Enhancing Communication Skills in Groups
“As I grow older, I pay less attention to what people say; I just watch what they do.”
—Andrew Carnegie
CHAPTER OUTLINE
Verbal Dynamics in Small Groups
Listening
The Importance of Nonverbal Communication in Groups
Applications of Nonverbal Communication Research to Groups and Teams
Functions of Nonverbal Cues in Groups
Interpreting Nonverbal Communication
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
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Describe three “word barriers” and know how to avoid them.
Identify four listening styles and describe two major obstacles to effective listening.
Explain why nonverbal communication is important to the study of groups.
Apply research findings about nonverbal communication to groups and teams.
Discuss the functions of nonverbal cues in groups.
Describe how nonverbal cues should be interpreted in light of gender and cultural
differences.
Identify guidelines for interpreting nonverbal communication in small groups.
In Chapter 2 we asserted that good theory informs good practice. This book addresses
a wide range of theories and principles and, based on them, makes recommendations
about practices that can lead to more effective group and team communication. This
chapter is about the core event in group communication: communication itself. We’ll
focus on three essential skills: using words accurately, listening, and communicating
nonverbally.
Verbal Dynamics in Small Groups
The most obvious yet elusive component of small-group communication is the spoken
word. Words are at the heart of who and what people are. Their ability to represent the
world symbolically gives humans the capacity to foresee events, to reflect on past
experiences, to plan, to make decisions, and to consciously control their own behavior.
Words as Barriers to Communication
Words are the tools with which people make sense of the world and share that sense
with others. Paradoxically, words can both facilitate and impede communication.
Spoken language gives individuals access to the ideas and inner worlds of other group
members, but it can also—intentionally or unintentionally—set up barriers to effective
communication.
If you grew up in the United States, you can probably remember chanting defensively,
“Sticks and stones can break my bones but names can never hurt me.” Even as you
uttered this line, you knew it wasn’t true. People often unwittingly communicate in ways
that threaten others and make them feel defensive. As noted in Chapter 6, when group
members feel a need to protect themselves, they shift their attention from the group’s
goal to their personal goal of self-protection, thus creating a barrier to effective group
process. Some subtle but pervasive word barriers are (1) bypassing, (2) allness, and (3)
fact-inference confusion.
Bypassing
The meanings of your words seem so obvious to you that you assume they elicit the
same meanings from others. Nothing could be further from the truth. Bypassing takes
place when two people assign different meanings to the same word. Most words are
open to almost limitless interpretations—consider, for example, the words love, respect,
and communication. Similarly, you may know precisely what you mean if you say that
the department’s account is “seriously overdrawn,” but how are others to interpret that?
How serious is “seriously”?
According to some estimates, the 500 most frequently used words in the English
language have over 14,000 dictionary definitions. Considering that a dictionary
definition reflects only a tiny percentage of all possible meanings for a word and that
people from different cultures and with different experiences interpret words
differently, it is amazing that people can understand one another at all.
The number of people involved in groups compounds the problem; the possibility for
multiple misunderstandings always exists. Therefore, good feedback among group
members is essential. Feedback is any response by listeners that lets speakers know
whether they have been understood accurately. To overcome word barriers, people must
understand that words are subjective. They need to check that what they understand
from others is really what those others intend.
Throughout our discussion of the power of verbal messages, we invite you to keep this
important idea in mind: You can influence, but cannot control, the meaning others
derive from your messages. Meaning is created in others.1 Words do not have meaning
in and of themselves.
Allness
Allness statements are simple but untrue generalizations. You have probably heard
such allness statements as “Women are smarter than men,” “Men can run faster than
women,” and “Football players aren’t good students.” These statements are convenient,
but they simply are not accurate. The danger of allness statements is that you may begin
to believe them and to prejudge other people unfairly based on them. Therefore, be
careful not to overgeneralize; remember that each individual is unique.
Fact-Inference Confusion
Statements of fact can be made only after direct observation. Inferences can be made at
any time; no observation is necessary to make an inference. Fact-inference
confusion occurs when people respond to something as if they have actually observed
it, when in reality they have merely drawn a conclusion. The key distinction between a
fact and an inference is that in statements of inference people can speculate about and
interpret what they think occurred. Suppose, for example, that you hear someone
comment, “Men are better than women at math.” If this statement were true, it would
mean that all men and women were tested and that the results indicated that men are
better in math than women. The statement is an inference. If the speaker is
summarizing research that has investigated the issue, he or she should say, “Some
studies have found that. . . .” rather than “It’s a fact that. . . .” The first statement more
accurately describes reality than does the second. Like bypassing and allness statements,
fact-inference confusion can lead to inaccuracy and misunderstanding.
REVIEW: WORD BARRIERS AND HOW TO
AVOID THEM
Barrier
Bypassing
Allness
statements
Fact-inference
confusion
Description
Occurs when the same word is
used to mean different things
Approach
Use specific language; be aware of multiple interpretations o
what you say; clarify.
Don’t overgeneralize; remember that all individuals are
Simple but untrue generalizations
unique.
Mistaking a conclusion you have Clarify and analyze; learn to recognize the difference betwee
drawn for an observation
fact and inference, and communicate the difference clearly.
12-29-09 © 2009 Scott Adams, Inc./Dist. By UFS, Inc.
Listening
Good listening skills are an important component of being an effective group member or
leader.2However, poor listening habits are one of the most common sources of
defensiveness and discord. It is easier to be a poor listener in groups than it is in
interpersonal situations because often in a group you do not have to respond to the
speaker. After all, the other group members can always pick up the conversation.
However, groups cannot reach their maximum effectiveness unless all members listen
actively to one another.
Listening is a skill that can be improved with practice. It is an active process through
which people select, attend, understand, and remember. To listen effectively, people
must actively select and attend to the messages they receive. This involves filtering out
the other stimuli that compete for their attention: the hunger pangs they’re starting to
feel, mental lists of the groceries they need to pick up on the way home, or curiosity
about the attractive person nearby. Improving any skill takes knowledge and practice.
This section will provide some knowledge. The practice is up to you. Are you listening?
Listening Styles
Do your ears perk up when you hear someone telling an interesting story, or would you
be more interested in listening to data, facts, and details? There is evidence that
different people have different listening styles.3 Your listening style is your preferred
way of making sense out of the spoken messages you hear.4 Listening researchers have
identified four overarching listening styles: people-oriented, action-oriented, contentoriented, and time-oriented.
What difference does it make to know your preferred listening style? In a small group,
with multiple verbal messages coming at you from several people, you may find yourself
focused more on one person’s message than another’s. We’ll discuss each of the four
listening styles so that you can identify your preferred style and develop strategies for
listening that may not come naturally to you.
People-Oriented Listeners
People-oriented listeners are most comfortable listening to other people’s feelings and
emotions. They empathize with others and search for common areas of interest; they are
other-oriented. In a small group, people-oriented listeners will focus on the stories
others tell and be good at developing relationships and fulfilling group maintenance
roles. People-oriented, interpersonally sensitive group leaders tend to have more
satisfied subordinates.5
Action-Oriented Listeners
Action-oriented listeners prefer information that is well-organized, brief, and error free.
While a people-oriented listener likes to hear longer stories about others, actionoriented listeners want others to get to the point so that they can figure out what to do
with the information. Action-oriented listeners tend to be a bit more skeptical of what
they hear; they are likely to focus on the underlying reasoning and evidence that
supports the conclusions presented. Action-oriented listeners help a group stay focused
on the task and assess the quality of information presented. They are more likely to
assume task-oriented roles to achieve the group’s goal.
Content-Oriented Listeners
Content-oriented listeners like information-rich content; they are more comfortable
listening to complex, detailed information than are people with other listening styles. A
content-oriented listener is likely to perk up when someone says, “Here are five things
we should consider.” If a message does not include enough supporting evidence and
specific details, the content-oriented listener will be more likely to reject the message. A
content-oriented listener would be a good person to take notes at group meetings and to
help the group analyze the issues.
Time-Oriented Listeners
Time-oriented listeners prefer brief messages. They are busy and do not have time to
listen to long, rambling talks. Time-oriented listeners remain constantly aware of the
amount of time they have to listen. That is why it’s good to have time-oriented listeners
in a group—they will help the group keep on schedule and stay focused on the agenda.
There is no single best listening style for communicating in groups and teams.
Listening and other human communication processes are changing to accommodate the
cyber world of the twenty-first century.6 Each style has its advantages and
disadvantages. If you were focused only on distilling from the speaker’s words a brief
and concise message (that is, if you were a time-oriented listener), you would not be as
attuned to the relationships and feelings of others (people-oriented listeners). And
although it’s good to focus on details (as would a content-oriented listener) or on what
the action steps are (as would an action-oriented listener), spending too much time on
the task without being aware of relationships can also be detrimental to a group. Just as
it’s a good thing for groups to have people play a variety of roles, it’s also useful for
groups to have people with differing listening styles. If, for example, most of your group
members are people-oriented listeners, then the group will have to be more mindful of
focusing on facts, data, and evidence. On the other hand, a team composed entirely of
content- or action-oriented listeners may need to ensure that they are managing the
relational aspects of the group. Once you know your own preferred listening style, you
can work to develop other styles, so you will be able to adapt your style to different
situations.
Obstacles to Effective Listening
Regardless of your listening style, you need to overcome the common obstacles to
effective listening. There are many such obstacles—outside distractions, an
uncomfortable chair, a headache—but the focus here will be on two prevalent and
serious barriers: prejudging and rehearsing.
