). South Carolina infant-toddler guidelines. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina. Spitz, R. A. (1945). Hospitalizm: An inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 1, 53–74. Tomporowski, P. D., Davis, C.L., Miller, P.H., & Naglieri, J.A. (2008). Exercise and children’s intelligence, cognition,and academic achievement. Educational Psychology Review, 20, 111–131. Tubic, C., & Gulubovic, S. (2010). The effects of physical exercise on externalizing and internalizing behaviors in children. HealthMED, 4(4), 750–758. Curriculum as a Collaboration with Families and the Community 5 Pretest 1. Collaboration with families and finding ways to involve them in the curriculum is an important goal in early childhood education today. T/F 2. Teachers don’t need to learn about ­students’ families in order to have an ­effective curriculum. T/F 3. Offering them information about learning standards helps families understand how the curriculum works. T/F 4. Documenting and displaying what children do conveys a message that their work is important. T/F 5. It is worth the effort to invite families and members of the business and neighborhood communities to serve as volunteers. T/F © Yellow Dog Productions / Getty Images Answers can be found at end of the chapter. Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Explain the importance of a collaborative approach to working with families. 2. Summarize accepted principles, effective strategies, and typical challenges for understanding and working with families. 3. Explain how teachers can help families understand the current standards-driven environment. 4. Describe ways in which teachers can help families understand the curriculum. 5. Describe how the community can be incorporated as a resource for your curriculum. What Is a Collaborative Approach and Why Is It Important? Chapter 5 After completing your home visits, you realize that you now have a lot of additional information about the families of the children who will be in your class. You know which children have a single parent as the household head and have some information about family occupations and work schedules. You now know who lives with siblings and/or an extended family and which children have pets. You have also identified the parents and children with limited English proficiency, and you have some information about what steps have been taken to support the two children with special needs. But you also have many remaining questions about how the families will respond to you as the teacher and how to create and sustain productive and satisfying relationships. You want the families to feel like partners in the adventure of early childhood education, but you also realize that there may be many factors that could complicate your efforts. © Banana Stock / Thinkstock There are many ways for early childhood educators to connect with families and the community, as we will discuss in this chapter. What can you do to learn more about the values, traditions, hopes, and wishes of your families? What strategies to include them in their children’s school lives will be most successful? How will you help them understand the curriculum as partners in their children’s learning? How will you make connections between the school, your families, and the local community? In this chapter, we will address the very important challenge of how to construct meaningful and mutually beneficial relationships with families and the community, particularly with respect to curriculum. (Note: In this chapter, all references to interactions and communications with families are made on the assumption that they would be conducted in or translated to the home language as needed.) 5.1 What Is a Collaborative Approach and Why Is It Important? An expanding number of households have both parents working outside the home. Between 1950 and 2000, the number of women in the workforce increased by an astounding 256 percent, from 18.3 to 65.6 million; it is projected to increase by another 39.5 percent by 2050 (Toosi, 2002, p. 16). Therefore it can be challenging to effect a significant representation of families in the affairs of programs and schools. In one survey for example, approximately 70 percent of families indicated that they never helped out at school, while only 4 percent described themselves as highly active (Epstein, 2001). The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) states that there is no single formula for collaboration between programs and families. However, as part of their recent Engaging Diverse Families project, they have outlined six principles that focus on communication, engagement, and decision making. The principles suggest that: What Is a Collaborative Approach and Why Is It Important? Chapter 5 1. Teachers and programs engage families in two-way communication 2. Programs implement a comprehensive program-level system of family engagement 3. Programs and teachers engage families in ways that are truly reciprocal 4. Programs provide learning activities for the home and in the community 5. Programs invite families to participate in program-level decisions and wider advocacy efforts 6. Programs invite families to participate in decision making and goal setting for their children (National Association for the Education of Young Children, 2012) Many years of research and well over one hundred studies on initiatives connecting families, schools, and communities overwhelmingly attest to the value and benefits of strong, positive connections (Fiese, Eckert, & Spagnola, 2006), not just for the children but for