moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 74 9/7/09 2:25:02 PM user-s131
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
,
M
A
R
K
6
5
3
5
B
U
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 75 9/7/09 2:25:25 PM user-s131
CHAPTER
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
3
Hinduism
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
FIRST
,
ENCOUNTER
The plane that you have taken to Benares circles in
preparation for landing at the Varanasi airport.
M
Looking down from your window seat, you can
A blue-white Ganges River, quite wide here.
see the
Everything
R else is a thousand shades of brown.
Beyond the coffee-colored city, the beige fields
Kout, seemingly forever.
spread
At the small airport, a dignified customs
inspector with a turban and a white beard asks,
“Why6have you come to India?” Before you can
think 5of an appropriate response, he answers his
own question. “I know,” he says with a smile and
3 of the hand. “You who come to Benares are
a wave
all the5same.” He shakes his head from side to side.
“You have come for spirituality.” After pausing
B
briefly, he adds, “Haven’t you!” It sounds more
like aU
statement than a question. It takes you a second to understand his quick pronunciation of that
unexpected word—spirituality. In a way, he is right.
You have come for that. You nod in agreement. He
smiles again, writes something down on his form,
and lets you through.
75
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 76 9/30/09 8:31:19 PM user-s198
76
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
As you take the small black taxi to your hotel, you realize that you
have just accepted—willingly or not—the ancient role that the customs
inspector has bestowed upon you. You are now just one more pilgrim who
has come to Mother India for her most famous product: religious insight.
You are now a Seeker.
After unpacking at your hotel, you walk out into the streets. It
is dusk. Pedicab drivers ring their bells to ask if you want a ride,
but you want to walk, to see the life of the streets. Little shops
sell tea, and others sell vegetarian foods made of potatoes,
C
wheat, beans, and curried vegetables. Children play in front
of their parents’
H stores. Down the street you see a “gent’s
tailor” shop, as a thin cow wanders past, chewing on what
R
looks like a paper bag. Another shop sells books and noteI sell saris and bolts of cloth. From somepaper, and others
where comes a S
smell like jasmine. As night falls, the stores are
lit by dim bulbs and fluorescent lights, and vendors illuminate
T Coleman lanterns. Because you will be
their stalls with bright
rising long before dawn
I the next day to go down to the Ganges,
you soon return to your hotel. You fall asleep quickly.
A you out of a dream. The man at the front
The telephone rings, waking
desk notifies you that it is four
N a.m. Being somewhat groggy, you have to
remind yourself that you are in Benares. You get up and dress quickly.
, wake a driver sleeping in his pedicab. You
At the front of the hotel you
negotiate the fare, climb onto the seat, and head off to the main crossing of
town, near the river, as the sky begins to lighten. The pedicab drops you
M
near the ghats (the stairs that descend to the river), which are already full of
people, many going down toAthe river to bathe at dawn. Some are having
sandalwood paste applied to their foreheads as a sign of devotion, and others
R
are carrying brass jugs to collect Ganges water.
K boat owners call to you. You decide to join
As you descend to the river,
the passengers in the boat of a man resembling a Victorian patriarch, with a
white handlebar mustache. Off you go, moving slowly upstream. Laughing
children jump up and down in6the water as men and women wade waist-deep
and face the rising sun to pray.5Upstream, professional launderers beat clothes
on the rocks and lay them out on the stones of the riverbank to dry.
3
The boat turns back downstream,
passing the stairs where you first
descended to the river. In the5bright morning light you see large umbrellas,
under which teachers sit cross-legged, some with disciples around them.
Who, you wonder, are these B
teachers? The area near the shore is crammed
with people and boats. On aU
nearby boat, people shout, Ganga Ma ki Jai—
“Victory to Mother Ganges!”
The boat continues downstream. On the shore, smoke rises from small
pyres, where bodies wrapped in red and white cloth are being cremated.
The boatman warns, “No photos here, please.” The boat pulls in to shore
downstream of the pyres, and everyone gets off. Walking up the stairs, you
see small groups of people quietly watching the cremations. At the pyres, a
man tends the fires with a bamboo pole, and a dog wanders nearby.
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 77
9/4/09
5:24:26 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
77
TA
N
The Origins of Hinduism
KASHMIR
IS
AF
GH
AN
H
Harappa
IM
New Delhi
Mohenjodaro
Ubud
Denpasar
LOMBOK
Katmandu
Indu
s
C H I N A
A
LA T I B E T
Y
BHUTAN
NEPAL A S
PAKISTAN
er
Riv
BALI
JAVA
Allahabad
Khajuraho
Ganges River
Benares
(Varanasi)
C
INDIA
H MYANMAR LAOS
Ellora
BANGLADESH
Mumbai
(Bombay)
BAY R
OF
THAILAND
BENGAL I
VIETNAM
Goa
S
Chennai (Madras)
Angkor
SOUTH
ARABIAN
Pondicherry
T
CHINA
SEA
Madurai
SEA
I
SRI
CAMBODIA
LANKA
BRUNEI
A
MAL AYSIA
N
,
TAIWAN
Kolkata
(Calcutta)
Porbandar
PHILIPPINES
SUMATRA
Spread of Hindu influence
0
0
500
500
1000
1000
1500 Kilometers
M
A
1500 Miles
R
K
I
N
D
Later, as you make your way back to the 6
center of town, you notice a
pedicab with a covered body tied on the back.5It cycles past women sitting
beside the road, selling plastic bracelets and colored powders. The pedicab
must be on its way to the pyres, you think. The3blend of opposites fills your
mind: on the banks of the very same river, laundry
is washed and bodies
5
are burned; in the streets, life and death appear side by side—yet no one
seems to notice the contrasts. Here, the two areBone.
U
THE ORIGINS OF HINDUISM
Looking at a map of India (Figure 3.1) you can see that this subcontinent,
shaped like a diamond, is isolated. Two sides face the sea, while the north
is bounded by the steep Himalaya Mountains. There are few mountain
passes, and the only easy land entry is via the narrow corridor in the
O
N
JAVA
E
S
I
A
BALI
FIGURE 3.1
India, Bali, and the area of
Hindu influence.
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 78
78
9/4/09
5:24:26 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
northwest, in the vicinity of the Indus River, where Pakistan now lies. It
is the relative isolation of India that has helped create a culture that is rare
and fascinating.
India’s climate, except in the mountain regions, is generally warm for
most of the year, allowing people to live outdoors much of the time. Indeed,
some may even claim that the climate has helped promote religious values
that, at least for some, minimize the importance of material goods such as
clothing, housing, and wealth.
Although hot and dry in many parts, India has many rivers and streams.
C
Most important is the Ganges, which flows out of the Himalayas and is
enlarged by tributaries as it H
moves east toward the Bay of Bengal. By the
time the Ganges has reached the town of Benares (also known as Varanasi
R
and Kashi), the river is enormous; in fact, after the summer monsoons the
I one cannot see to the other side. Because
river becomes so wide that often
the water of the Ganges is regular
S and dependable, it has enabled civilization
to flourish across much of northern India. It has also given Indian culture a
sense of security, protection, T
and even care, which has led to the popular
name for the river, Ganga MaI (“Mother Ganges”).
The religious life of India is something like the river Ganges. It has
Ayears, swirling from its own power but also
flowed along for thousands of
from the power of new streams
N that have added to its force. Hinduism,
the major religion of India, has been an important part of this flowing
, indigenous religion and influences from
energy. Many influences—early
later immigrants—have added to its inherent momentum. It has no one
identifiable founder, no strong organizational structure to defend it and
M
spread its influence, nor any creed to define and stabilize its beliefs; and
in a way that seems to defy reason,
Hinduism unites the worship of many
A
gods with a belief in a single divine reality. In fact, the name Hinduism can
R
be misleading. Hinduism is not a single, unified religion; it is more like a
K
family of beliefs.
But the limitations of Hinduism may also be its strengths. It is like a
palace that began as a two-room cottage. Over the centuries, wings have
been built on to it, and now it6has countless rooms, stairs, corridors, statues,
fountains, and gardens. There5is something here to please and astonish—and
dismay—almost everyone. In fact, its beliefs are so rich and profound that
3 the larger world, and its influence continues
Hinduism has greatly influenced
to grow. In this chapter we will
5 explore the various elements of this religion’s
foundation and the stages in which additions were made to the sprawling
B
house of Hinduism.
U
The Earliest Stage of Indian Religion
In the early twentieth century, engineers who were building a railroad
discovered the ruins of an ancient culture in the Indus River valley. Today,
most of the Indus River lies in Pakistan, but it traditionally formed the
natural border of northwestern India—in fact, the words India and Hindu
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 79
9/4/09
5:24:26 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
The Origins of Hinduism
before 2000 B.C.E.
Traditional period of early
Vedic religion
c. 2000–500 B.C.E.
c. 1500 B.C.E.
Beginning of creation
of Upanishads; Axis Age
Life of philosopher Shankara
Portuguese entry
into India
Life of political activist
Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi
Periodic religion-related acts of
violence involving India and
Pakistan
Existence of Harappa culture
in Indus River valley
C
c. 800–500
H B.C.E.
R B.C.E.–
c. 200
I200 C.E.
S
c. 788–820 C.E.
T
Ic. 1200
A
1498
N
,
c. 1750–1947
Beginning of creation
of the Vedas
Creation of the
Bhagavad Gita
Muslim entry into
northern India
British
domination of India
1869–1948
M
A
1947
R
K
1965–present
61998
Acquisition of Indian
political independence
Victory of Hindu nationalist
party (BJP) in Indian national
elections
5
3
derive from Indus. The culture that archeological
5 workers uncovered there
flourished before 2000 b.c.e. and is named the Harappa culture, after one
B
of its ancient cities (Timeline 3.1).
Archeologists were amazed by the type ofU
civilization they found. The
cities contained regular streets and solid brick houses. Pots and coins were
discovered, as well as evidence that running water was used for toilets and
baths. As one historian remarks, “no other ancient civilization until that of
the Romans had so efficient a system of drains”1—a genuine sign of technical development. This complex culture had also invented a writing system,
which scholars are still working to decipher.
Timeline of significant
events in the history of
Hinduism.
79
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 80
80
9/4/09
5:24:27 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
Property owners marked their belongings with seals bearing the
images of animals, such as the bull, tiger, and rhinoceros, as well as images
of men and women. Three seals show a male, sitting in a yogic meditation
posture, with horns on his head.2 Small pillars that suggest male sexuality
were also found. Because many of these same symbols still appear in
contemporary Indian culture, we can assume that some current religious
practices have survived from the distant past. For example, the male with
the horns on his head may be a deity and an early form of the god Shiva,
and the pillars resemble the low columns that some contemporary Indians
C
worship in honor of Shiva. It is also quite possible that the present-day
worship of the divine GreatH
Mother and of tree spirits goes back to this
early time.