Prejudging the Communicator or the
Communication
Sometimes you simply dislike certain people or always disagree with them. You
anticipate that what these people will say will be offensive, and you begin to tune them
out. An example of this is many people’s tendency to “tune out” the speeches of
politicians who hold political beliefs different from their own. In a group, you must
overcome the temptation to ignore those you think are boring, pedantic, offensive, or
wrong. Good ideas can come from anyone, even from people with whom you disagree.
Likewise, you should not prejudge certain topics as being too complex, boring, or
controversial. This can be difficult, especially when a cherished belief is criticized or
when others say things about you that you might not want to hear. These are precisely
the times when communication needs to be clear, open, honest, and confirming. To
communicate effectively, you need to listen.
Good listening skills are an important characteristic of a good group member.
It is especially important not to prejudge others on the basis of culture, ethnicity, or
race. Despite continuing social progress, such prejudices linger.7 In one study, college
students indicated that racial stereotypes are alive and well. African Americans said that
Whites were “demanding” and “manipulative.” Whites reported that Blacks are “loud”
and “ostentatious.”8 Such prejudices inhibit our ability to listen effectively and also
foster defensiveness in groups.
Rehearsing a Response
Communication scholar John Shotter observed that “in our talk with others, we listen
for opportunities to express our own point of view, to add it to or contrast it with
theirs.”9 While looking for such opportunities and planning what we will say, we are
actually sacrificing an opportunity to fully understand and be understood. Rehearsing is
perhaps the most difficult listening obstacle to overcome. It is the tendency people have
to rehearse in their minds what they will say when the other person stops speaking. One
of the reasons for this is the difference between speech rate and thought rate. Most
people speak at a rate of about 100–125 words per minute, but they have the capacity to
think or listen at a rate of 400 or more words per minute! This gives them the time to
wander off mentally while keeping one ear on the speaker. The thought-speech
differential is better used, though, to attend fully to what the speaker is saying—and not
saying. When people learn to do this, their responses can be more spontaneous,
accurate, appropriate, confirming, and supportive.10
© 2010 Scott Adams, Inc./Dist. by UFS, Inc.
A Guide to Active Listening
Supportive, confirming communication focuses not only on verbal messages but on the
emotional content of the messages and on nonverbal behaviors as well. Learning to
quiet one’s own thoughts and to avoid prejudging others is a first step. Fully
understanding others, though, involves considerable effort. Active listening is an
attempt to clarify and understand another’s thoughts and feelings. To listen actively
involves several steps. These steps may seem like common sense, but they are far from
common practice.
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1. Stop: Before you can effectively tune in to what someone else may be feeling, you
need to stop what you are doing, eliminate as many distractions as possible, and
focus fully on the other person.11 Two listening researchers conducted a study to
identify the specific behaviors of good listeners.12 What they discovered supports our
admonition that the first thing you have to do to be a better listener is to stop
focusing on your own mental messages and instead be other-oriented. Specifically,
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here are five actions you should take during what the researchers called the “preinteraction phase” of listening:
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Put your own thoughts aside.
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Be there mentally, not only physically.
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Make a conscious, mindful effort to listen.
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Take adequate time to listen—don’t rush the speaker; be patient.
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Be open-minded.
2. Look: Now look for clues that will help you identify how the other person is feeling.
Most communication of emotion comes through nonverbal cues. The face provides
important information about how a person is feeling, as do voice quality, pitch, rate,
volume, and use of silence. Body movement and posture clearly indicate the intensity
of a person’s feelings. We will discuss the role of nonverbal messages in more detail
later in the chapter.
3. Listen: Listen for what another person is telling you. Even though that person may
not say exactly how he or she feels, look for cues. Match verbal with nonverbal cues to
decipher both the content and the emotion of the person’s message. In addition, ask
yourself, “How would I feel if I were in that person’s position?” Try to interpret the
message according to the sender’s code system rather than your own.
4. Ask appropriate questions: As you try to understand another person, you may
need to ask some questions. Most of them will serve one of four purposes: (1) to
obtain additional information (“How soon will you be ready to give your part of our
presentation?”); (2) to find out how someone feels (“Are you feeling overwhelmed by
this assignment?”); (3) to ask for clarification of a word or phrase (“What do you
mean when you say you didn’t realize what you were getting into?”); and (4) to verify
your conclusion about your partner’s meaning or feeling (“Are you saying that you
can’t complete the project without some additional staff assistance?”).
5. Paraphrase content: Restate in your own words what you think another person is
saying. Paraphrasing is different from parroting back everything that person has said.
After all, you can repeat something perfectly without understanding what it means.
Rather, from time to time, summarize the message another person has given you so
far. Paraphrasing can help both listener and speaker understanding. Paraphrasing is
also associated with increased liking for the listener.13
Emily:
Howard:
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I think this job is too much for me; I’m not qualified to do it.
You think you lack the necessary skills.
Note that at this point Howard is dealing only with the content of Emily’s message.
The goal of active listening, though, is to understand both the feelings and the
content of another person’s message.
6. Paraphrase feelings: In the example just given, Howard could follow his
paraphrase of the content of the message with a question such as, “You’re probably
feeling pretty frustrated right now, aren’t you?” Such a paraphrase would allow Emily
either to agree with Howard’s assessment or to clarify how she’s feeling. For instance,
she might respond, “No, I’m not frustrated. I’m just disappointed that the job’s not
working out.”
A summary of active listening skills would be to act like an active listener and to
suspend judgment. Effective listening skills can contribute a great deal to building a
supportive, cohesive group.14Effective listening is also the cornerstone of critical
thinking—the skill required to make decisions and solve problems effectively, as you’ll
learn in later chapters. For now, we turn our attention to the second step of active
listening: looking for nonverbal communication.
The Importance of Nonverbal Communication in
Groups
Nonverbal communication is communication behavior that does not rely on written
or spoken words. This definition includes body posture and movement, eye contact,
facial expression, seating arrangement, spatial relationships, personal appearance, use
of time, and even tone of voice. Although the words someone utters are not classified as
nonverbal communication, the pitch, quality, and intonation of the voice, the rate of
speaking, and the use of silence can speak volumes; thus, vocal tone is considered part
of nonverbal communication.
Every message contains both content and information about relationships. Nonverbal
messages, particularly facial expression and vocal cues, are often the prime source of
information about interpersonal relationships. Thus, they play important functions in
metacommunication—which means communication about communication. The
nonverbal aspects of a message communicate information about its verbal aspects.
You have undoubtedly participated in group and team meetings that were dull and
boring. Although not all unexciting group discussion results from poor or inappropriate
nonverbal communication, group members’ posture, facial expression, tone of voice,
and unspoken enthusiasm (or lack of enthusiasm) dramatically affect a group’s climate
and members’ attitudes toward the group. We’ll examine three reasons why nonverbal
communication variables are important to group discussion.
More Time Is Spent Communicating Nonverbally
Than Verbally
In a group or team discussion, usually only one person speaks at a time. The rest of the
members can, however, emit a host of nonverbal cues that influence the deliberations.
(Some cues are controlled consciously, others are emitted less intentionally.) Eye
contact, facial expression, body posture, and movement occur even when only one
person is speaking. Because group members are usually within just a few feet of one
another, they can easily observe most nonverbal cues. In other words, it is safe to say
that “you cannot not communicate.”
Emotions and Feelings Are Typically Expressed
Nonverbally Rather Than Verbally
In the past several chapters we identified factors that influence the climate of a group,
what it feels like to be a group member. If a group member is frustrated with the group
or disenchanted with the discussion, more than likely you will detect those feelings by
observing that person’s nonverbal behavior—even before he or she verbalizes any
frustration. If a member seems genuinely interested in the discussion and pleased with
the group’s progress, this, too, can be observed through nonverbal behavior. Albert
Mehrabian and some of his colleagues devised a formula that suggests how much of the
total emotional meaning of a message is based on verbal components and how much on
nonverbal components.15 According to this research, only 7 percent of the emotional
meaning of a message is communicated through its verbal content. About 38 percent of
the emotional content is derived from the voice (its pitch, quality, and volume and the
rate of speech). The largest source of emotional meaning, 55 percent, is a speaker’s facial
expression. Thus, approximately 93 percent of the emotional portion of a message is
communicated nonverbally. Although these percentages cannot be applied to all
situations, Mehrabian’s research suggests that when inconsistencies exist between
people’s verbalized emotional states and their true emotions, expressed non-verbally,
nonverbal cues carry more clout in determining how receivers interpret speakers’
emotions.
Vincent Brown and his colleagues suggest that the expression of feelings and emotions
during group discussion can have a negative effect on group members’ brainstorming
ideas.16 During a freewheeling brainstorming session, group members are not supposed
to evaluate others’ ideas, yet because of nonverbal expression of feelings, it’s almost
impossible not to let true positive or negative feelings leak out.
Nonverbal Messages Are Usually More Believable
Than Verbal Messages
Nonverbal communication affects how others interpret our messages. Nonverbal cues
are so important to communication that when a verbal message (either spoken or
written) contradicts a nonverbal message, people are more inclined to believe the
nonverbal message. The group member who sighs and, with a sarcastic edge, says, “Oh,
what a great group this is going to be,” communicates just the opposite meaning of that
verbal message. One researcher suggests that as much as 65 percent of the way we
convey meaning in our messages is through nonverbal channels.17
An understanding of nonverbal communication, then, is vital to even a superficial
understanding of communication in general and of group communication in particular.
As you become a more skillful observer of nonverbal behavior, you will understand more
thoroughly the way people interact in small groups.