the parents and teachers as well. When families are actively involved in the daily lives of their children in school or care and they know what their children are doing during the day, children feel more secure, have a higher sense of self-worth, and learn better. Parents can benefit from feelings of affirmation, increased knowledge about early education and child development, and higher self-esteem. Teachers feel supported and gain additional, relevant knowledge and resources from working closely with families (Gestwicki, 2004). These kinds of positive correlations with student achievement are most closely associated with programs that feature: • Support and respect for family values and expectations • Attention to and observation of parent behaviors and interactions • Promotion of parent and family participation in school activities and affairs • Inclusion of parents in decision-making processes that affect their children (Weiss, Krieder, Lopez, & Chatman, 2005) Early Collaboration: ParentTeacher Associations Like other aspects of early childhood education, the characteristics of parent/family involvement in schools have evolved over a long period of time (Olsen & Fuller, 2008). In the 1800s, when schools were primarily isolated and rural, the men in a community typically had control over all school matters. As more schools were built to accommodate the population growth that occurred with large-scale immigration, schools were located increasingly in urban areas. © Candace Jaruszewicz In the days of mostly rural schools, the community shared all responsibility for the education of its children. This photo documents the author’s great grandfather using his tractor in 1918 to move the local one-room “Liberty” school across the prairie to its new location. In response to growing concerns about social issues and the welfare of children, women—who did not yet have the right to vote—began to organize and advocate. Alice McLellan Birney and Phoebe Apperson Hearst established the What Is a Collaborative Approach and Why Is It Important? Chapter 5 National Parent-Teacher Association (PTA) in 1897. The goals established at that time (and subsequently achieved over the following century) were: • The creation of kindergarten classes • Child labor laws • A public health service • Hot-lunch programs • A juvenile justice system • Mandatory immunization By the 1950s, parent involvement in elementary schools through PTA membership had swelled to more than 6 million members. As many women returned to homemaking after World War II, they became increasingly involved in their children’s schools in both volunteer support and PTA leadership roles. Today, the PTA continues as a national organization, with the mission to “make every child’s potential a reality by engaging and empowering families and communities to advocate for all children.” In addition, local parent-teacher organizations, loosely referred to as PTOs, have established a parallel network of independent groups. Most recently, federal funding for Title 1 schools through the 2001 No Child Left Behind Act mandates that schools receiving funding should establish parental involvement policies that focus on: • Assisting their child’s learning • Being actively involved in their child’s education at school • Serving as full partners in their child’s education and being included, as appropriate, in decision making and on advisory committees to assist in the education of their child (National Coalition for Parent Involvement in Education, 2012) In child care centers, no such national grassroots effort took place. Public funding for child care began during the Great Depression through the Works Progress Administration (WPA) and with the Lanham Act of 1940, which established child care for the many women working in factories to support the war effort (Cohen, 1996). These programs were temporary, ending with the crises that spurred their establishment. However, federal funding for early education, starting with Head Start, expanded the missions of programs to include a focus on families. The Goals of a Collaborative Approach According to the NAEYC, the goals of a collaborative approach to home/school/community involvement should be to increase learning and reduce the achievement gap that still persists in our society (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009). One of the core considerations of DAP is the need to understand sociocultural family contexts as essential to developing curriculum and experiences that are meaningful and relevant. Curriculum should be “clearly defined for, communicated to, and understood by all stakeholders, including families” (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009, p. 20). Engaging the entire family, particularly fathers, is a very high priority today. As Glenn Olsen and Mary Lou Fuller (2008, p. 11) have stated, “Educators are experts in . . . the education of children, and parents are the experts on their children. However, because past experiences have given either parents or teachers disproportionate power in the relationship, both now have to learn to work as a team.” Understanding and Collaborating with Families Chapter 5 5.2 Understanding and Collaborating with Families Many collaboration approaches have been devised, implemented, and studied over the past half-century. With shifts in priorities and technological advances, the details about how early care and education programs connect with families continue to change and evolve. But in general the emphasis and ...
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