R
I
The Religion of the Vedic Period
S
The ancient scriptures of India are called the Vedas. They give a great deal
of information about gods andTworship during what is often called the Vedic
period, generally thought to cover
about 2000 to 500 b.c.e. The origin of the
I
Vedas and of the religion they describe, however, is uncertain.
A Western scholars recognized that Sanskrit—
In the late eighteenth century,
the ancient language of IndiaNand the language of the Vedas—was related
to Greek and Latin. They also realized that many of the gods mentioned in
, who had been worshiped in Greece and
the Vedas were the same gods
Rome; they discovered, as well, that gods of similar names were mentioned
in Iranian sacred literature. Later scholars theorized that a single people,
M
who called themselves Aryans, moved from present-day southern Russia
about 2000 b.c.e. in two directions—westward
into Europe and eastward
A
into Iran and India. Entering new lands, these people were thought to have
R
carried their language and religion with them. Scholars initially believed
K
that in India the outsiders imposed
their social order quickly and violently
on the older culture. According to this theory, called the “Aryan invasion
theory,” the Vedas were believed to be the religious writings of this invading
6
people.
Next, a variant on the older
5 theory arose: instead of speaking of a single
invasion, the newer theory held that there were repeated waves of migra3 India, and that from these contacts between
tions into Pakistan and northern
foreign and indigenous cultures
5 the religion of the Vedas emerged. More
recently, however, this second theory, called the “Aryan migration theory,”
B theory is still commonly held, but some
has been questioned. The migration
scholars view any theory thatUassumes influence from outside India to be a
continued relic of Western cultural imperialism. Archeological, linguistic,
and genetic investigations continue to offer more clues, but their interpretation has not resolved the issue.
No matter what its origins, the religion described by the Vedas seems
to have consisted of the worship of mostly male gods, who were believed
to control the forces of nature. The father of the gods was Dyaüs Pitr, whose
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 81
9/4/09
5:24:27 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
The Origins of Hinduism
name means “shining father.” (He is clearly the same god as the Roman god
Jupiter and the Greek god Zeus Pater.) The god Indra, god of storm and war,
received great attention because of the strength his worshipers hoped to
receive from him. He was possibly the memory of a military ancestor, deified
by later generations. The god of fire, Agni (whose name is related to the
English word ignite and to the Latin word for fire, ignis), carried sacrifices
up to the world of the gods. Dawn and renewal were the charge of the goddess Ushas, one of the few female deities. The god Rudra brought winds.
Varuna was the god of the sky and justice; Vishnu was a god of cosmic order;
C
and Surya was the major sun god. The god Soma was thought to cause
altered states of mind and to expand consciousness.
H He worked through a
ritual drink, possibly made from a psychedelic mushroom that had the same
R
name (soma) and allowed contact with the realm of the gods. The god Yama
I
ruled the afterlife.
Worship of the gods took place at outdoor S
fire altars. Priestly specialists
set apart a square or rectangular space, purified it with water, and conT for sacrifice. The usual
structed one to three low altars inside the space
offerings were milk, clarified butter (called gheeI), grains, and sometimes animals. A special horse sacrifice, believed to confer great power on a king,
A
occurred on rare occasions.
Sacred chants, which the priests knew from
Nmemory, were an essential
part of the ceremonies; and because they believed that the chants had power
, handed them down orally
of their own, the priestly class protected them and
from father to son. It is these chants, in written form, that make up the core
of the earliest Hindu sacred literature, the Vedas. Although many of the
M
Vedic gods are no longer worshiped, elements of the Aryan religion—such
as the use of fire and some of the ancient chantsA
by a priestly class—continue
to be of great importance to Hindus today.
The Vedas
R
K
The Vedas, which originally were preserved only in oral form but eventu6 books of Hinduism. The
ally were written down, are the earliest sacred
name means “knowledge” or “sacred lore,” and
5 related words in English
are vision and wisdom. Although scholars date the earliest versions of the
3 to be far more ancient.
Vedas to about 1500 b.c.e., Hindus consider them
They say that the Vedas were revealed to rishis
5 (holy men of the distant
past), who did not create the Vedas but heard them and transmitted them
B
to later generations.
There are four basic sacred text collections that
U constitute the Vedas. The
Rig Veda3 (“hymn knowledge”) is a collection of more than a thousand chants
to the Aryan gods; the Yajur Veda (“ceremonial knowledge”) contains matter
for recitation during sacrifice; the Sama Veda (“chant knowledge”) is a handbook of musical elaborations of Vedic chants; and the Atharva Veda (“knowledge from [the teacher] Atharva”) consists of practical prayers and charms,
such as prayers to protect against snakes and sickness.
81
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 82
82
9/4/09
5:24:27 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
The Rig Veda, the most important of the Vedas, has an account of the
origin of the universe. The universe is said to have emerged from a division
and cosmic sacrifice of a primeval superperson, Purusha. But the account
includes an admission of uncertainty: “Who knows it for certain; who can
proclaim it here; namely, out of what it was born and wherefrom his creations issued? The gods appeared only later—after the creation of the world.
Who knows, then, out of what it has evolved?”4
The term Vedas sometimes indicates only these four collections. In its
more common use, it also refers to some later material as well. Detailed
C
ceremonial rules, called Brahmanas and Aranyakas, were added by later
generations to each of the four
HVedic collections. The Brahmanas, named for
the priests who would use them, give details about the proper time and
R
place for ceremonies, the preparation of the ground, ritual objects, and puriI
fication rites. The Aranyakas (“forest
books”) allowed the rituals to be understood and practiced in nonliteral,
symbolic
ways by men who had left
S
society and become ascetics in the forests. The four Vedas end with even
T , which express philosophical and relilater works, called the Upanishads
gious ideas that arose in introspective
and meditative traditions.
I
A
T H E U PA N I S H A D S N
AND THE AXIS AGE
,
Around 500 b.c.e., Indian civilization
experienced such widespread
and
important changes that the period is known as the Axis Age, meaning that
everything turned in a new direction at this time. Interestingly, great
M
changes were also taking place in other religions and cultures as well: it
was the time of the Buddha, A
Confucius, major Hebrew prophets, and early
Greek philosophers.
R
After many centuries, questioning of Vedic religious beliefs and pracK
tices began to emerge with strength.
It is possible that earlier religious disciplines reasserted themselves, and there may have been resentment against
the priestly class. Some critics questioned the value of the Vedic sacrifices,
6 that certain people abandoned social life
and we know from the Aranyakas
to live alone in the forests, giving
5 themselves much time for thought and
religious experimentation. Thinkers questioned the ancient belief in many
3 divine reality that might be the source of
gods, seeking instead a single
5
everything. Some went even5further and saw all things as being mystically
united. And a few rejected religious ritual altogether.
During this period thereBseems to have been interest in all sorts of
techniques for altering consciousness,
such as sitting for long periods in
U
meditation, breathing deeply, fasting, avoiding sexual activity, practicing
long periods of silence, going without sleep, experimenting with psychedelic plants, and living in the darkness of caves. All of these things could
be done by people of any social class—not just by priests. Evidence of this
intellectual ferment and the practice of spiritual disciplines is recorded in
the Upanishads.
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 83
9/4/09
5:24:27 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
The Upanishads and the Axis Age
83
An ascetic carries water
from the Ganges as a cow
pursues its own path.
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
,
The Origin of the Upanishads
M
A
R
K
The Upanishads comprise about a hundred written works that record
6 several interpretations
insights into external and internal reality. Although
of the name Upanishads have been proposed,5it is commonly thought to
derive from words that mean “sitting near.”6 If the term’s derivation is correct, it would suggest disciples sitting near a3master, learning techniques
for achieving religious experience. In any case,5primary to the Upanishads
is the notion that with spiritual discipline and meditation, both priests and
nonpriests can experience the spiritual reality B
that underlies all seemingly
separate realities. Unlike much of the earlier Vedic
U material, which dictates
that only hereditary priests can be religious masters, the Upanishads tell us
that a person who has the necessary experience can be a spiritual master.
The Upanishads thus possibly continue the religious interest of the forest
dwellers of the Aranyakas.
The Upanishads are written primarily in dialogue form, appearing both
as prose and as poetry. Because they were produced over many hundreds
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 84 9/7/09 1:28:39 PM user-s131
84
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
of years, dating them is not easy. It is generally thought that those in
prose form (such as the Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Taittiriya, and Kena
Upanishads) may be earlier works than those in poetic form (such as the
Katha and Mandukya Upanishads). About a dozen Upanishads are especially popular.
Important Concepts of the Upanishads
The most important notions C
in the Upanishads are Brahman, Atman, maya,
karma, samsara, and moksha.7 These primary concepts, which would become
H Hindu spirituality, continue to be taught
essential notions in much later
today.
R
I
Brahmins, priests from the
highest caste, pray at the
beginning of a religious
ceremony on the island
of Bali.
Brahman and Atman The term Brahman originally stood for the cosmic
power present in the Vedic sacrifi
S ce and chants, over which the priest had
control. (The Sanskrit word Brahman is neuter and comes from a stem meanT
ing “to be great.”) In the Upanishads the word Brahman was expanded to
mean a divine reality at the Iheart of things. One of the most famous dialogues appears in the Chandogya Upanishad. It involves a priestly father
A
and his son in discussion. The young man, Shvetaketu, has been away,
studying with a specialist forNmany years. He has memorized chants and
learned priestly rituals. The young
man’s father questions him about what
,
he has learned, and the son proudly recites the formulas he knows. The
father then asks him what he knows about Brahman, the Supreme Spirit; but
the young man knows nothing.
MTrying to assist the son’s understanding, the
A
R
K
6
5
3
5
B
U
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 85
9/4/09
5:24:29 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
The Upanishads and the Axis Age
father asks his son to fill a glass with water, put salt in it, and leave it
overnight. The next day he asks his son to find the salt:
“Bring me the salt you put into the water last night.”
Shvetaketu looked into the water, but could not find it, for it had dissolved.
His father then said: “Taste the water from this side. How is it?”
“It is salt [salty].”
“Taste it from the middle. How is it?”
“It is salt.”
“Taste it from that side. How is it?”
“It is salt.”
“Look for the salt again and come again to me.”