Applications of Nonverbal Communication
Research to Groups
Relatively few research studies have investigated nonverbal behavior in groups. Despite
the undoubted importance of nonverbal group dynamics to group discussion,
researchers have found this aspect of communication difficult to observe and
investigate. When group members simultaneously emit a myriad of nonverbal
behaviors, it is difficult to systematically observe and interpret them. In addition,
nonverbal messages are considerably more ambiguous than verbal messages. No
dictionary has definitive meanings for nonverbal behaviors. We suggest that you
exercise caution, then, in attempting to interpret the nonverbal behavior of other group
members.
The following sections describe some research that should help you become more
sensitive to your own nonverbal behavior and to the role nonverbal communication
plays in group discussions. Specifically, the sections discuss research on the following
aspects of nonverbal communication in small groups: (1) physical posture, movement,
and gestures; (2) eye contact; (3) facial expressions; (4) vocal cues; (5) personal space;
(6) territoriality; (7) seating arrangement; (8) personal appearance; and (9) the
communication environment.18
Posture, Movement, and Gestures
To observe and analyze posture, movement, and gestures, Paul Ekman and Wallace
Friesen have identified five major types of nonverbal behavior: (1) emblems, (2)
illustrators, (3) affect displays, (4) regulators, and (5) adaptors.19
Emblems are nonverbal cues that have specific verbal counterparts and are shared by
all group members. Emblems often take the place of spoken words, letters, or numbers.
Group leaders who place index fingers vertically in front of their lips use a nonverbal
emblem to take the place of the words “Shhhh, let’s be quiet now.” A hitchhiker’s raised
thumb and a soldier’s salute are other examples of emblems. Group members who point
to their watches to indicate that the group should get on with it because time is running
out, or who use their index fingers and thumbs to signify all is okay, also depend on
nonverbal emblems to communicate their messages.
Illustrators are nonverbal behaviors that add meaning to accompanying verbal
messages. For example, a group member who emphasizes a spoken message while
jabbing a raised index finger in the air with each word illustrates conviction and
determination. Several researchers have observed that people synchronize many of their
body movements to their speech.20 A blink of the eyes, a nod of the head, or a shift in
body posture can accent spoken messages.
An affect display is a nonverbal cue that communicates emotion. As mentioned
before, the face is the primary source of emotional display, but research suggests that
the body indicates the intensity of the emotion, or affect, that is being expressed. For
example, the faces of group members may indicate that they are bored. If they are also
slouched in their chairs, they are probably more than just moderately apathetic about
the discussion.
Regulators are nonverbal behaviors that help a group control the flow of
communication. They are very important to small-group discussions because people rely
on them to know when they should talk and when they should listen. Regulators also
provide cues to indicate when other group members want to contribute to the
discussion. Eye contact, posture, gestures, facial expression, and body position all help
regulate communication in a group discussion. Generally, large groups operate with a
rather formal set of regulators; for example, participants raise their hands so that the
chairperson will recognize them before they speak. In a less formal discussion, group
members rely on direct eye contact (to indicate that a communication channel is open),
facial expression (raised eyebrows often signify a desire to talk), and gestures (such as a
raised index finger) as cues to regulate the flow of communication. When nonverbal
regulators are absent, such as during electronic collaboration when team members are
not in the same physical location, team members have a more difficult time coordinating
their conversation.
Adaptors are nonverbal acts that satisfy personal needs and help people adapt to their
immediate environment. Adaptors are also important for learning to get along with
others and for responding to certain situations. Generally, people are not aware of most
of their adaptive nonverbal behavior. Self-adaptors, for example, are things people do to
their own bodies, such as scratching, biting their nails, or twirling their hair.
Researchers have noted that when people become nervous, anxious, or upset, they
frequently display more self-adaptive behaviors.21
Eye Contact
Eye contact, posture, facial expression, and vocal clues tell other people how involved or
uninvolved you are in the discussion. What nonverbal cues are evident here, and what
do they tell you about the people in the photo?
Have you ever felt uncomfortable because the person you were talking to seemed
reluctant to establish eye contact? Maybe you’ve wondered, “Why doesn’t she look at me
when she’s talking to me?” Perhaps you’ve had just the opposite experience—the person
you were talking to would not stop staring at you. You become uneasy in these situations
because they violate norms of eye contact. Although you may think that you do a pretty
good job of establishing eye contact with others, researchers estimate that most people
look at others only between 30 and 60 percent of the time.22 Eye contact usually lasts
less than 10 seconds.
Researchers have identified several factors that determine when you look at another
person:23 You are listening rather than talking; you like the other person; you want to
persuade or influence someone; you have a high need for approval or affiliation; you
seek a response from someone.
REVIEW: CATEGORIES OF NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Category
Description
Example
Movements and gestures that replace spoken
Group members shake their heads to communica
Emblems
messages
“no”
Nonverbal behaviors that add meaning to
A group member holds her hands 3 feet apart
Illustrators
accompany verbal communication
while saying, “We’ll need about a yard of fabric
Affect
Expressions of feeling
Frowning, smiling, grimacing, smirking
displays
Nonverbal behaviors that control the flow of
Eye contact, raising a hand or a finger to signal
Regulators
communication within a group
you want to talk
Nonverbal acts that satisfy personal needs and help
Adaptors
Scratching, yawning, adjusting your glasses
group members adapt to their environment
Other circumstances will dictate when you are less likely to have eye contact with
someone: You are from a culture in which people tend not to look directly at others; you
are embarrassed; you do not want to talk or participate in the discussion; you don’t like
someone; you are shy or introverted; you have a low need for approval.
When eye contact does occur in a small-group setting, it may serve one or more
important functions: (1) cognitive, (2) monitoring, (3) regulatory, and (4) expressive.24
Cognitive Function
The cognitive function of eye contact (or lack of it) is to indicate thought processes. For
example, some people look away when they are thinking of just the right word to say.
Others look away before they speak so they won’t be distracted by the person to whom
they are talking.
Monitoring Function
Monitoring is the way you seek feedback from others when communicating with them.
You make eye contact in order to monitor how your message is being received. For
example, if you say something that other members disagree with, you may observe a
change in facial expressions, body posture, or restless movement. Because you’ve
monitored their nonverbal expression, you may then decide that you need to spend
more time explaining your point.
Regulatory Function
Eye contact plays a vital role in regulating the back-and-forth flow of communication; it
signals when the communication channel is open or closed. You can invite interaction
simply by looking at others. If the chair of a committee asks for volunteers and you don’t
want to participate, you are unlikely to establish eye contact. Nonverbally this says, “I
don’t want to talk; I don’t want to participate.”
Expressive Function
Although eyes generally do not provide clues about specific emotions, the areas of the
face immediately around the eyes provide quite a bit of information about feelings,
emotions, and attitudes.
Eye contact or lack of it thus reveals information about thought processes, provides
feedback, regulates communication channels, and expresses emotions. Eye contact also
provides clues about status and leadership roles in small groups. One researcher has
documented that group members who talk more receive more eye contact.25 In addition,
research suggests that eye contact is the predominant cue that regulates when you want
to speak and when you want to stop speaking during group discussion.26 In the next
small-group meeting you attend, determine who receives the most eye contact in the
group. Where do group members look for information and guidance? They probably
look at the group leader. If, as in many groups, several members share leadership,
participants may look toward any of those leaders, depending on the specific problem or
level of uncertainty facing the group.
REVIEW: FUNCTIONS OF EYE CONTACT
Cognitive function: Provides cues about thought processes
Monitoring function: Allows feedback from others
Regulatory function: Signals when the communication channel is open and closed
Expressive function: Provides information about feelings, emotions, and attitudes
Facial Expressions
As discussed before, the face is the most important revealer of emotions. Sometimes you
can mask your emotional expressions, but the face is usually the first place you look to
determine someone else’s emotional state. Facial expressions are particularly significant
in interpersonal and small-group communication because of the close proximity of
communicators to one another. You can readily detect emotions displayed on a person’s
face. Even though some researchers estimate that the face can produce thousands of
different expressions, Ekman and Friesen have identified six primary emotions
displayed on it: happiness, anger, surprise, sadness, disgust, and fear.27
Ekman and his colleagues have also developed a method of identifying which areas of
the face play the most important roles in communicating emotion.28 According to this
research, people communicate happiness with the area around their eyes and with
smiles and raised cheeks. They reveal disgust with raised upper lips, wrinkled noses,
lowered eyelids, and lowered brows. They communicate fear with the area around their
eyes, but their mouths are also usually open when they are fearful. When they are angry,
people are likely to lower their eyebrows and stare intensely. They communicate
surprise with raised eyebrows, wide-open eyes, and often open mouths. They
communicate sadness in the area around the eyes and mouth.
Vocal Cues
“John,” remarked a group discussion member, obviously upset, “it’s not that I object to
what you said; it’s just the way you said it.” The pitch, rate, volume, and quality of your
voice (also called paralanguage) are important in determining the meanings of
messages. From a speaker’s paralanguage cues you can make inferences about how that
person feels toward you. You may also base inferences about a person’s competence and
personality on vocal cues. A speaker who mispronounces words and uses “uhs” and
“ums” will probably be perceived as less credible than a speaker who is more
articulate.29 In addition to determining how speech affects a speaker’s credibility,
researchers have studied the communication of emotion via vocal cues.30
At times you can distinguish emotional states from vocal cues, but as a group member
you should beware of drawing improper inferences and labeling someone negatively just
because of vocal cues.31 As this chapter has emphasized, nonverbal cues do not operate
in isolation. They should be evaluated in the context of other communicative behaviors.
Personal Space
The next time you are sitting in class, note the seat you select. Even though no one
instructed you to do so, chances are that you tend to sit in about the same general area,
if not in the same seat, during each class. Perhaps in your family each person sits at a
certain place at the dinner table. If someone sits in your chair, you feel your territory has
been invaded and you may try to reclaim your seat. Human behavior with respect to
personal space and territoriality reflects competition between the need for affiliation
with others and the need for privacy.32
Research pioneer Edward T. Hall investigated the silent language of how we use the
personal space around us. His investigation of proxemics, the study of how close or far
away we choose to be to other people and objects, helps us better understand how our
use of personal space gives us clues about the relationships we have with others.33 Hall
identified four spatial zones that people in Western cultures typically use, depending on
the activity and nature of the relationship they have with those around them. Figure
7.1 illustrates each of these zones.
•
Intimate zone: Between 0 and 11/2 feet. This is the zone in which our most personal
and intimate conversation occurs. It would be unusual in a group to have someone
this close to you unless you are whispering something confidential in his or her ear.
FIGURE 7.1 Edward T. Hall’s Four Zones of
Space
•
•
•
Personal zone: Between 11/2 and 4 feet. Most conversations with family and friends
occur in this zone. Group members may sit within this zone, but even at 4 feet we
may feel that the other person is too close.
Social zone: Between 4 and 12 feet. Most group interaction happens within this
zone. This is also the zone in which interaction with colleagues and other
professionals occurs.
Public zone: 12 feet and beyond. Teachers and public speakers typically
communicate with at least 12 feet between speaker and listener.
Of course, not every person you’ll meet will interact with you using these zones; these
are just estimates of typical interactions with others.
Territoriality
Territoriality is a term used in the study of animal behavior to refer to how animals
stake out and defend given areas. Humans, too, exhibit this behavior. Understanding
territoriality may help you understand certain group behaviors. For example, the
readiness of group members to defend personal territory may provide insights about
their attitudes toward the group and toward individual members. At the next meeting
you attend, observe how members attempt to stake out territories. If the group is seated
around a table, do members place objects in front of and around themselves to signify
that they are claiming territory? Higher-status individuals generally attempt to claim
more territory.34 Notice how group members manipulate their posture and gestures if
their space is invaded. Lower-status individuals generally permit greater territorial
invasion. Note, too, how individuals claim their territory by leaving markers—such as
books, papers, or a pencil—when they have to leave the group but expect to return
shortly.
Seating Arrangement
The area of study known as small-group ecology examines the consistent way in
which people arrange themselves in small groups. Understanding the effects of seating
arrangement can give you insights as to who is likely to talk to whom, who may emerge
as a leader, and what will be the overall effects of seating arrangement on the
communication climate in the group.
Seating Arrangement and Interaction Patterns
Where you sit in a group can have an effect on who you are likely to talk to. Bernard
Steinzor found that when group members are seated in a circle, they are more likely to
talk with those across from them than to those on either side.35 Another research team
observed groups of three people in snack bars, restaurants, and lounges and found that
individuals who are more centrally located and most visible in a group usually receive
more eye contact from others.36 They also tend to initiate more communication than
those who are less centrally located in the group. Furthermore, when other group
members speak, they tend to direct their comments more to these centrally located
members in the group. Yet another research team came to a similar conclusion: Group
members who were in the center of the group spoke most often.37 Because of where
people sit, their eye contact with others is an important factor in determining who
speaks, who listens, and who has the greatest opportunity to dominate a
conversation. Figure 7.2 illustrates some typical interaction patterns determined by
seating arrangement.
Seating Arrangement and Leadership Emergence
There is evidence that where you sit in a group or team can influence your chances of
emerging as a leader. If you like to lead others, you may typically select a seat from
which you can see other people in the group and maximize your eye contact with them.
In their study, Lloyd Howells and Selwyn Becker had groups of five people seat
themselves around a table: Three people sat on one side of the table, and the other two
sat opposite them.38 The researchers discovered that participants had a greater
probability of becoming leaders if they sat on the side of the table facing the three
discussion members. The ability to make direct eye contact with more group members,
which can subsequently result in greater control of verbal communication, may explain
why the two individuals who faced the other three emerged as leaders.
FIGURE 7.2 Group Interaction Patterns Are
Influenced by Seating Arrangement
There is also evidence that a person who likes to assume a leadership role will select a
seat to maximize his or her interaction with others. One researcher found clear evidence
that the dominant group member tends to select a seat at the head of a rectangular table
or one that maximizes the opportunity to communicate with others.39 In contrast, people
who sit at the corners of tables generally contribute the least to a discussion and are less
likely to emerge as leaders. Again, eye contact coupled with seating arrangement seems
to be a major predictor of leadership emergence. In addition, people who have higher
status in a group tend to have more space around them.
Seating Arrangement and Stress
Some people prefer greater personal space when they are under stress.40 If, as a group or
team leader, you know that an upcoming discussion will probably produce anxiety, hold
the meeting in a room that permits members to have more freedom of movement. This
will allow them to find their preferred personal distance from other group members. Or,
if you know that an upcoming meeting may produce conflict, arrange the chairs so that
there is more space around each participant. Crowding people together can amplify
whatever emotions group members may feel.
Seating Arrangement and Gender
There is evidence that in North America, women tend to sit closer to others than men do
(whether those others are men or women). Men generally prefer greater personal space
when sitting next to other men.41 We’re not suggesting that you use this research
conclusion to measure the distance between seats in an upcoming meeting; simply
realize that there may be differences in how much space men and women prefer to have
around them. Where possible, let group members adjust their own seating distance from
other members.
Seating Arrangement and Personality
People who are extroverts, that is, those who are outgoing and like to talk with others,
are more likely to sit across from other people than are introverts, that is, those who are
less willing to initiate conversation with others.42 Introverts generally prefer more
distance between themselves and others. Of course, you may not know who is an
introvert and who is an extrovert before a meeting. Again, it’s best to let group members
determine their comfort zones for interacting with others.
REVIEW: SMALL-GROUP ECOLOGY
Interaction Patterns
•
Whom you have eye contact with during group discussions usually affects whom
you talk with.
•
•
People who are more centrally located in a group often receive more oral messages
from other group members than do people who are less central.
You are more likely to talk with people seated directly across from you than with
those next to you.
Leadership
•
•
•
•
We often expect the person seated at the head of a rectangular table to be the
leader.
More outspoken, dominant individuals often choose to sit at the head of the table.
People who sit at the corner of a rectangular table often contribute less to the
discussion and consequently may have less influence in the group.
People who are perceived to have high status are given more personal space
around them.
Stress
•
During times of stress or conflict, people prefer more space around them.
Gender
•
•
Women generally sit a bit closer to others than men do.
Men tend to prefer greater personal space when sitting next to other men.
Personality
•
•
Extroverts (people who are outgoing) tend to sit across from others.
Introverts (people who are less outgoing) prefer more distance between themselves
and others.
Collectively, the research conclusions just highlighted suggest that people do arrange
themselves with some consistency in small-group discussions. A discussion leader who
understands seating preferences will be able to provide a comfortable climate for a
small-group discussion.
Personal Appearance
How long does it take to determine whether you like someone? Some researchers claim
that within seconds after meeting another person you make an initial judgment about
whether to continue to communicate with him or her or try to excuse yourself from the
conversation. You base many of your initial impressions of others primarily on personal
appearance. The way people dress, their hairstyles, weight, and height affect your
communication with them.
Research suggests that women who are thought attractive are more effective in changing
attitudes than are women thought less attractive.43 In addition, more attractive
individuals are often thought by others to be more credible than less attractive people.
They are also perceived to be happier, more popular, more sociable, and more successful
than are those rated as being less attractive.
It is important to note we are not advocating making stereotypical judgments of others
based on personal appearance. We are suggesting, however, that your personal
appearance may affect how others perceive you. And yes, you may be influenced by
others’ personal appearance. Therefore, you should try to monitor not only how your
appearance may be affecting others’ perceptions, but also how you may inappropriately
dismiss others because their appearance distracted you.
Communication Environment
Five students have been assigned to work together on a project for their group
communication class. Their task is to formulate a policy question and solutions to it.
Their first problem is finding a place to meet. Apparently, the only available place is a
small, vacant office in Smythe Hall, the oldest building on campus. Although the
students are relieved to have found a place to meet, no one seems happy about holding
meetings in the old office. When they arrive for their first meeting, they find a dirty,
musty room with peeling paint, only three hard wooden chairs, and a gray metal desk.
The ventilation is poor, and half of the light bulbs are burned out. Such a dismal
environment will undoubtedly affect the group’s ability to work.
People can generally comprehend information and solve problems better in a more
attractive environment. Research does not suggest, however, that one environment is
best for all group communication situations. The optimal environment for any group
depends on its specific task, as well as the needs and expectations of its members. Some
students need absolute quiet to read or study, while others can be productive while
listening to music. Group members or leaders should attempt to find the best
environments for their group based on the group’s needs and the types of tasks
confronting it. Group leaders could ask members which type of environment they prefer.
If a group must solve problems that require considerable thought, energy, and creativity,
it might work best in a quiet, comfortable room.
REVIEW: SOURCES OF NONVERBAL CUES
Posture, movement, and
gestures
Eye contact
Facial expression
Vocal cues
Personal space,
territoriality, and seating
arrangement
Provide information regarding status, intensity of attitude, warmth, approval seeking,
group climate, immediacy, deception
Serves cognitive, monitoring, regulatory, and expressive functions
Communicates emotion, especially happiness, anger, surprise, sadness, disgust, and
fear
The pitch, rate, volume, and quality of the voice communicate emotion, credibility, a
personality perceptions
People in Western cultures use four zones of personal space, depending on their
interpersonal relationships. They arrange themselves in consistent ways in groups and
stake out space to reflect status, roles, stress levels, leadership, and personality traits
Personal appearance
Communication
environment
Clothing, body shape, and general attractiveness influence others’ perceptions and
reactions
The general attractiveness or unattractiveness of a physical space contributes to the
group’s productivity and overall group climate
PUTTING PRINCIPLES INTO
PRACTICE: Improving Nonverbal Communication
Skills
Body Posture, Movement, and Gestures
•
•
•
•
•
You may be more effective in persuading others when you use eye contact,
maintain a direct body orientation, and remain physically close to others.