The son did so, saying: “I cannot see the salt. I only see water.”
The father then said: “In the same way, O my son, you cannot see the Spirit.
But in truth he is here.
“An invisible and subtle essence is the Spirit of the whole universe. That is
Reality. That is Truth. Thou art That.”8
C
H
R
I
S
T
The Upanishads insist that Brahman is something
that can be known—
I
not simply believed in. The Shvetasvatara Upanishad, for example, says “I
know that Spirit whose infinity is in all, whoAis ever one beyond time.”9
Brahman, the Divine Spirit, is so real that it may
N be known directly, and,
as the boy Shvetaketu learned, knowledge of it can be as immediate as
,
tasting the flavor of salt.
What is it to know Brahman? The Upanishads insist that it cannot be
put fully into words, but they give hints. Brahman is the lived experience
M
that all things are in some way holy because they come from the same sacred
source. It is also the experience that all thingsA
are in some way ultimately
one. This is an experience that seems to defy common sense, since the world
R
appears to be divided into many objects and types of reality. Nevertheless,
K
when we consider reality more deeply, we recognize
many unities: a piece
of wood can become a boat or a house or fire or ash; water can turn into a
cloud or a plant. So, on closer inspection, all apparent separations and divisions blur. To experience Brahman is to know,6firsthand, that every apparently individual reality in the world is actually
5 a wave of the same sacred
ocean of energy. Brahman, according to the Upanishads, “is the sun, the
moon, and the stars. He is the fire, the waters, 3
and the wind.”10 Brahman is
11
“the God who appears in forms infinite.”
5
Brahman is also referred to by three words that help describe its nature
as perceived by the knower: Brahman is sat, B
reality itself; chit, pure consciousness; and ananda, bliss. And although Brahman
can be experienced
U
within our everyday world of time and space, those who speak of their
experience say that Brahman is ultimately beyond time and beyond space.
Thus the Upanishads often add that experiencing the timelessness of Brahman can bring an end to everyday suffering and to the fear of death.
The notion of Atman is related to Brahman and is an equally important
term in the Upanishads. Although Atman is sometimes translated as “self”
85
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 86
86
9/4/09
5:24:29 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
or “soul,” the notion of Atman in the Upanishads is different from the notion
of an individual soul. Perhaps the term Atman would be better translated as
“deepest self.” (Sometimes it is translated as “subtle self.”) In Hindu belief,
each person has an individual soul ( jiva), and the individual soul confers
uniqueness and personality. But Hinduism asks this question: At the very
deepest level, what really am I? I am clearly not just my body—my height
and weight and hair color, all of which are subject to alteration. But am I
then my tastes, thoughts, and memories? Or is there more? Is there not in
me a reality more fundamental than those changing individual characterisC
tics? According to the Upanishads, at the deepest level of what I am is a
divine reality, a divine spirit,H
that everything shares. The Upanishads teach
that it is true to say that I am God, because, for the person who understands
R
reality at the deepest level, everything is God. Atman, when experienced
I Atman, like Brahman, is divine, holy, and
fully, is identical with Brahman.
timeless. Often the term Brahman
S refers to the experience of the sacred within
nature and the external universe, while Atman refers to the experience of the
T the same divine nature simply has two
sacred within oneself. However,
names, and both terms may be
I used interchangeably.
A of the everyday world as maya, which is
Maya The Upanishads speak
usually translated as “illusion.”
N 12 This translation, though, needs explanation. Its root suggests illusion and mystery (as in “magic”), but it also has a
,
more positive, objective connotation
that suggests the original stuff of which
something is made (as in “material”). The word maya thus contains both
meanings: “magic” and “matter.” To say that all reality is “maya” is not to
M
say that the world does not exist or that the world is a totally false perception. The world is real, but not
A in quite the way most people assume. For
one thing, human beings view the world as consisting of individual things
R
and people, all separate. In reality, the world is one basic holy reality that
K The Shvetasvatara Upanishad advises us to
takes on many different forms.
“know therefore that nature is Maya, but that God is the ruler of Maya; and
that all beings in our universe are parts of his infinite splendour.”13
6 world is solid and permanent. In reality, the
People also assume that the
outside world is more like the5inner world of thoughts and dreams—it shifts
and changes, just as thoughts and dreams do. People assume that time is
3 rate, and that past, present, and future are
real, that it advances at a regular
distinct divisions. In reality, time
5 is relative.
The model of reality set forth by the Upanishads is less like a machine
B it is more like a great consciousness. This
made of individual moving parts;
view also produces a sense of
Uamazement at the forms and shifts that the
universe takes—it is all, ultimately, unexplainable magic.
As I look out at reality from my own individual standpoint, I may see
the end of my life as the end of everything. The Upanishads see things differently. First, individuals are not as individual as they suppose. Rather, they
are all manifestations of the Divine Spirit, which does not end when the
individual dies. They are also the continuation of earlier forms of life that
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 87
9/4/09
5:24:29 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
The Upanishads and the Axis Age
have simply taken new forms. Hinduism, from about 500 b.c.e., generally
adopted the belief that everything living has its own life force and that every
life force, when it loses one form, is reborn into another. This process is
known as reincarnation.
Karma The general Hindu notion of rebirth assumes that human beings
have at one or another time existed as a “lower” form, such as animal, insect,
and possibly even plant. Hinduism also recognizes grades of human life,
from limited and painful to exceptionally pleasant and free. Human beings
C
are also capable of achieving “higher” forms of life, such as superhuman
beings and demigods. Rebirth can move in either
H direction, and the human
stage is a dangerous one because each human being must make dramatic
R
choices about how to live. If a human being does not live properly, he or
I
she may be reborn into a very poor or cruel human
family—or possibly in
a form of life that may be even more limited and
diffi
cult, such as a dog, a
S
pig, or an ant. A human being can also make a spectacular leap upward
T
beyond the human level to a superhuman existence
or even beyond, to
complete freedom.
I
What determines the direction of one’s rebirth is karma. The word
A the notion of moral concomes from a root that means “to do” and implies
sequences that are carried along with every act.
NKarma is the moral law of
cause and effect, and belief in karma is a belief that every action has an
, saying expresses nicely the
automatic moral consequence. One well-known
nature of karma: What goes around comes around. Karma does not work
because it is the will of God or Brahman, but simply because karma is an
M
essential part of the nature of things. It is the way things work. Good karma
brings “higher” rebirth; bad karma brings rebirth
A in “lower,” more painful
forms. In a certain way, this belief allows for upward mobility, since human
R
beings, by their actions, have influence over their future births. Ultimate
freedom comes when karma ceases to operate;Krebirth, whether upward or
downward on the scale, has entirely ended.
Some teachers say that karma is intrinsically neither good nor bad but
only seems so to the person who experiences 6
it. In this conception, karma
is like gravity—it works like a force of nature. It5is like rain, which can cause
a plant to grow just as it can bring a picnic to its end. Karma helps explain
3 others are born with no
why some people are born with great gifts while
advantages at all.
5
Samsara The term samsara refers to the wheelBof life, the circle of constant
rebirth, and it suggests strongly that the everyday
U world is full of change as
well as struggle and suffering. The Hindu view of human life, because of its
belief in reincarnation, is rather different from that commonly held in the
West. Think of how often you hear someone say, “You only live once.” This
view of life is not shared by Hindus, who believe an individual is constantly
being reborn, having come from different earlier forms and going on to
emerge in new forms in the future. Because our present human life is so
87
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 88
88
9/4/09
5:24:29 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
short, we may think that we would like several lives in the future as well.
But how many would each of us really like? Ten might sound reasonable,
but a hundred? a thousand? ten thousand? a million? It’s tiring just to think
about all those lifetimes! And many of those forms would inevitably be unhappy
ones. Sooner or later most of us would want to jump off the merry-go-round
of life. We would want escape, release, liberation. This leads us to the next
important concept of the Upanishads.
Moksha The term moksha means “freedom” or “liberation” and comes
C
from a root that means “to be released.” In the Upanishads, moksha is the
ultimate human goal. It has various
H connotations. Moksha certainly includes
the notion of getting beyond egotistic responses, such as resentment and
R
anger, which limit the individual. Furthermore, unlike the modern ideal of
I
seeking complete freedom to satisfy
one’s individual desires, moksha implies
liberation even from the limitations
of
being an individual—from being born
S
a particular person at a specific time to a unique pair of parents—a person
T
with distinct physical characteristics,
emotions, desires, and memories. One
can take action to overcome these
restrictions
(for example, by leaving home),
I
which is sometimes a means of attaining moksha, but one can also accept
A with them, thereby gaining inner peace and
the limitations even while living
mental freedom.
N
As one becomes freer, one looks at life less from a selfish and egotistic
, a perspective that embraces the whole. The
point of view and more from
unity and sacredness that everything shares become a part of everyday
experience. Kindness to all—to animals as well as to people—is one natural
M
result of this insight, and kind actions also generate helpful karma. Detaching
oneself from pleasure or painA
is another practice that leads to freedom from
egotism.
R
Ultimately, with enough insight and ascetic practice, the individual can
go entirely beyond the limitedKself to know the sacred reality that everything
shares. When insight and kindness are perfect, at last the pain of rebirth
ends; the limitations of individuality are gone, and only Brahman remains.
6 explains complete freedom: “when all has
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
14
become Spirit, one’s own Self,
5how and whom could one see?”
The Upanishads, though sometimes obscure, are devoted to promoting
3 But the Upanishads do not give detailed
an insight into ultimate oneness.
instructions for achieving that5kind of insight or for living spiritually in the
everyday world. Such guidance would have to be developed by later Hindu
B
commentators and practitioners.
U
L I V I N G S P I R I T U A L LY I N T H E E V E RY D AY W O R L D
The Hinduism that guides people’s lives today is a practical mixture of
elements. Some of these came from the early stages of religious practice,
which we’ve already discussed, and others developed later. For the ordinary
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 89
9/4/09
5:24:29 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
Living Spiritually in the Everyday World
89
layperson, Hindu practice usually involves
devotion to at least one deity. It recommends
finding one’s proper work and then doing it
unselfishly. Hindu practice may also include the
study of religious texts, meditation, and other
specifically religious disciplines. The following
section will deal with the elements of this practical synthesis, much of which can be found in
the short classic, the Bhagavad Gita.
C
H
The Bhagavad Gita
R
The Bhagavad Gita (“divine song” or “song of
the Divine One”) is part of a very long epicI
poem called the Mahabharata. The Mahabharata,S
written some time between 400 b.c.e. and 400 c.e.,
tells how the sons of Pandu (Pandavas) con-T
quered their cousins, the Kauravas, with theI
help of the god Krishna. The Bhagavad Gita was
inserted at some time into this poem but has itsA
own identity and is often printed separatelyN
from the Mahabharata. The Bhagavad Gita,
shaped by the priestly class between 200 b.c.e.,
and 200 c.e., has become a spiritual classic. It
recalls themes from the Upanishads, but it also
M
tries to strike a balance between mysticism and
the practical needs of everyday life. Action andA
adherence to duty are approved and can even
R
be thought of as a spiritual path. As the Bhagavad Gita says, “the wise see
K
knowledge and action as one.”15
The Bhagavad Gita, like the Upanishads, is written in dialogue form. It
occurs almost entirely between two figures: a prince, Arjuna, and his chari6 is threatened by his hunoteer and advisor, Krishna. Arjuna’s royal power
dred cousins, called Kauravas, and he must decide
5 whether to fight with his
brothers against them to restore his throne or to accept their rule. He is torn.
3 but on the other, he wants
On the one hand, he knows that his rule is correct,
to avoid violence. That his enemies are close5family members makes the
matter even harder. Depressed, Arjuna “[throws] aside his arrows and his
B on the seat of the chariot,
bow in the midst of the battlefield. He [sits] down
16
and his heart [is] overcome with sorrow.” In U
response, Krishna, who later
reveals that he is a form of the god Vishnu, explains the need for action.
“Now you shall hear how a man may become perfect, if he devotes himself
to the work which is natural to him. A man shall reach perfection if he does
his duty as an act of worship to the Lord.”17 This means that Arjuna must
follow not merely his own desires—neither his fears nor his hope for reward—
but he must simply do what is right.
This miniature of Krishna
and the gopis (milkmaids)
dates from the second half
of the eighteenth century.
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 90
90
9/4/09
5:24:30 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
Contrary to the teaching of nonviolence, which was at the time of this
epic’s creation growing strong in India in such religious traditions as Buddhism
and Jainism, Krishna advises Arjuna to fight to protect his throne and the
structure of society—to fight is his duty. At a moment of great revelation,
Krishna shows Arjuna that a divine reality is at work within everything in
the universe—in living and also in dying. Krishna even says that for the
warrior “there is nothing nobler than a righteous war.18
The recommendation that Arjuna should fight has posed a moral problem for some followers of Hinduism. Mohandas Gandhi (1869–1948) is typC
ical of those who have solved this problem by saying that the Bhagavad Gita
is religious allegory. Gandhi held
H that the call to arms is not about real war
but rather a call to fight against dangerous moral and psychological forces,
R
such as ignorance, selfishness, and anger. This interpretation, though it
seems to go against the literalI intent of the text, has been influential.
S
T
When Krishna urges Arjuna to
I do what his position as a warrior demands,
he is reinforcing the caste system (a division of society into social classes
that are created by birth or A
occupation). The caste system, the prevalent
social system of Hinduism, had
N already been mentioned in the Rig Veda:
“When they divided Purusha [the first person, a superbeing], in how many
,
different portions did they arrange
him? What became of his mouth, what
The Caste System
of his two arms? What were his two thighs and his two feet called? His
mouth became the brahman [priest]; his two arms were made into the
M
rajanya [warrior-noble]; his two thighs the vaishyas [merchants]; from his
two feet the shudra [peasant]A
was born.”19
The caste system receives further religious approval in the Bhagavad
R
Gita, which recognizes that there are different types of people and that their
ways to perfection will differ, K
depending on their personality types and roles
in society.20 For example, active people will perfect themselves through the
unselfishness of their work, and intellectual people will perfect themselves
through teaching and study. 6
Traditionally, the caste system
was based on more than one’s type of
5
work, and in modern times it does not always indicate the type of work a
3 is commonly used) are really social classes
person does. Castes (as the term
(varna), which are subdivided5into hundreds of subcastes.21 The caste system
dissuades members of different castes, and often subcastes, from intermarrying. It remains strongest inBthe countryside and in more conservative
southern India, but it is weakening
in the cities, where people regularly
U
eat together in restaurants and travel together in buses and trains. Although
an individual cannot change the caste into which she or he is born, it is
believed that a good life in one’s present caste will guarantee rebirth in a
higher caste or better circumstances. Thus, from the perspective of Hinduism,
upward social mobility is possible—even if it takes more than one lifetime
to accomplish!
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 91
9/4/09
5:24:30 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
Living Spiritually in the Everyday World
Members of society are divided into five main social classes:
1. The priest (brahmin)22 traditionally performs Vedic rituals and acts as
a counselor.
2. The warrior-noble (kshatriya) has the role of protecting society. This is
the traditional caste of the aristocracy.
3. The merchant (vaishya) class includes landowners, moneylenders, and
sometimes artisans. Males of the three upper castes (brahmin, kshatriya,
and vaishya) receive a sacred cord during a ceremony in their youth
and afterward are called “twice-born.”
C
4. The peasant (shudra) does manual labor and is expected to serve the
H
higher castes. The origin of this caste probably goes back to the Aryan
Rto do the work of servants.
subjection of native people, who were forced
The peasant is called “once-born.”
I
5. The untouchable (dalit) traditionally does the dirtiest work—cleaning
toilets, sweeping streets, collecting animal S
carcasses, and tanning animal hides. Their low status prompted the T
Indian reformer Mohandas
Gandhi to promote another name for the class—Harijan (“children of
I
God”)—and he urged their inclusion in regular
society.23
A
The Stages of Life
N
Just as the individual’s path to “correct action”
, is suggested by caste and
subcaste, traditional Hinduism holds that each stage of life also has its
proper way of being lived. Every culture recognizes specific life stages
through which each individual passes. In modern
Msecular life the stages seem
to be childhood, adolescence, the career years, and retirement (these stages
A
are strongly colored by employment—or the lack of it); but in India the
notion of life stages is more religious. The conception
was shaped by the
R
ancient ideal of the development of the upper-caste male, particularly of the
K
priestly caste:
1. Student (brahmacharin): This first stage is spent laying a religious founda6 ages of 8 and 20, studies
tion for life. The young person, between the
religious works. Celibacy is a necessary part5of the training.
2. Householder (grihastha): Marriage (traditionally, arranged by the parents)
3lls the demands of society
occurs at about age 20, and the person fulfi
by raising children.
5
3. Retiree (vanaprastha): When grandchildren arrive, the individual may
retire somewhat from ordinary life to spendB
time once again on religious
matters. The ancient ideal was to go intoU
the forest to live, possibly
with one’s wife, away from society. In reality, retirees often continue to
live with their children and with other relatives in an extended-family
setting, but they may eat separately from the rest of the family and
spend time on religious pursuits with friends.
4. Renunciate (sannyasin): To enter this last stage is considered to be
appropriate only after retirement. It is not expected of everyone but is
91
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 92
92
9/4/09
5:24:30 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
simply an option. If one wishes to live entirely free from society, one
is permitted to leave home. For such a person, the entire world is now
his home. A man may leave his wife, although he must ensure that
she will be supported. Celibacy is expected, and the sign of this
devout, celibate state is an orange robe. The sannyasin, considered to
be outside the caste system, is free to wander, begging his food along
the way, and many temples have endowments to feed such pilgrims.
The sannyasin may remain a constant traveler, making pilgrimage to
the sacred sites of India, or he may settle in an ashram (religious comC
munity) or even live in a cave. The purpose of this kind of life is to
hasten mystical insight, to
Hfree oneself of all attachments, to end
rebirth, and to attain moksha.
R
I
The Goals of Life
S
Although the Hindu spiritual ideal—such as the lifestyle of the sannyasin—is
T
generally world-denying, Hinduism
also exhibits a respect for more worldly
goals. In order of increasing value
these
goals are pleasure (kama), economic
I
security and power (artha), and social and religious duty (dharma). These life
A
goals, which may be pursued simultaneously,
are acceptable and even virtuous,
as long as they are tempered by
Nmoderation and social regulation. Considered
highest of the goals, however, is moksha—complete freedom.
,
The Yogas
M
Although the Bhagavad Gita endorses quiet contemplation, it also recommends active spiritual paths.A
It endorses not only meditation but also the
work demanded by one’s caste and individual place in society. The various
R
types of yoga are methods that can be used to help people live spiritually.
Kand is related to the English words join and
The word yoga means “union”
yoke. A yoga is a way for people to perfect their union with the divine, and
because the yogas suggest roads to perfection, they are also called margas
(“paths”). There is a tolerant 6
recognition in Hinduism that different sorts of
people need different spiritual
5 paths, and an individual’s caste and personality type will help determine the appropriate yoga to practice.
3
Jnana Yoga (“Knowledge Yoga”)
5 This type of yoga brings insight into one’s
divine nature by studying the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita and their
B from teachers who have attained insight.
commentaries and by learning
Jnana yoga is particularly appropriate
for priests and intellectuals.
U
This yoga was highly refined by a school of philosophy that is still quite
vital, the school of Vedanta (“Veda end”).24 The term refers to the Upanishads—
which come at the end of the Vedas—and to the fact that the Vedanta school
has used the ideas of the Upanishads as its primary inspiration.
The greatest teacher of Vedanta, Shankara (c. 788–820), argued that
everything is ultimately one—all is Brahman.25 According to Shankara,
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 93
9/4/09
5:24:30 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
Living Spiritually in the Everyday World
although our ordinary experience leads us to see things as being separate
and different, this perception is mistaken. To show that sense perception can
be wrong, Shankara used the example of a person who at dusk is frightened
by a coil of rope—the observer mistakenly perceives the rope to be a snake.
In the same way, Shankara would say, a person who perceives things as
being ultimately separate and different from Brahman is mistaken. In his
Crest-Jewel of Discrimination, the author likened Brahman to gold, which can
take many shapes. Brahman “is that one Reality which appears to our ignorance as a manifold universe of names and forms and changes. Like the gold
C
of which many ornaments are made, it remains in itself unchanged. Such is
Brahman, and ‘That art Thou.’ Meditate uponHthis truth.”26 Similarly, the
waves of the ocean and the drops of water in the waves may be considered
R
separate entities; but the larger truth is that they are all just the same ocean
I
in varied, changing forms.
Shankara thought that spiritual liberation S
was achieved when the individual personally came to understand the unity of all things. Shankara so
T
emphasized monism—the oneness of everything—that
his branch of the
Vedanta school is called Advaita, which, literally
translated,
means “notI
two-ness” (a-dvai-ta). The significance of the term is very subtle. If I say that
A also exist—something in
all reality is “one,” some “other” reality could
contrast to the one. But the term not-two makes
N clear that ultimately there
is no other reality.