You can often identify high-status group members (or at least those who perceive
themselves as having high status) by such nonverbal cues as relaxed postures, loud
voices, territorial dominance, expansive movements, and, sometimes, their keeping
themselves at a distance from others.
Someone who is lying may speak with a higher-pitched voice, use less eye contact,
show less enthusiasm, shrug more often, nod less, speak more slowly and with more
errors, and adopt a less immediate posture.
Group leaders may gesture more than followers.
Observing the similarity of group members’ posture and gestures can reveal
insights about group climate, leadership, and cohesiveness.
Eye Contact
•
•
•
•
•
People sometimes interrupt eye contact with others because they are trying to
think of the right words to say, not because they are uninterested.
When talking with others in a small group, be sure to look at all members so that
you can respond to the feedback they provide.
You sometimes can draw a person into the conversation just by establishing direct
eye contact.
Because eye contact signals whether a communication channel is open or closed,
you may be able to quiet an extremely talkative member by avoiding eye contact.
By noting who looks at whom in a small group, you can get a good idea of who the
leader is. Group members usually look at their leader more than they look at any
other member (assuming that they respect their leader’s ideas and opinions).
Facial Expression
•
Look at group members’ facial expressions to find out the emotional climate in the
group.
Vocal Cues
•
You may find that you dislike a group member not because of what he or she says
but because of that person’s vocal quality, pitch, or rate of speech. People’s vocal cues
affect your perceptions of them.
Personal Space and Territoriality
•
•
•
Members typically stake out their territory or personal space early on in group
gatherings.
When group members’ territories are invaded, they often respond nonverbally (via
posture or territorial markers) to defend their territories.
Because people prefer greater personal space when they are under stress, make
sure that group members have plenty of territory when you know that a meeting is
going to be stressful.
Seating Arrangement
•
•
•
If you want to increase your interaction with a group member, sit directly across
from him or her.
If you know that a group member generally monopolizes the conversation, try to
get that person to select a corner seat rather than one at the head of a conference
table.
You are more likely to emerge as a group leader if you sit so that you can establish
eye contact and a direct body orientation with shoulders squared toward most of the
group members.
Personal Appearance
•
Your personal appearance will affect the way other group members perceive you. It
can also influence your ability to persuade others.
Communication Environment
•
Make sure that the physical environment for a group meeting is as comfortable
and attractive as possible to enhance satisfaction and productivity.
Functions of Nonverbal Cues in Groups
Now that we’ve seen how specific cues contribute to understanding messages in group
discussion, you may still be wondering about some of the more general effects or
functions of nonverbal messages. Unspoken messages play a significant role in how
leaders are perceived, group members are persuaded, body posture and movement are
synchronized, and lying is detected.
Nonverbal Messages Influence Perceived
Leadership
To lead is to influence. Nonverbal cues have a major effect on how leaders are perceived
in groups and teams. Communication researcher John O’Connor discovered that one
person’s frequent gesturing was highly correlated with other members’ perception that
the person was a leader in the group.44 In a follow-up study, John Baird found that
group members whom other members thought of as leaders used shoulder and arm
gestures more often.45 Although leaders may gesture more frequently than do followers,
this does not mean that frequent gesturing causes a person to emerge as a leader. The
evidence does not suggest a cause-and-effect relationship. It simply suggests that people
in leadership roles may use more nonverbal gestures, perhaps to coordinate or regulate
message flow.
Nonverbal Messages Influence Persuasion Skills
Do individuals in small groups use certain nonverbal cues during their attempts to
persuade others? One study found that when a person “mirrors,” or imitates, the
nonverbal behavior of other group members, they are more likely to see that person as
more confident and persua-sive.46 Albert Mehrabian and Martin Williams found that
persuasive communicators exhibit more animated facial expressions, use more gestures
to emphasize their points, and nod their heads more than do those who are less
persuasive.47 Another team of researchers found that people trying to project warm,
friendly images will be more likely to smile, less likely to fidget with their hands, and
more likely to shift their postures toward others.48
One team of researchers found that we rely extensively on nonverbal cues to signal when
we want to speak or change topics. Typically, a group member signals topic change by
leaning forward, smiling, making a head nod, shifting posture, having a foot make
contact with the floor, or breaking eye contact to signal a change in the direction of
thought.49
Nonverbal Messages Help Synchronize
Interaction
An excellent book by Judee Burgoon and her colleagues reports that nonverbal cues play
a central role in adapting and relating to others.50 We tend to mirror the posture and
behavior of others; it seems to get us “in sync” with those with whom we interact. At
your next group meeting, note how one member tends to unconsciously mirror the
posture of another. This is especially true of members seated across from each other or
within each other’s line of vision. You may find, for example, that a person sitting across
from someone with folded arms may assume a similar posture. Like partners in an
intricate dance, people constantly reflect each other’s movements, eye contact, gestures,
and other nonverbal cues as they respond and adapt.
We respond not only to physical posture and movement but also to the rhythm and
sound of human speech. William Condon and others, using slow-motion films,
documented a distinct relationship between facial expressions and head movements and
speech.51 Adam Kendon observed that people may shift their body positions in response
to verbal messages.52 Davida Navarre and Catherine Emihovich report similar evidence
that group members may respond in synchrony to the movements and postures of
others.53 These authors suggest that during group interactions, people may adopt poses
similar to those of others they like or agree with. Thus, coalitions of group members may
be identified not only by their verbal agreement but also by their synchronized
nonverbal behavior. It is probably more than just coincidence that group members
consistently fold their arms and cross their legs in the same way. Just as religious
services use singing and group litanies to establish unity and a commonality of purpose,
small groups may unwittingly use common nonverbal behaviors to foster cohesiveness.
Counselors report that they can help clients self-disclose by adopting body postures
similar to those of their clients. By synchronizing body position, counselors believe they
can better empathize and establish rapport with their clients. In your small-group
discussions, observe the similarity and dissimilarity of members’ postures, positions,
and gestures. Such cues may provoke interesting insights about group climate,
leadership, and cohesiveness.
In one of the few studies that examined nonverbal behavior in groups, Edward Mabry
sought to discover whether group members’ nonverbal behavior changes from one
meeting to the next. After observing a group that met five times, he found that during
the second and third meetings, group members were more likely to show the palms of
their hands. Group members also tended to lean back more in the first and fifth sessions
of their deliberations. Participants also made more direct eye contact with one another
after they had met together once. What do these differences mean? Mabry’s study
suggests that group members’ nonverbal behavior changes from one group meeting to
the next. Groups do not develop a static way of behaving nonverbally; nonverbal
communication may depend on the topic and how group members feel toward one
another as they become more comfortable after meeting together over several sessions.54
Nonverbal Messages Provide Information about
Perceived Honesty or Dishonesty
In addition to categorizing movement, posture, and gestures, researchers have studied
whether nonverbal behavior provides clues to whether someone is lying. Sigmund Freud
said, “He that has eyes to see and ears to hear may convince himself that no mortal can
keep a secret. If his lips are silent, he chatters with his fingertips; betrayal oozes out of
him at every pore.” Ekman and Friesen found that feet and legs often reveal people’s
true feelings.55 They theorized that while people consciously manipulate their facial
expressions to hide deception, they are not so likely to monitor their feet. One team of
researchers suggested that the following nonverbal behaviors, listed in order from most
to least important, can provide clues as to whether someone is lying.56
•
Greater time lag in response to a question Reduced eye contact Increased shifts in
postureMore hand/shrug emblems More adaptors Unfilled pauses Less
smiling Slower speechHigher pitch in voice More deliberate pronunciation and
articulation
Of course, simply because a group member exhibits one or more of these nonverbal
behaviors does not mean that he or she is lying. Although a person trying to lie or hide
something may exhibit some of the cues listed above, not everyone who displays such
behavior is deceptive. The ambiguity of nonverbal cues prevents you from drawing such
definitive conclusions about the motives of other people based on nonverbal cues alone.
Interpreting Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal cues do not create meaning independently of other communication cues
(such as message content, language style, and message organization). Also, there is
much we still do not know about nonverbal communication. After reading the research
conclusions reported here, you may be tempted to interpret someone else’s body
language, but you should remember several principles when ascribing meaning to the
posture and movement of others.
Interpret Nonverbal Communication in Context
Just as you can misunderstand the meaning of a sentence taken out of context, so can
you make an inaccurate inference about a nonverbal behavior when it is interpreted out
of context. Simply because a group member sits with crossed legs and folded arms does
not necessarily mean that the person does not want to communicate with others. Other
variables in the communication system may be affecting the person’s posture and
position.
Look for Clusters of Cues
Look for a pattern of cues to help you interpret what a specific behavior means rather
than considering only one gesture, expression, or use of personal space. Seek
corroborating cues that can help you reach a more accurate conclusion about what a
specific behavior means. Besides noting whether someone makes eye contact, also note
whether vocal cues, posture, and gestures confirm your conclusion.
Facial expressions are important sources of information about a group’s emotional
climate, particularly if several members express similar emotions. Their faces may
suggest that they are bored with the discussion or that they are interested and pleased.
Remember that group members may attempt to mask their facial expressions in an
effort to conceal their true feelings.