For Shankara, therefore, any devotion to, a god or goddess who is
thought to be different from the worshiper is also mistaken. This rejection
of devotion, however, posed a great problem for those types of Hinduism
M
that emphasized it. As a result, later thinkers of the Vedanta school, such as
Ramanuja (d. 1137) and Madhva (active 1240),A
qualified or denied ultimate
monism. They emphasized passages in the Upanishads that seem to speak
R
of Brahman as being separate in some way from the world. They could
K devotion.
thereby create systems that made room for religious
Karma Yoga (“Action Yoga”) This type of yoga proposes that all useful
6
work, if done unselfishly, can be a way to perfection.
(The word karma here
is used in its basic sense of “activity.”) Much 5
of what we ordinarily do is
motivated by money or pleasure or praise, but deeds performed without a
desire for reward are the heart of karma yoga3
. As the Bhagavad Gita says,
27
“Desire for the fruits of work must never be your
5 motive in working.”
B at one time or another
Bhakti Yoga (“Devotion Yoga”) Most of us have
fallen in love, and we know that there is something
purifying about the
U
experience, because it forces us to look outward, beyond ourselves, to another
object of affection. Religions utilize this purifying power when they promote
devotion to a god or saint—who is often made visible in a painting or statue.
Hinduism, because of its belief in multiple gods, offers rich possibilities for
devotion. In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna tells Arjuna, “Regard me as your
dearest loved one. Know me to be your only refuge.”28
93
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 94 9/7/09 2:23:49 PM user-s131
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
RITUALS AND CELEBRATIONS
Hindu Meditation: More Than Emptying the Mind
Over the past three decades, meditation has become
popular in the Western world. From students in elementary schools to executives in corporate offices, all
kinds of people take time out to sit quietly, empty the
mind, and let stress float away.
Meditation in Eastern religious traditions, however,
is more complex, at least theoretically. The Yoga
Sutras, often attributed to the grammarian
Patanjali,29 list eight steps necessary for perfection
of meditation:
• Self-control (yama) is the fundamental reorientation
of the personality away from selfishness. It involves
practicing ahimsa (not hurting living beings), exhibiting sexual restraint, shunning greed, refusing to
steal, and embracing truthfulness.
• Observance (niyama) is the regular practice of the
five preceding virtuous pursuits.
• Posture (asana) is an integral aspect of meditation,
particularly the “lotus posture” (padmasana), in
which the person meditating is seated with the legs
crossed, each foot touching the opposite leg.
• Breath control (pranayama) involves deep, regular
breathing, holding the breath, and breathing in variC
ous rhythms.
•H
Restraint (pratyahara) helps the meditator tune out
external
distractions.
R
• Steadying of the mind (dharana) teaches the meditator
Ito focus on only one object in order to empty the
mind of everything else.
S
• Meditation (dhyana) occurs when the mind is focused
only on the object of concentration.
T
• Samadhi is the mental state achieved by deep meditaItion, in which the individual loses the sense of being
separate from the rest of the universe.30
A
N
,
Bhakti yoga can involve various expressions of devotion—most comM
monly chants, songs, food offerings, and the anointing of statues. Bhakti
yoga can extend also to actsAof devotion shown to one’s guru (spiritual
teacher), to one’s parents, and to one’s spouse. The gods worshiped in bhakti
R
yoga will be described later.
K
94
Raja Yoga (“Royal Yoga”) This type of yoga promotes meditation. The
term raja yoga does not appear in the Bhagavad Gita but was introduced
6
later to refer to the steps of meditation
described in the box “Hindu Meditation: More Than Emptying
the
Mind.”
Nonetheless, chapter 6 of the
5
Bhagavad Gita describes basic meditation—sitting quietly, turning inward,
and calming the mind. Done3for short periods of time on a regular basis,
meditation lowers stress and brings
5 a sense of peace; done for longer periods
of time, it can induce new states of consciousness.
There are many types of B
meditation. Some involve emptying the mind
of thought; others involve focusing
U on some physical or mental object. Meditation can be done with one’s eyes closed or open or focused on a point a
short distance in front of the face. A word or brief phrase, called a mantra,
is often recited with each breath to help clear the mind of thought. (The short
mantra Om—which is sometimes called the sound of creation—is frequently
used.) Meditation can be done in silence or to gentle music; it can also be
done while gazing at a candle, at the moon, or at moving water. Some
advanced types of meditation involve techniques taken from additional
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 95
9/4/09
5:24:30 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
Devotional Hinduism
95
yogas. They may have the meditator create symbolic mental images (frequently of a deity), contemplate a sacred diagram (called a yantra), or repeat
complicated sacred phrases. The many techniques
of meditation are called sadhanas (“practices”).
Hatha Yoga (“Force Yoga”) When most of us in the
West think of yoga, we think of the physical exercises of hatha yoga. These exercises, which were
C
originally developed to help make long periods of
meditation easier, mostly involve stretching andH
balancing. Breathing exercises are usually considered a
R
part of hatha yoga.
I
There are many schools of hatha yoga, often
named after their founders. Several have gained
S
great popularity. Among them, Iyengar yoga focuses
T
on correct technique and sequence in doing a large
number of traditional breathing exercises and yoga
I
postures. Bikram yoga involves a series of twenty-six hatha yoga exercises
A heat is meant to make the
and two breathing exercises in a heated room (the
muscles limber and to assist circulation). Ashtanga
N yoga, named after teachings of the Yoga Sutras, is a demanding series of six sequences of highly
,
athletic yogic postures.
In recent years, yoga has
become a part of daily
life for millions of people
across the planet.
Kundalini Yoga Combining elements of both raja yoga and hatha yoga,
M
Kundalini yoga teaches that there are seven psychic centers, called chakras
(“wheels”), that exist, one above the other, along
Athe spinal column. Meditation and physical exercises (as described below) help the meditator lift spirR
itual energy—called kundalini and envisioned as a coiled serpent—from one
center to the next. (Literally kundalini means K
“she who lies coiled.”) Each
chakra is like a gateway through which the kundalini passes, bringing
increased insight and joy. When the kundalini reaches the topmost and seventh
center of energy at the crown of the head, the 6
practitioner experiences profound bliss. The topmost center of energy (sahasrara
5 ) appears in imagery as
a lotus flower, and reaching it is compared to the opening of a lotus.
3
In addition to these six yogas are others. In
5 fact, any systematic set of
techniques that leads to greater spirituality can be considered a yoga.
B
U
DEVOTIONAL HINDUISM
Indians have been primarily a rural, agricultural people, and even today only
about 15 percent of the population lives in cities. The rest live, as they have
for centuries, in more than half a million villages. Men in the villages spend
most of their waking hours working as merchants, craftsmen, and farmers,
while women marry when young and spend most of their time preparing
The chakras are centers
through which energy rises
from the base of the spine
to the crown of the head.
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 96
96
9/4/09
5:24:40 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
food, running their households, and caring for their children. The duties of
everyday life leave little time to pursue more philosophical paths.
For the majority of Hindus, then, some of the spiritual disciplines just
mentioned—study, meditation, and special physical exercises—have had
limited appeal. Instead, the great majority of Hindus have followed the path
of devotion (bhakti) to a god or gods. Hindus worship their gods in village
temples and at home altars. Most worship daily, and there are special days
dedicated to individual gods. Puja, devotional ritual commonly performed
at an altar, involves the offering of flowers, food, fire, and incense to images
C
of a god or gods, as well as the occasional singing of hymns.
The earliest layer of devotional
Hinduism, probably traceable to the
H
Harappa culture, seems to have involved the anointing of phallic stones,
R
devotion to female divinities of fertility, and the worship of nature spirits.
I continues in India today.
This type of religious devotion
The Vedic religion introduced
S its own gods as additional objects of worship. Some of these, such as Indra and Agni, were once highly popular, while
Tdevotees and moved to the background quite
others, such as Dyaüs Pitr, lost
early. In this devotional pattern
I we can see that a certain fluctuation of interest is natural: throughout history, in all religious devotion, interest in some
A fades away.
gods rises and interest in others
Certain gods and goddesses
N seem to have emerged separately, not as a
part of the Vedic pantheon—of these Krishna is one of the best known. Some
animal forms became deified,, and all deities were eventually incorporated
loosely into what is today a fairly large pantheon.
Although Hinduism is often described as a religion that promotes a
M
belief in many gods, in reality individuals tend to focus their devotion on
only one of the gods. Sometimes
A that god is considered to be the greatest of
all divine manifestations. There are also strong tendencies in Hinduism
R
toward both monotheism and even monism, because all gods—and everyK ultimately, to be expressions of a single
thing else as well—are considered,
divine reality. Devotion to an individual god or goddess is often justified by
saying that although the divine is ultimately formless, human beings must
6physical manifestations. This belief gives rise
worship the divine through its
to much painting, sculpture, 5
music, and ceremony in honor of many gods,
who are described in the following sections.
3
5 and Shiva
The Trimurti: Brahma, Vishnu,
B important in the devotional and artistic
Three gods have been particularly
life of Hinduism. Although of
Udiffering origins, they have sometimes been
linked together—particularly in philosophy and art, where they represent
the three forces of creation, preservation, and destruction. The three gods are
Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. When linked together, they are often called the
Trimurti, which means “triple form.”
Brahma represents the creative force that made the universe. He is considered the personal aspect of Brahman and has been thought of as the
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 97
10/19/10
8:44:22 AM user-f469
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152_pagefiles
Devotional Hinduism
special patron of the priestly class, the brahmins. Brahma is commonly
depicted as an ancient, thoughtful king sitting on a throne. He has four faces,
each looking in one of the four directions, and eight arms, each holding
symbols of power. His companion animal is a white goose.
In India, worship of Brahma as a separate deity has declined over the
past two hundred years, although he is still frequently represented in art,
where he is pictured beside Vishnu or Shiva. Perhaps this decline in interest
resulted from the popular view of Brahma in India as grandfatherly, distant,
and less powerful than either Vishnu or Shiva. (Ironically, however, devotion
C
to Brahma remains quite alive in Thailand, where local Buddhist practice
shows many influences from Hinduism. StatuesH
of Brahma appear frequently
in outdoor “spirit houses,” where food and flowers—and sometimes dance—
R
are offered to him for good luck and protection.)
Vishnu represents the force of preservationI in the universe. In the Vedas
he is a god associated with the sun, althoughS
his role there appears to be
small. Thought of as light and warmth that destroys darkness, Vishnu grew
in stature until finally becoming a major god ofT
Hinduism. Today Vishnu (in
various forms) is the most important object of Idevotion in India, and about
three quarters of all Hindus in India worship him or his manifestations. His
A
followers are called Vaishnavites (or Vaishnavas).
In painting and sculpture, Vishnu is shownN
in many forms, though usually with a tall crown and a regal manner. Almost always he has four arms,
,
M
A
R
K
6
5
3
5
B
U
97
Hindus across the world
celebrate Krishna’s birthday. Here we see a worship
service at a temple in the
United States.
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 98 9/7/09 1:29:13 PM user-s131
Stories involving Rama are
part of Hindu-influenced
cultures throughout Southeast Asia. In this staging of
one popular story, Rama
heads off to recapture his
kidnapped wife, Sita.
98
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
which hold symbols of power. His companion animal is a great eaglelike
, through the universe.
bird, Garuda, on whom he flies
Because Vishnu is associated with loving-kindness, it is believed that he
can appear on earth at different times and in various physical forms to help
M
those in need. Ten major incarnations (or avatars) of Vishnu are commonly
listed, of which one is still toAappear. Some previous incarnations were in
animal form: a fish, a boar, and a tortoise. Another was Siddhartha Gautama,
R
the Buddha—an intriguing inclusion, which helped Hinduism partially reabK
sorb Indian Buddhism (see Chapter
4). The incarnation yet to come will be
a savior figure on horseback who will judge the human race. Two incarnations of Vishnu are wildly popular—Rama and Krishna.
6
Rama may have been a historical
figure who later took on mythic proportions. He appears in the 5
great epic the Ramayana, whose stories have
inspired dance as well as art. Rama and his wife, Sita, who are thought of
3
as the ideal couple, are often portrayed
together. One of the most commonly
told stories concerns the abduction
5 of Sita by Ravan (or Ravana), the demon
king of Sri Lanka. Rama, a king, gains the help of Hanuman, leader of the
B in killing Ravan and in locating and returnmonkeys. Hanuman helps Rama
ing Sita. Perhaps because of U
his image as a helper, Hanuman is today an
immensely popular god in his own right. In northern India, Rama is so
revered that the term Ram, or Rama, is really a synonym for “God.”
Krishna, another incarnation of Vishnu, may have begun as an object of
fertility worship. He is depicted in several forms, which might indicate that
he is a coalescence of traditions. In the long epic the Mahabharata, Krishna
appears as a mature and solemn god. In later devotional works, the Puranas
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 99 9/7/09 1:29:32 PM user-s131
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
(“legends”), he is younger; there he is friends with gopis (milkmaids who
, plays the flute, expressing
look after herds of cows), and he steals butter and
the playful aspect of the divine. In depictions of Krishna, his face and skin
are often blue, the color of the sky and of heaven, indicating his true otherM
worldly nature. His closest milkmaid companion is Radha, with whom he
is romantically linked in the Hindu mind.
A
Shiva, the third of the Trimurti and the god linked with destruction, is
R
the most complicated of the gods, both in origin and in conception. The
K that is found on seals from
horned figure, sitting in yogic meditation posture,
the Harappa period may be an early form of Shiva, meaning that some
aspects of the present-day god may extend back to pre-Vedic India. Another
early form is apparently the Vedic god Rudra, a6
dangerous god of mountains
and winds, whom worshipers probably began to
5 call shiva (“lucky”) in order
to neutralize the fear he inspired. In later times, however, his link with
3 appearing at cremation
destructiveness is often shown in pictures of Shiva
grounds above a human body that is dissolving
5 in flames.
Shiva’s connection with destruction may be hard for many non-Hindus
to appreciate. In some religions, destruction isB
associated with divine punishment for wrongdoing. In Hinduism, however,
U destruction is considered
to be simply another part of the divine energy at work in the world.
Destruction is a type of recycling, the necessary loss of form, which occurs
so that new forms may appear; and death is always thought of as leading
to new life. We know that the seed disappears when the tree grows, and
the flower must die to make the fruit. Thus Shiva is also associated with
re-creation.
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
The lobby of Bangkok’s
modern International Airport features this sculpture
based on the Mahabharata.
It depicts Vishnu helping
gods and demons to churn
the elixir of immortality
from a sea of milk.
99
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 100
100
9/4/09
5:24:46 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
The elephant-headed god
Ganesha, son of Shiva, is
believed to help devotees
overcome obstacles. People
often pause before depictions of Ganesha to ask for
success.
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
,
M
A
R
K
6
5
3
5
The destructive side of Shiva is portrayed in the bronze statues called
Shiva Nataraja (“ruler of theB
dance”). As he dances, Shiva is surrounded
by a ring of fire, which shows
U his ability to destroy and transform. His
long yogi’s hair flies in the air. He has four arms, which signify his many
powers. In his upper right arm is a drum, symbolizing creation and the
beginning of time; and in the upper left arm is a flame, symbolizing
destruction. His lower left arm is pointing to his upraised foot, suggesting
that everyone should join him in his dance and be as free as he is. His
lower right arm is extended in blessing, which in a symbolic way says
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 101
9/4/09
5:24:49 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
Devotional Hinduism
“Don’t be afraid.” He dances on a dwarf-demon, representing the ignorance of all those who do not understand that death is part of the divine
process. The art historian Heinrich Zimmer explains that “conquest of this
demon lies in the attainment of true wisdom. Therein is release from the
bondages of the world.”31
The aspect of Shiva that brings re-creation is represented by sexually
suggestive forms. (We should note here that in nonindustrial societies the
bearing of children is crucial—both for the economic survival of the family
and for the care of the parents in their old age. Parents pray to have many
C
healthy children.) A frequent representation of Shiva is a columnar lingam—
often black, which adds to its mystery. It usually
H rests on a yoni—a circular
base that is the female complement to the lingam. The lingam may be a large,
R
natural stone worshiped outdoors; a metal object small enough to be worn
I
around the neck; or a wooden piece of an appropriate
size for worship in
the home. Shaivites (devotees of Shiva) may pour
various
liquids, such as
S
milk and rosewater, over the lingam in an act of devotion.
T
Fertility is further emphasized by Shiva’s companion
animal Nandi, the
bull, and by Ganesha, the elephant-headed sonI of Shiva, who has become a
symbol of strength and abundance. Both are frequently found in temples
A in Kashmir and southdedicated to Shiva. Worship of Shiva is most common
ern India. We should note, too, that Shiva is closely
N linked with destruction
only when he is viewed as part of the Trimurti. Among Shaivites, he is the
,
sole God and is not exclusively related to destruction.
M
The three gods of the Trimurti are usually portrayed
A as masculine. But of all
the great world religions, Hinduism perhaps most strongly recognizes the
R
female aspects of divinity. This may come from a practical interest in fertilK been a part of pre-Vedic
ity. Worship of female divinities, too, seems to have
Worship of the Divine Feminine: Devi
religion, and elements of that early worship have lived on.
The Great Mother, also called Devi (“goddess”), is worshiped throughout India, but particularly in the northeast. She6is portrayed in many forms
and can be both loving and cruel. She is especially
5 harsh to those who show
themselves unworthy of her love. Devi is frequently worshiped with extreme
3
human feeling. The worshiper may take on the emotions
and even the clothing
of a child or spouse of the Great Mother. The mystic
5 Ramakrishna (1836–1886),
priest at a temple near Kolkata (Calcutta), spoke of his special devotion to
her. “I practised austerities for a long time. . .B
. My longing for the Divine
Mother was so great that I would not eat or sleep.
U I would lie on the bare
ground, placing my head on a lump of earth, and cry out loudly: ‘Mother,
Mother, why dost thou not come to me?’ I did not know how the days and
nights passed away. . . . When I reached the state of continuous ecstasy, I
gave up all external forms of worship; I could no longer perform them. Then
I prayed to my Divine Mother: ‘Mother, who will now take care of me? I
have no power to take care of myself.’”33
101
Those who have riches
build temples for Thee;
what shall I build? I am
poor. My legs are the
pillars; this body of
mine is the temple.
—Basavaraja, in praise
of Shiva32
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 102
102
10/19/10
8:46:55 AM user-f469
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152_pagefiles
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
The goddess Durga
overcomes the forces
of evil.
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
,
M
A
R
K
The Divine Feminine appears as several goddesses, of which the most
6 goddess Durga (“awe-inspiring,” “distant”)
popular are Durga and Kali. The
is frequently represented with5eight arms, full of implements used to destroy
evil. Her face is serene, surrounded by a halo, and she wears a crown. She
rides a tiger, which helps her3conquer all dangerous obstacles.
Kali (“dark”) is more fearsome
5 still. She is often shown wearing a necklace of human skulls, and her fanged teeth drip with blood. Her many arms
are full of weapons, which B
are thought to be dangerous to enemies but
protective of her children. Kolkata
U (“Kali’s stairs”) is named after her temple
in this city.
The important role of the Divine Feminine is also seen in the female
consorts who accompany many male deities. They are so much a part of the
male god that the god cannot be active without them, and thus they are
called shaktis (“energies”), because they allow the male gods to be effective
in the human world.
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 103
9/4/09
5:24:50 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
Devotional Hinduism
103
The goddess Saraswati is the consort of Brahma and is far more popular
than he. She is the patron of music, the arts, and culture and is often portrayed with a musical instrument in her hand. The shakti of Vishnu is the
goddess Lakshmi, who is commonly dressed as a queen and sits on a lotus.
As the consort of Vishnu, she dispenses good luck and protection. Shiva is
portrayed with a variety of shaktis, the best known being Parvati and Uma.
Sometimes Shiva is himself portrayed as androgynous: half of his body is
masculine, while the other side shows a female breast. This androgyny represents the unity that underlies all the apparent opposites of reality—a unity
C
also spoken of in the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.
Divinities of nature are frequently female. The
H goddess Ganga, who animates the Ganges River, is a good example. Tree spirits, too, are considered
R
female, and frequently it is women who offer them worship.
I
S
The Guru as Object of Devotion
T
Because Hinduism is not organized in a hierarchical
fashion, devotion to a
guru (spiritual teacher) is a large and ancient component
of Hindu spiritualI
ity. The etymology of the word guru is expressive: “the one who removes
A matter what his or her
darkness.” Anyone who seeks spiritual growth—no
caste or station in life—may seek a guru, whom
N the individual can visit
regularly to seek advice. Even gurus who have taken vows of silence can
,
offer advice and insight to their disciples by writing
on tablets or simply by
looking at them with love.