Recognize That People Respond Differently to
Different Stimuli
Not all people express emotions in the same manner. It may take considerable time
before you can understand the unique, idiosyncratic meaning underlying another
person’s specific nonverbal behaviors. For example, one study found that group
members’ responses to a group leader’s displays of anger or happiness depended, to a
large extent, on each group member’s epistemic motivation, defined as “the extent to
which team members desire to develop and maintain a rich and accurate understanding
of situations.”58 Such predispositions are not readily apparent; they take time to learn.
VIRTUAL GROUPS: Nonverbal Virtual
Communication
If you have been reading the Virtual Communication feature in each chapter thus far,
you should be aware that technology can facilitate communication by eliminating the
constraints of time and space, but it brings with it liabilities as well. The difficulty of
communicating emotion is one of those liabilities because people rely so much on tone
of voice and visual cues to ascertain others’ feelings and reactions.
Researcher Gary Baker studied the performance of 64 virtual teams using four modes of
technological collaboration: text-only, audio-only, text and video, and audio and video.
The study found no significant difference in the quality of strategic decisions made by
teams using text-only communication versus those using audio-only communication.
But when video was added to audio communication, there was significant improvement
in team decisions.57
Baker’s study leads to some recommendations about nonverbal communication in
virtual groups. Consider the following:
•
•
•
Whenever possible, groups and teams should meet face to face. There is no
substitute for the “full picture” we get when in the presence of another human being.
Especially in the formative stages of group interaction, meeting face to face is
critical to getting to know one another and building predictability and trust. When
face-to-face communication is not possible, video conferencing can improve the
quality of a group’s work.
When face-to-face or video communication is not possible and you are limited to
text or audio interaction, pay extra attention to emotional cues. Hearing a sigh, a
yawn, or a nervous giggle, or seeing the word sigh or an emoticon :-) in the text on
your screen will help you interpret verbal messages.
Consider Cultural and Gender Differences
Keep the person’s cultural background or gender in mind when you draw an inference
from his or her nonverbal behavior. No nonverbal behavior has a generally accepted
universal meaning. Even though some evidence indicates that facial expressions can be
interpreted across several cultures with up to 92 percent accuracy, there are subtle as
well as dramatic differences in the way nonverbal behaviors may be interpreted. In
small-group interactions, it is especially interesting to observe cultural differences in
how people use space and territory. In Chapter 10, we’ll offer additional tips for being
sensitive to cultural differences.59
Consider Your Past Experience with Someone
When Interpreting Nonverbal Cues
As you spend time working with group members, chances are you will learn how to
interpret their nonverbal cues. For example, when you first met Lee you weren’t sure
why he seemed so distant and aloof. His lack of eye contact suggested that he was not
interested in being a productive member of the group. After you had spent several
meetings getting to know him better, you realized that Lee is simply shy. He has good
ideas but needs to be drawn out. Working with him convinces you that you should not
make snap judgments of other group members. First impressions are not always
accurate.
COLLABORATING ETHICALLY:
What Would You Do?
An understanding of nonverbal communication and small-group ecology can be used
strategically to influence group interaction and group outcomes. For example, one of our
friends has been seated twice on trial juries. In each case, when the jury moved to the
jury room to deliberate, our friend walked confidently to the head of the table, put his
hands on the table while intently surveying the faces of his fellow jurors, and said, “Well,
the first thing we need to do is to elect a foreman.” He was elected unanimously in both
cases.
Imagine that you have been assigned to a task group with no designated leader. For a
variety of reasons, you believe that you should be elected the leader. The information
you’ve learned in this chapter has given you insight into how you can manage the
group’s impression of you and of your competence through strategic use of nonverbal
behaviors and group ecology principles. Is it ethical for you to use what you know to get
elected? Or does doing so amount to unfairly manipulating the group?
Look for Cues That Communicate Liking, Power,
and Responsiveness
Albert Mehrabian has developed a three-dimensional model that identifies how people
respond to nonverbal messages. Even though this framework was not designed
exclusively for small groups, his research can be useful in helping to interpret the
meaning of messages. His conclusions cannot be applied universally, but they do reflect
the way many North Americans interpret nonverbal messages. His research suggests
that people derive meaning from nonverbal behavior based on (1) immediacy or liking,
(2) power, and (3) responsiveness.60
•
•
•
1. Immediacy: behaviors that communicate liking and disliking. As defined by
Mehrabian, immediacy refers to whether people like or dislike others. The immediacy
principle states that “people are drawn toward persons and things they like, evaluate
highly, and prefer; and they avoid or move away from things they dislike, evaluate
negatively, or do not prefer.” According to Mehrabian, such nonverbal behaviors as
touching, leaning forward, reducing distance and personal space, and maintaining
direct eye contact can communicate liking or positive feelings. Based on the
immediacy principle, group members who consistently sit closer to you, establish
more eye contact with you, and, in general, are drawn to you probably like you more
than group members who generally do not look at you and who regularly select seats
away from you.
2. Power: behaviors that communicate influence and status. People of higher status
generally determine the degree of closeness permitted in their interactions. A person
of higher status and influence, for example, usually is surrounded by more space. A
boss who sits at the head of the table is more likely to have empty chairs around him
or her; subordinates are more likely to give the boss more space. A person of higher
status generally has a more relaxed body posture when interacting with a person of
lower status. Highstatus members also tend to have less eye contact with others, to
use a louder voice, to make more expansive movements and postures, and may reflect
their status in the way they dress.
3. Responsiveness: behaviors that communicate interest and attention. Body
movements, facial expressions, and variation of vocal cues (such as pitch, rate,
volume, and tone) all contribute to our perceptions of others as responsive or
unresponsive. A group member who communicates energy and enthusiasm would be
rated highly responsive.
REVIEW: DIMENSIONS OF NONVERBAL
MEANING
Dimension
Definition
Behaviors that signal liking, attraction, and
Immediacy
interest
Behaviors that communicate power, status, and
Power
influence
Behaviors that communicate active interactions
Responsiveness
and attention
Nonverbal Cues
Touching, forward leaning, close personal spac
eye contact
Protected space, increased distance, relaxed
posture
Eye contact, varied vocal cues, animated facial
expression
Develop the Skill of Perception Checking
People judge you by your behavior, not by your intent. You judge others the same way—
by what you see, not by what they are thinking. Unless you are a mind reader, the only
way to check your perception of others’ nonverbal behavior is to ask them. Perception
checking is the skill of asking someone whether your interpretation of his or her
unspoken message is accurate. There are three steps to using this skill. First, observe the
nonverbal cues we have discussed. Next, mentally draw a conclusion about what the
nonverbal behavior may mean. Finally, ask the other person if your inference was
accurate.
Suppose you offer a solution to a problem your group has been discussing. After you
announce your proposal, the group is silent, your colleagues break eye contact, and you
see one person frown. To find out whether their nonverbal response means that your
proposal has been rejected, you could ask, “Does your silence mean you don’t like my
idea?” You could also add, “From the look on your face, you don’t seem to be pleased
with my suggestion.” Your colleagues may say, “Oh, no. Your idea is a good one. We just
need some time to think about how we could put your suggestion into action.”
We recommend that you not overuse perception checking. Stopping to seek
confirmation of every facial expression or vocal tone would irritate others. Do, however,
consider perception checking when you genuinely do not understand a group member’s
response.
These principles point to a key conclusion: Nonverbal messages are considerably more
ambiguous than verbal messages. No dictionary has definitive meanings for nonverbal
behaviors. Exercise caution, then, when you attempt to interpret the nonverbal behavior
of other group members.
CASE STUDY: Interpreting Indirect
Communication
Scene One
Meg:
Nancy:
Nice outfit. . . . Did you make it yourself?
No, my grandmother made it for me.
I was just wondering; it has such a “homespun” look.
Meg:
Scene Two
She:
He:
Do these jeans make me look fat?
Uhhhhh. . . .
Scene Three
She: Dear, it’s been a long time since we went out dancing on a Saturday night.
He: Sure has.
Scene Four
Thanks for coming in, Jean. I know it’s short notice and you’re pretty overloaded, but we have to get this
Boss:contract done and back to the client first thing Monday morning. I’m looking for someone who can work
over the weekend. Do you have any suggestions?
Jean: Let me check my calendar, Mr. Jefferson. Maybe I can do it.
Scene Five
She: Honey, I’m working on a guest list for our party. Did the Ronnings invite us to their open house last fall?
He: Beats me. . . .
Questions for Analysis
•
•
•
•
1. The brief scenes above provide examples of indirect communication—the words
convey a surface meaning that, with further analysis, may reveal deeper, unspoken
meanings. Rewrite each scene using dialogue that is more direct.
2. If you were the recipient of the indirect communication in each case, what
additional information would you need to verify whether your interpretation of the
comment was correct? What nonverbal cues would you look for to help you interpret
the comment in each case?
3. What emotions (if any) do you associate with these dialogues? Why? What
nonverbal cues would you look for to identify these emotions?
4. What perception-checking responses might you use in similar situations?
REVIEW: PERCEPTION CHECKING
Steps
•
1. Observe someone’s nonverbal behavior.
Factors to Consider
What is his or her facial expression?
Does he or she make eye contact?
What is his or her posture?
Steps
•
Factors to Consider
What is his or her tone of voice?
Does he or she appear to be angry, sad, depressed?
2. Think about what the behavior may mean.
Is the nonverbal message contradicting the verbal
message?
•
3. Check your perception by asking whether your
interpretation is accurate.
“The expression on your face suggests you may be
upset. Are you?”
STUDY GUIDE: REVIEW, APPLY, AND ASSESS
GROUP COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES AND
PRACTICES
VERBAL DYNAMICS IN SMALL GROUPS
Objective 1 Describe three “word barriers” and how to avoid them.
Group Communication Principles
Bypassing, allness statements, and fact-inference confusion were discussed. To avoid
these, Use specific language; be aware of multiple possible interpretations. Don’t overgeneralize; remember that each individual is unique. Analyze. Learn to recognize the
difference between a fact and an inference. Identify your own assumptions about
converationsl style. Work to adapt your style to the situation.
Key Terms
Bypassing 149
Feedback 150
Allness statements 150
Fact-inference confusion 150
LISTENING
Objective 2 Identify four listening styles and describe two major
obstacles to effective listening.
Group Communication Principles
Listening styles are people-oriented, action-oriented, content-oriented, and timeoriented. Obstacles identified are prejudging the communication and rehearsing a
response. Be aware of your listening style. When listening, do so actively. Stop what
you’re doing; avoid doing anything that distracts you from listening. Look for nonverbal
cues that help you interpret what you’re hearing. Listen with your eyes as well as with
your ears. Listen for feelings; ask yourself how you would feel if you were in the other’s
situation. Ask questions to clarify. Paraphrase content and feelings to confirm with the
other person that you’re understanding correctly. Act like an active listener and suspend
judgment.
Key Terms
Listening 151
Listening style 151
Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills
Assessing Group Communication Skills
Rate your group’s communication skill by indicating your level of agreement with each
of the following descriptive statements about group communication.
1 = Very Low
4 = High
2 = Low
3 = Average
5 = Very High
Verbal Dynamics
•
•
•
•
•
•
1. Group members usually communicate clearly to other members in the
group.1 2 3 4 5
2. Group members communicate an appropriate amount of information to others in
the group. 1 2 3 4 5
3. There are few misunderstandings between or among group
members. 1 2 3 4 5
4. When misunderstandings occur, group members usually clarify what they mean
and ensure that accurate communication has occurred. 1 2 3 4 5
5. Group members communicate using appropriate methods, such as use of
technology or other means of communicating. 1 2 3 4 5
6. Group members communicate at appropriate times with other group
members.1 2 3 4 5
Listening Skills
•
7. I know my preferred listening style (people-, content-, action-, or timeoriented).1 2 3 4 5
•
•
•
•
8. I know other group members’ preferred listening styles (people-, content-, action-,
or time-oriented). 1 2 3 4 5
9. Group members appropriately adapt their communication to others’ listening
style.1 2 3 4 5
10. Group members generally listen effectively to one another. 1 2 3 4 5
11. Group members appropriately and accurately paraphrase the messages of others
to check their understanding of messages. 1 2 3 4 5
Nonverbal Communication Skills
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
12. Group members communicate interest in and support of other group members by
using appropriate gestures. 1 2 3 4 5
13. Group members communicate interest in and support of other group members by
using appropriate facial expressions. 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
14. Group members communicate interest in and support of other group members by
using appropriate vocal cues. 1 2 3 4 5
15. Group members use appropriate space and distance when communicating with
other group members. 1 2 3 4 5
16. Group members’ seating arrangement facilitates open, interactive
communication.1 2 3 4 5
17. Group discussion occurs in a pleasant and appropriate room with adequate light,
furniture, and furniture arrangement. 1 2 3 4 5
18. Group members usually accurately “read” and interpret nonverbal messages of
other group members. 1 2 3 4 5
Overall Communication Skill
•
•
19. Overall, group members communicate accurately with other group
members.1 2 3 4 5
20. Overall, group members communicate appropriately with other group
members.1 2 3 4 5
Score
After completing the assessment form, share your assessments with other group
members to compare perceptions about the effectiveness and appropriateness of
communication skill use in your group.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION IN GROUPS
Objective 3 Explain why nonverbal communication is important to
the study of groups.
Group Communication Principles
Emotions are typically expressed nonverbally, rather than verbally. More time is spent
communicating nonverbally than verbally. Nonverbal messages are usually more
believable than verbal messages.
Key Term
Nonverbal communication 155
APPLICATIONS OF NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION RESEARCH TO GROUPS AND
TEAMS
Objective 4 Apply research findings about nonverbal
communication to groups and teams.
Group Communication Principles
Areas of research discussed were Posture, Movement and Gesture; Eye Contact, Facial
Expressions, Personal space; Territoriality, Seating Arrangement, Personal Appearance,
and Communication Environment.
Key Terms
Emblems 157
Illustrators 157
Affect display 157
Regulators 158
Adaptors 158
Paralanguage 160
Proxemics 161
Intimate zone 161
Personal zone 162
Social zone 162
Public zone 162
Territoriality 162
Small-group ecology 162
Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills
Redesign Your Meeting Room
Working with a group of others, discuss how you would redesign your classroom. Or, if
you’re working on a small-group project and you have a regular meeting place, discuss
how you would redesign that space for maximum meeting effectiveness. As you
brainstorm suggestions, consider the architecture, lighting, colors, furniture, sounds,
and any other features that would enhance the room’s functional design for group
deliberations.
FUNCTIONS OF NONVERBAL CUES IN
GROUPS
Objective 5 Discuss the functions of nonverbal cues in groups.
Group Communication Principles
Four functions were discussed: Leadership function: Nonverbal messages influence who
is perceived as group or team leader; Persuasion function: Skilled persuaders use
animated facial expressions and frequent gestures, smile, are less likely to fidget with
their hands, and lean forward when communicating. Synchronization function:
Nonverbal cues help synchronize our communication with others. Honesty function:
Nonverbal behavior often provides cues about whether the communicator is honest or
dishonest; dishonest communicators often speak slowly and more distinctly with a
higher pitch and have more pauses and hesitations, have less eye contact, and evidence
more shrugs and postural shifts.
Practice Applying and Assessing Group Communication Skills
Receiving Nonverbal Reinforcement
Pair up with another student and take turns telling each other about a personally
important idea, feeling, or experience. The partner should give no nonverbal indications
that he or she is paying attention while the other speaks: no smiles, nods of the head,
“um-hums,” postural orientation, facial expressions. After each of you has talked for
three to five minutes, discuss what it felt like (1) to receive no nonverbal attention and
(2) to give no nonverbal attention. After you discuss the importance of nonverbal
communication, again take turns talking and listening to each other—this time with
genuine nonverbal feedback. With the rest of the class, discuss the experience of
receiving and not receiving nonverbal reinforcement.
INTERPRETING NONVERBAL
COMMUNICATION
Objective 6: Identify guidelines for interpreting nonverbal
communication in small groups.
Group Communication Principles
Interpret Nonverbal communication in context. Look for clusters of cues. Consider your
own past experience when interpreting nonverbal communication. Look for cues that
communicate liking, power, and responsiveness. Develop the skill of perception
checking.
Key Term
Perception checking 172
Practice Applying and Assessing Your Skills
Nonverbal Group Observation
Take a video of any small group working on a project or a case study. Replay the video
with the sound turned off so you can focus on group members’ actions, not their words.
(If you don’t have access to video equipment, simply observe a group from a distance so
you are less able to hear their conversation.)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Notice group members’ use of emblems, illustrators, affect displays, regulators,
and adaptors.
Observe how nonverbal cues regulate the flow of communication.
How do body posture and movement communicate members’ status and attitudes?
Try to identify the four functions of eye contact in the group.
Do group members communicate much emotion with their faces?
Note relationships among territorial behavior, seating arrangement, leadership,
status, and verbal interaction in the group.
If this is a group you are ordinarily a member of, and it met in a special room for
the videotaping, do you detect any changes in nonverbal behavior that may be a result
of the change in environment?
8 Managing Conflict
“When we all think alike, then no one is thinking.”
CHAPTER OUTLINE
What Is Conflict?
Types of Conflict
Conflict and Diversity in Small Groups
Conflict-Management Styles
—Walter Lippman
Collaborative Conflict Management: Principles and Skills
When People Are Not Cooperative: Dealing with Difficult Group Members
Groupthink: Conflict Avoidance
Consensus: Reaching Agreement Through Communication
OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter, you will be able to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Define conflict, explain why it occurs, and describe three misconceptions about
conflict.
Identify and describe three types of conflict.
Describe the relationship between conflict and group member diversity.
Describe five conflict-management styles.
Identify and apply strategies that facilitate collaboration in groups.
Identify and apply group and team conflict management skills.
Define groupthink and identify the symptoms of groupthink.
Describe the nature of consensus, and identify and apply strategies for reaching
consensus.
Adolph and his brother, Rudolph, lived in a small German town and had heard that the
American sprinter Jesse Owens was coming to Germany to compete in the 1936 Berlin
Olympics. The two brothers had a small cobbler shop and thought they would try
making sports shoes for the famed runner. They approached Owens and asked if he
would wear their shoes during the Olympic competition. Owens quickly accepted the
offer of free shoes and then won four gold medals. The two brothers parlayed that good
fortune into making their small cobbler shop into a major producer of running shoes.
There was just one problem: The two brothers didn’t get along. In fact, they fought a lot.
Eventually, because of the constant conflict, they decided to go their separate ways.
Adolph, whose nickname was “Adi,” took half of the shoemaking machines and started
his own company on one side of the river in their town. You know it today as Adidas.
Rudolph stayed on the other side of the river and called his new shoe company Puma.
Their family conflict had thus created two giant running-shoe corporations.1
Conflict is a fact of life. Throughout history, people have been involved in conflicts
ranging from family feuds that spawned rival shoe companies to nations that waged war
against each other. Communication researchers and social psychologists conclude that
when people interact with one another, they inevitably disagree.2
This chapter gives you some ideas about the causes of conflict in groups and teams and
presents some strategies for managing it. We’re not going to tell you how to eliminate
group conflict but rather how to understand it and its importance in your group
deliberations.