Although the majority of gurus are men, female gurus are not uncomM
mon. The guru need only be recognized as a person of holiness. Because a
guru expects to be surrounded by students and
A devotees, he or she will
frequently set up an ashram. Usually an ashram is a commune of people
R
living in a single compound, separate from ordinary society, but it may also
K owned and used by the
be in a town and made up of various buildings
devotees. Most gurus stay within their communities, but some travel, even
outside India, to set up additional ashrams elsewhere. Frequently an aging
6 or her closest disciples and
guru will designate a successor from among his
those specially trained.
5
It is common to touch and even kiss the feet of a guru—an act of rever3 and grandparents. To an
ence that is also performed at times for parents
outsider, such an act may seem excessive. However,
many Hindus believe
5
that the guru is both a saint and a living embodiment of the divine. Behind
Bdivine reality exists within
this conception is the recognition that although
all human beings, most people manifest theirUdivine nature inadequately,
because their ignorance and self-centeredness restrict its expression. Such
people are compared to glass windows that are so dusty that only a little
light shines through. However, some people, over many lifetimes of effort,
have reached a stage of such achievement that their ego has disappeared
and their charity has grown immense. In these rare people the innate divine
light shines brilliantly. This view explains why Hindus believe that simply
As a man may be
blindfolded, and led
away, and left in a
strange place; and as,
having been so dealt
with, he turns in every
direction and cries out
for someone to remove
his bandages and show
him the way home; and
as one thus entreated
may loose his bandages
and give him comfort;
and as thereupon he
walks from village to
village, asking his way
as he goes; and as he
arrives home at last—
just so does a man who
meets with an illumined
teacher obtain true
knowledge.
—Chandogya Upanishad34
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 104
104
9/4/09
5:24:50 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
being in the presence of the guru allows the disciple to benefit—like a plant
in the sunshine—from the guru’s spirituality.
This belief also explains the intriguing practice of darshan (“presence”).
Because people of spiritual accomplishment are thought to radiate their
divine nature, disciples find opportunities to be in the presence of the holy
person. Sometimes also a holy person will sit or stand silently, allowing
While priestly roles are
primarily male, females in
Hindu families commonly
take responsibility for much
devotional practice.
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
,
M
A
R
K
6
5
3
5
B
U
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 105
9/4/09
5:24:53 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
Devotional Hinduism
devotees to come forward one by one to look into the teacher’s eyes and to
experience the divine energy that shines out.35
Devotion to Animals
Hinduism is distinctive among world religions for its kindness to animals.
A devout Hindu does not kill or eat animals. Cows often wander along
Indian streets, and cars and taxis take care to drive around them. Furthermore, visitors to some Hindu temples may find monkeys and even mice well
fed and running free. Several extremely popular
Cgods, such as Ganesha and
Hanuman, have animal features; and gods such as Shiva and Vishnu are
H
regularly portrayed in the company of their animal companions. A Shiva
R a statue of Nandi, the
temple would often be thought incomplete without
bull who is Shiva’s vehicle.
I
This devotion to animals in Hinduism has several possible origins: an
S the elephant and tiger; the
ancient deification of powerful animals, such as
desire to neutralize dangerous or mischievousTanimals, such as the snake,
rat, and monkey; and even a sense that human beings and animals have the
I
same origin (a belief also common in native religions).
Belief in reincarnation
has undoubtedly also played a role. When they
see
animals and insects,
A
many Hindus see prehuman beings who, in their spiritual evolution, will
N a feeling of closeness to
eventually become human themselves. This brings
nonhuman forms of animal life.
,
Among the animals, cows receive special veneration. This tradition may
stem from pre-Vedic worship in the Indus River valley of the bull or cow, a
symbol of fertility and economic value. In rural
MIndia, to have a cow is to
have milk and butter, fuel (dried dung), and the warmth and comfort assoA
ciated with household pets. With a cow, one is never utterly destitute. Affection for the cow may also arise from the strong
Rthread of ancient devotion
to the Divine Feminine—hinted at by the commonly used term gau mata,
K
“mother cow.”
This affection is hard for people outside India to understand. But when
one sees an Indian cow, with its gentle face,6ambling peacefully along a
bustling Indian street, then one experiences clearly why the cow is a power5 that Muslims butcher cows
ful symbol in India of all motherliness. (The fact
is a source of terrible friction between the Hindus
3 and Muslims in India.)
5
Indian thought loves multiplicity. “As many asBthe sands of the Ganges” is
a description applied to a variety of subjects. One
U example of multiplicity is
Other Forms of Religious Devotion
the Hindu recognition of immense numbers of gods. Realizing that each god
or goddess may have several forms and may be accompanied by divine consorts and animal companions, we gain a dizzying sense of the limitlessness
of devotional possibilities. In everyday life, every person is expected to have
a religious practice involving at least one of these deities, but the exact form
generally is not dictated, and virtually no form of devotion is rejected.
105
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 106
9/4/09
5:24:53 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
RITUALS AND CELEBRATIONS
Hindu Celebrations
Religious festivals are frequent and usually joyous.
Some are clearly associated with the seasons, such as a
springtime fertility festival and a post-monsoon festival.
Others are related to events in a god’s life, such as the
site of his birth or places he traveled to. Some festivals
are regional, and some are national.
Although India is hot during most of the year, winters can be cold, especially in the north. The spring is
therefore welcomed with the celebration Holi. It is traditional for boys and girls to playfully throw colored water on each other (nowadays some even use squirt
guns), thus evoking images of Krishna’s exploits with
the milkmaids.
After the monsoons of the summer months, the
land is green, the air is cool, and there is a sense of
peacefulness. The season has the feeling of a second
spring and a new beginning. People often spend time
repairing any damages the rains may have caused.
Holidays at this time reenact the power of goodness
to conquer evil forces. For example, Divali, recalling
theC
return of Rama and Sita, is a time when people
clean their houses and illuminate them outside with
H and lights. Ganesha and Lakshmi, who are
candles
both
Rassociated with good fortune, are particularly
honored at this time.
IDurga Puja, held in December and particularly popular
in northeast India, celebrates the goddess Durga’s ability
S
to overcome dangerous powers. People dance in front of
herT
statues in the street, and in Kolkata the festival ends
with the immersion of her statues in the river.
I
A
N
Pilgrimage is a common form of religious expression in Hinduism, as it
,
is in many religions. India is dotted with sites that are held to be sacred to
the most popular gods and goddesses, and devotees of a particular deity
will often try to visit all the M
important sites associated with that deity. Pilgrimages can also involve listening to a famous guru’s sermons and meditating with the guru’s followers.A
PERSONAL
R
KN C E :
EXPERIE
A C R E M AT I O N I N B A L I
A stream flows through tall bamboo at one end of the town, and rice paddies
stretch out to the west. In the6neighboring hills are several fine temples. The
splendid setting of Ubud, this5town in central Bali, has long attracted artists,
and the town has two major museums of Balinese art, which are lovely
buildings in their own right. 3
The town is well located for the exploration of
the rest of the island.
5
I was staying in a small hotel down a dirt road, on the outskirts of town.
Ba steep outdoor staircase, but it had a large
My second-floor room was up
veranda that looked out overUthe rice paddies, and every day I heard two
roosters crow from a house in the middle of the fields. Each morning the
woman who lived next door brought out offerings of flowers and rice on
green leaves, and she put the offering with incense at a small altar, dedicated
to Brahma, in her garden. As soon as she had put out the rice, said her
prayer, and left, birds swooped down to take their share.
106
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 107
9/4/09
5:24:53 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
Personal Experience: A Cremation in Bali
People associate Hinduism with India, but it is the principal religion in
Bali, as well, where it has blended with folk religion in a highly ritualistic
form. When I arrived in Ubud, I went down to the main street to find a
driver. (You don’t want to be your own driver on Bali.) “I’m not interested
in shirts or carvings,” I said to the first driver who offered his help—“just
temples and ceremonies.” He laughed, and we came to a rate quickly.
Because his name, Nyoman, is so common in Bali, he had given himself a
nickname: “Nyoman Blue.” He even had business cards with the name. He
said he liked the color and the sound of the word. Every morning he and I
C
would meet on the main street, across from the Casa Luna restaurant, to
plan our day’s excursion.
H
One morning when we met he said, “We don’t have to drive anywhere
R
today. There’s going to be a cremation just outside town. We can walk.” He
I
took me several blocks away to where the procession
would begin. I had
brought the sarong that I had to wear when S
visiting temples, and put it
around my waist.
T was packed. A life-sized
Already people had assembled, and the street
red wooden bull, carved from a tree trunk, hadIbeen set atop carrying poles.
Nearby was a wooden tower, at the base of which was a small “house” that
contained the remains of the deceased person, A
once an important citizen of
the town. Men in black-and-white checkered sarongs
and gold headbands
N
were chatting cheerfully and smoking Indonesian clove cigarettes. More
, nd shade as we waited, and
people came, but no one looked sad. I tried to fi
then, not knowing how long the procession and cremation would last, I went
off to buy a bottle of water.
M
Just as I returned, the men picked up the tower and the red bull on
its poles. The procession began, the men weaving
A left, right, and sometimes
in circles, often at a run—they wanted to make sure that the spirit of the
R
dead man could not find its way back and cause difficulties. We started up
K went down into a grove
a hill. The road curved to the left as it rose, then
of tall trees beyond the town. At last we reached a grassy clearing. The
men set down what they had carried. I stood under a banyan tree, trying
6 watched as the shrouded
to be unobtrusive. A priest dressed in white
remains were placed within the red bull. The5priest then rang a bell and
sprinkled water, with a flower in his fingers. Women relatives of the
3
deceased came forward to place offerings within
the bull, and a man
nearby held a rooster. Suddenly the red bull erupted
in flames, which shot
5
up to the leaves of the banyan tree under which I stood. The smoke was
intense, and I moved to the other side of theBclearing to escape from it.
Several men went to burn the wooden tower, U
which had been set down in
the back of the clearing, and they seemed to congratulate each other. People chatted—it reminded me of the social time after a church service—then
drifted away slowly. As we went back, I realized at a bend in the road
where I was. I could see the veranda of my hotel, which was just barely
visible on the ridge across the rice paddy.
107
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 108
108
9/4/09
5:24:53 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
A body is cremated in a
ritual bull at the end of an
elaborate procession and
ceremony in Ubud, Bali.
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
,
M
A
R
K
6
5
3
5
B
U
What had struck me was the absence of sadness. Not only was the cremation performed months after the man had died, but any mourning was
dissipated by the belief that the deceased had had other lives in the past
and would probably have more in the future. The cremation had helped
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 109
9/4/09
5:24:54 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
Hinduism and the Arts
transform a body back to basic elements and would allow the spirit to move
onward in the cycle of rebirths and, ultimately, to release.
H I N D U I S M A N D T H E A RT S
Given Hinduism’s tendency toward multiplicity, it is not surprising that
Hindu temples, particularly in southern India, are often covered with statues, many with multiple faces and arms. The concept of multiplicity has a
C
purpose. To appreciate this, think of a wheel that begins to turn. At first,
each spoke of the wheel is visible, but as the wheel
H turns more quickly, the
spokes disappear and dissolve into a unity. The profusion of images in
R
Hindu art can be similarly hypnotic, with the experience of multiplicity freI Profusion thus fits in well
quently leading to an overarching sense of unity.
with the mystical orientation common in Hinduism.
S
Another characteristic of Hindu artistic sensibility is symbolism. One of
the clearest examples is the depiction in paintingTand sculpture of figures with
multiple arms and faces, which are not literal but
I symbolic representations of
power and wisdom. Specific symbols are associated with individual deities and
A is recognized by his flute.
allow them to be identified. Krishna, for example,
Hindu painting can sometimes be disappointing,
N such as the rather garish devotional art sold at temple gates. Many fine paintings of the past have
undoubtedly vanished because of the fragility, of the paper and cloth on
which they were done. The murals that remain, however, demonstrate the
heights that Hindu devotional painting has sometimes attained; and some
M
yantras—geometrical paintings used in meditation—are unforgettable.
Hindu sculpture, however, far outshines Hindu
A painting. Fine pieces of
sturdy stone and metal are on display in India and in museums around the
R
world. Metal sculpture advanced quite early. The finest generic example of
Hindu sculpture is Shiva in his guise as “ruler K
of the dance” (Nataraja)—an
image that was introduced in southern India more than a thousand years
ago but which is still produced today. For many, this sculpture represents
6 with a symbolic meanthe perfection of Hindu art, combining visual beauty
ing that intensifies the visual power.
5
The power of stone sculpture is often quite sensuous. Given the worlddenying aspect of some Hindu thought, one 3might expect that the great
stone sculpture of Hinduism would be ascetic—perhaps
elongated and
5
otherworldly. The opposite is true, however. Some of the best-known examB men and women, enjoying
ples of stone sculpture are the figures of sensuous
life and each other, on the temples of Khajuraho
U in central India. This sort
of sculpture was influenced by Tantrism, the antipuritanical movement that
teaches that everything in the world, including sex, can be used to attain
higher states of consciousness.
Popular Hinduism has made use of hymns to many gods as expressions
of bhakti yoga. Their regular rhythm and repetition help produce a state of
altered consciousness in the worshiper, bringing a sense of selflessness and
109
moL0750X_ch03_074-123.indd Page 110
110
9/4/09
5:24:54 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-03
CHAPTER 3 HINDUISM
union with the divine. Instrumental music—especially involving drums and
the harmonium, a hand-pumped reed organ—has also been an integral part
of religious celebrations for centuries.
Classical Indian instrumental music is less obviously religious, yet much
of it has an undeniable mystical quality. It makes use of ragas, elements of
Indian music that blend features of both scales and melodies. Frequently
these ragas are played and musically developed over deep tones that are
played as a drone. (The sitar, the best-known Indian stringed instrument, has
drone strings on its side.) The drone suggests the underlying timeless world
C
of Brahman, against which changing melodies—suggestions of the world of
time—move. Musical pieces H
often begin quite tentatively, then gradually
speed up to a very quick pace, and suddenly stop, bringing to the listener
R
(and players) an experience of release and peace.
Indian classical dance isI more obviously tied to religion. It interprets
stories derived from the talesS
of the gods, such as Krishna and Rama. Much
of it also originated as a part of religious ceremony, performed at religious
T Dance is meant to produce delicate states of
festivals and in or near temples.
feeling, some of which are thought
to assist contact with particular gods.
I
A
HINDUISM: MODER
NN C H A L L E N G E S
, from other lands by mountains and ocean.
India, as we have seen, is isolated
This has meant that its rural culture and ancient polytheism could develop
undisturbed for centuries. But invasions did occur, inevitably bringing new
M
beliefs and values. Many of these new elements were adopted, but others
were fought.
A
One early invasion was only partially successful. Alexander the Great
R
(d. 323 b.c.e.) brought his army from Greece and reached the Indus River,
K about religion and philosophy. He had
where he talked with sannyasins
hoped to conquer India and then reach China, too; but his men, sick and
discouraged, forced him to turn back, and he died in Babylon on the way
6 to fulfill his plans, his influence in India
home. Had Alexander been able
would have been immense. Despite
his failure to carry them out, though,
5
forms of Greek government and art, brought by the Greek invaders, profoundly influenced northwest3India for centuries.
In the past millennium, two
5 additional waves of influence washed across
India: Islam and the British. Islam first came into India from Afghanistan, and
B in 1206. After invasions from Turkmenistan,
a sultanate was set up in Delhi
the sultanate was supplanted U
by the Mughal dynasty, beginning in 1398. The
Mughal dynasty continued on into the eighteenth century, even as the British
were consolidating their control over much of India.
There could hardly be two religions more in contrast than monotheistic
Islam and polytheistic Hinduism. The contrast has produced intense conflict,
which continues today. The more than five centuries of Islamic rule that
began in 1206 were marked by a spectrum of attitudes toward Hinduism,
moL0750X_ch04_124-187.indd Page 124 9/9/09 5:49:16 PM user-s131
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-04
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
,
M
A
R
K
6
5
3
5
B
U
moL0750X_ch04_124-187.indd Page 125
CHAPTER
10/19/10
8:50:25 AM user-f469
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152_pagefiles
4
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
ENCOUNTER
,
Buddhism
FIRST
You have arrived in Bangkok, the first stop on a
study-tour of Southeast Asia that later will also
M
take you to Cambodia and Laos. Your first hours
in the city bring you a chaos
A of sights and sounds.
On the bus from the airport, you notice a number
R
of golden temples, but also a monorail and, everywhere, traffic jams. TheKcity’s core is a jungle of
modern glass skyscrapers, one of which is your
hotel. After you check in, you walk outside to see
6 the hotel are vendors
where you are. All around
with carts cluttering the5cracked sidewalks, selling
mango slices, chunks of pineapple, little pancakes,
3 watches, keys, false teeth,
orchid plants, sunglasses,
and toy motorcycles made
5 of soda cans. You’re jetlagged, but you’ve seen enough to fall asleep,
knowing that you are B
now in the middle of an
overwhelming tapestry U
of humanity.
In the morning, following your hotel’s breakfast buffet, your group is bussed to the World Buddhist Fellowship headquarters, where you listen to
a shaven-headed westerner in an orange robe. He
says that he is ordinarily a “forest monk” in northeast Thailand but is in the capital for a few days to
125
moL0750X_ch04_124-187.indd Page 126 9/8/09 11:35:13 AM user-s131
126
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-04
CHAPTER 4 BUDDHISM
teach. After explaining that meditation is at the heart of a monk’s life, he
discusses the principles of meditation, some of which sound familiar. With
his guidance, you and your friends then practice different forms of meditation. First you do sitting meditation, simply being aware of your breathing,
in and out. After that you do walking meditation. He makes you walk
very slowly, telling you to think about nothing other than the experience of each step you take.
After lunch back at the hotel, you have the afternoon to
yourself. Just a couple of blocks away, partially visible through
C
an alley, is what looks like a large temple. The monk this
morning told H
you that Thailand’s temples are almost always
open to the public. So you head up the alley and then walk
R
up a long flight of stairs to the temple’s entrance. There are
many pairs of Ishoes outside the door, and you add yours to
the collection. You
S step inside, pause to let your eyes adjust
to the dimmer light, and notice the subsiding traffic noise.
Despite all theTshoes, you see only one other person, someone sitting very stillI in the middle of the floor. From her posture,
you assume that she is practicing sitting meditation. Not wanting to
A inside the door. After you cross your legs,
disturb her, you sit quietly just
you place your hands in yourN
lap and begin to meditate yourself, trying hard
to focus only on your breathing.
, quietly since the woman sitting on the floor
Eventually you leave, very
has still not moved. You wonder why people come to a temple to do this.
Don’t you usually go to temples for services, or to pray? Is meditation a
M
form of praying? How can you pray if you don’t use words? You become
curious about the life of the Buddha,
the founder of this religion, and wonA
der where all of this began.
R
K
THE BEGINNINGS OF BUDDHISM:
THE LIFE OF THE BUDDHA
6
Buddhism is one of the world’s
5 oldest and most significant religions. It has
spread through almost all of Asia, influencing the many cultures there, and
3 West. But it had its beginnings in India and
is now gaining followers in the
arose from the experience of 5
one person.
India in the fifth century b.c.e. was in a state of religious ferment. Great
B experience led people to experiment with
enthusiasm for personal religious
meditation and deep breathing
Uand to study with gurus. A growing number
of schools of philosophy taught new ways of thinking, some of which
opposed the growth of the priestly Vedic religion. Into this world came
Siddhartha Gautama, who would come to be known as the Buddha, or the
Awakened One.
Because so many devout legends have grown up around the story of
the Buddha’s life and teaching, it is sometimes hard to separate fact from
moL0750X_ch04_124-187.indd Page 127
9/5/09
1:18:34 AM user-s173
/Volumes/MHSF-New/MHSF152/MHSF152-04
The Beginnings of Buddhism: The Life of the Buddha
C
H
R
I
S
T
I
A
N
,
M
A
R
K
6 biography of the Buddha,
fiction.1 Although there is no single, authoritative
his legendary life follows these outlines. Siddhartha
was born the son of a
5
prince of the Shakya tribe in what is today Nepal, in the lower Himalaya
Mountains. Legend says that his mother, Maya,3
dreamt that a white elephant
entered her side—this was the moment of5 conception of the future
Buddha—and that Siddhartha was born miraculously from her side.
B and the boy was raised
Siddhartha’s mother died a week after childbirth,
by his aunt.
U
When a sage inspected the child, he saw special marks on Siddhartha’s
body, indicating that he would be an illustrious person. At his naming ceremony, priests foretold that his life could go in one of two directions: either he
would follow in his father’s footsteps, inheriting his position and becoming a
great king, a “world ruler”; or, if he were exposed to the...
Purchase answer to see full
attachment