Despite the prevalence of conflict in group and team deliberations, communication
researchers Steven Farmer and Jonelle Rothe note that much of what we know about
group conflict has been generalized from research that has investigated interpersonal
conflict.3 The prime objective of this chapter is to help you understand how conflict in
groups and teams can be both useful and detrimental to collaborative decision making.
What Is Conflict?
Conflict happens when there is disagreement. Communication experts William Wilmot
and Joyce Hocker define conflict as: (1) an expressed struggle (2) between at least two
interdependent people (3) who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, and
interference from others (4) to achieve specific goals.4
•
•
•
•
Expressed struggle: A conflict becomes a concern to a group when the
disagreement is expressed verbally or, more often, nonverbally. Early signs of conflict
include furrowed brows, grimacing facial expressions, and flashes of frustration
evident in the voice. If the conflict persists, words are usually exchanged and
unmanaged tempers may flare.
Between at least two interdependent people: From a systems theory perspective,
people in a group are interdependent; what happens to one person impacts others in
the group. A conflict between even just two people in a group of five will undoubtedly
have an impact on the dynamics of the entire group.
Incompatible goals, scarce resources, and interference: Conflict often occurs
because two or more people want the same thing, yet both can’t have it. If resources
are scarce or if something or someone is blocking what others want, conflict is likely.
Achieving a goal: People involved in a conflict want something. Understanding
that is an important step toward finding a way to manage the conflict.
If a group experienced no conflict, it would have little to discuss. One value of conflict is
that it makes a group test and challenge ideas. Conflict can, however, be detrimental to
group interaction and group decision making. Conflict has a negative impact on a group
when it (1) keeps the group from completing its task, (2) interferes with the quality of
the group’s decision or productivity, or (3) threatens the existence of the group.5
Causes of Conflict
What causes conflict in groups and teams? Conflict results from differences between
group members—differences in perception, personality, knowledge, culture, power, and
procedural expectations.
•
•
Perception: People literally see the world differently from one another; this
difference in perspective results in differing attitudes, beliefs, and values that
inevitably surface and cause conflict. No matter how much they try to empathize with
others, people still have individual perspectives on the world.
Personality: You don’t need a textbook to tell you that each person has a unique
personality. Our personality differences that result in different group members’
•
•
•
•
tolerance for taking risks also contributes to group conflict; some people, just by their
nature, are comfortable taking risk, others aren’t.6
Knowledge: People also differ in the amount of knowledge they have on various
topics. Group members soon realize that some of them are more experienced or more
widely read than others. This difference in information contributes to different
attitudes.
Culture: People have different cultural backgrounds; culture consists of all that we
learn that influences our way of relating to each other and to the world. The human
tendency to tribalize and sort ourselves into groups according to our culture gives us
identity with our cultural group and also contributes to the different ways humans
experience life.
Power and status: People also have different levels of power, status, and influence
over others—differences that can increase conflict. People with power often try to use
that power to influence others, but most people do not like to be told what to do or
think.
Procedural expectations: Conflict can also occur because of disagreement about
processes and procedures. Research suggests that entrenched disagreements about
process issues (such as how decisions will be made and what the rules and norms are
for expressing disagreement) can be more disruptive over the long haul than a simple
disagreement about a specific task issue.7
Conflict does not just happen. You can often discern phases or stages of conflict
development. Communication scholar B. Aubrey Fisher found that group deliberations
can be organized around four phases: orientation, conflict, emergence, and
reinforcement.8 Several researchers have discovered that the conflict phase in groups
often emerges in predictable stages.9
Conflict in groups can be directed toward people (relational conflict), or ideas (task
conflict), or both.10 One research team found that conflict often occurs because of
perceived inequity; if we think someone has more resources or is getting more than his
or her fair share, conflict often results.11 When the conflict is directed toward people, we
may first try to manage it by avoiding the individual or the topic of conflict. If the
conflict is more task-centered, we usually first try more integrative approaches by
seeking solutions that are agreeable to all parties. One of the prime effects of conflict
and discord that occurs in groups is that the seeming lack of progress toward the group’s
goals results in a lack of motivation to keep working at a solution to resolve the
conflict.12Conflict can also result in a lack of group cohesion.13 Two of the biggest triggers
of conflict occur when people believe they haven’t been treated fairly or that they are
entitled to something that they didn’t receive.
How do we typically respond when we don’t think we are being treated fairly? We
behave in predictable ways:
•
Persuasion: We may first try to use logic and reasoning when we have not been
treated farily. Diplomats, for example, first try to appeal to equity differences based
on the law and legal precedents.
•
•
•
Seduction: If logical and rationale approaches to addressing the inequity don’t
work, we may try more seductive ways to “sweet talk” the other person or persons to
be more equitable. We’ll use more emotional language when our logical, rational
approaches don’t work.
Verbal aggression: When both logical appeals and emotional trying-to-catch-flieswith-honey methods aren’t successful, we may threaten the other person. If you don’t
give me X, then I will do Y. If the mild threats aren’t successful, we may throttle up
the intensity of the threat and become more aggressive.
Physical action: When all else fails, we may try to take the matter into our own
hands and get what we want. Nations that feel they simply have no other choice
resort to war.
Misconceptions about Conflict
People often have misconceptions about the role of conflict in groups because they think
that conflict is bad and should be avoided. With higher rates of divorce, crime, and
international political tensions, it is understandable that people view conflict negatively.
The following discussion of myths will examine some of the feelings you may have about
conflict and point out how a different attitude might improve the quality of your group
discussions.14
Misconception 1: Conflict Should Be Avoided at All
Costs
Conflict is a natural byproduct of communication; unless participants in your group
share the same attitudes, beliefs, and values (an unlikely situation), there will be some
conflict. Several researchers have discovered that conflict is an important, indeed useful,
part of group communication.15Members who believe that conflict is unhealthy become
frustrated when conflict erupts in a group. They should realize that conflict probably will
occur and that it is a natural and healthy part of group communication.
Research suggests that when conflict occurs, group members are often challenged to
research issues in greater detail and learn more about the issues under discussion.16 In
the end, conflict can enhance learning and encourage more in-depth analysis.
Group conflict can also spur group members to share more information with one
another than they would if everyone simply agreed on the issues discussed. Research
has found that dissent in a group can uncover hidden agendas. So the quality of group
discussion increases when people express different ideas, opinions, and perspectives.17
Misconception 2: All Conflict Occurs Because
People Do Not Understand One Another
Have you ever been in a heated disagreement with someone and found yourself blurting
out “You just don’t understand me!”? You easily assume that conflict occurs because
another person does not understand your position. Not all conflicts occur because of
misunderstandings, however. You may believe that if others really understood you, they
would agree with you. Sometimes, however, conflict occurs because
you have communicated your position clearly; it’s just that others disagree with that
position.18 Yes, of course, conflict can result from not understanding what someone says,
but some conflicts intensify when a person clarifies his or her point.
Misconception 3: All Conflict Can Be Resolved
Perhaps you consider yourself an optimist. You like to think that problems can be
solved. You may also feel that if a conflict arises, a compromise will resolve it. However,
you should realize that not all conflicts can be resolved. Many disagreements are not
simple. For example, fundamental differences between those who oppose abortion and
those who support it can obviously not be resolved easily, if at all. Some ideologies are
so far apart that resolving conflicts between them is unlikely. This does not mean that
whenever a conflict arises in your group, you should despair and say, “Oh, well, no use
trying to solve this disagreement.” That position also oversimplifies the conflictmanagement process. Because some conflicts cannot be resolved, group members may
have to focus on differences on which they can most likely reach agreement.
Types of Conflict
Communication scholars Gerald Miller and Mark Steinberg identify three classic types
of interpersonal conflict: (1) pseudo-conflict, (2) simple conflict, and (3) ego
conflict.19 They suggest that by identifying the type of conflict in a group, you will be
better able to manage it. The following sections look at these three types of conflict in
the context of a small group.
Pseudo-Conflict: When People Misunderstand
One Another
Some conflict occurs because of misunderstandings. Pseudo-conflict occurs when
individuals agree, but, because of poor communication, they believe that they
disagree. Pseudo means fake or false. Thus, pseudo-conflict is conflict between people
who really agree on issues but who do not understand that their differences are caused
by misunderstandings or misinterpretations.
Groups must find ways of managing conflict and channeling energy constructively. How
might conflict be healthy?
“Oh, I see,” said Mark after several minutes of heatedly defending a position he had
suggested to the group. “I just misunderstood you. I guess we really agree.”
To manage pseudo-conflict, consider these strategies:
•
•
Ask others what they mean by terms or phrases they use.
Establish a supportive rather than a defensive climate if misunderstandings occur.
•
Become an active listener by using the skills we discussed in Chapter 7: Question:
Ask appropriate questions about information or ideas that are unclear to
you. Paraphrase content: To test your understanding, summarize your conception of
what your partner says. Paraphrase feelings: When appropriate, check your
perception of your partner’s feelings
Research clearly supports the importance of good listening skills in small groups and
teams.20
Simple Conflict: When People Disagree about
Issues
Simple conflict occurs when two people’s goals or ideas are mutually exclusive or
incompatible. “Simple conflict involves one person saying, ‘I want to do X,’ and another
saying, ‘I want to do Y,’ when X and Y are incompatible forms of behavior.”21 Although
the conflict may seem far from simple, it’s called “simple conflict” because the issues are
clear and each party understands the problem. For example, in a corporation with only a
limited amount of money to invest, one board member may want to invest in real estate
and another may want to make capital improvements. The issue is clear; the individuals
simply believe the company should take different courses of action.
Simple conflict tends to center on two general categories. The conflict could be at a task
the group is discussing or about the process or procedures that group the using. Task
conflict is conflict that occurs because of substantive differences a...
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