I JANE GILBERT “CATCHING THE KNOWLEDGE WAVE”I REDEFINING KNOWLEDGEI FOR THE POST-INDUSTRIAL AGEI OVER THE LAST FIVE YEARS OR SO WE HAVE HEARD A great deal about something called the Knowledge Society. The term ‘knowledge’ is appearing in places we wouldn’t have expected to see it a decade or so ago. The media is full of references to the knowledge economy and the knowledge revolution; business discussions now routinely talk about knowledge management, knowledge resources, knowledge clusters, knowledge work, and knowledge workers; and policy documents argue for the need to ‘catch’ the knowledge ‘wave’. This proliferation of new terms is changing knowledge’s meaning, and this change is significant. The new meaning of knowledge is very different from the one used in everyday conversation. It is also very different from traditional philosophical understandings of knowledge, and, because of this, it is a major challenge to our education systems. We cannot address this challenge by adding new ideas to – or tinkering with – existing structures. To address it we need to think differently about schools. We need to go ‘back to basics’, to re-think many of our current ideas about schools, their purposes, and the best ways of achieving those purposes. KNOWLEDGE IS NOW INNOVATION, INNOVATION IS QUALITY, AND QUALITY CONTROL IS KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT. 4 E D U C AT I O N C A N A D A I C A N A D I A N E D U C AT I O N A S S O C I AT I O N This article looks at these ideas in three parts. The first part looks at what the term Knowledge Society means and where it came from. The second looks at where current ideas about schooling came from and explores how and why these ideas need to change if we are to meet the needs of 21st century learners. The final part of the article looks at how we could begin to make these changes. T H E K N O W L E D G E S O C I E T Y: W H AT I S I T ? According to the (now very large) academic and popular literature on the subject, the term Knowledge Society refers to the social, economic and political changes that are taking place as countries move from the industrial to the post-industrial age. Knowledge (or intellectual capital), we are told, is replacing other more tangible assets (like labour, land or money) as the key driver of economic growth. Where industrial societies were based on extracting and using natural resources in manufacturing, knowledgebased societies, in contrast, are based on developing and exploiting new forms of knowledge. The shift from one to the other is linked with a major decline in blue-collar forms of employment, and an increase in job opportunities in the creative, technology or service-based industries. It is also linked with new business practices and new patterns of work. The Knowledge Society is linked with developments in information and communications technologies and globalization. Our ability to digitize all kinds of information (including money) and to move it around the world at enormous speed has produced major socio-political E N B R E F Le nouveau sens du mot savoir constitue un défi de taille pour nos systèmes d’éducation. Nous nous voyons forcés de repenser les écoles, leurs buts et la façon de les atteindre. Les écoles de l’ère du savoir doivent produire – et non consommer – des connaissances; elles doivent développer une littératie multimodale, mettre l’accent sur le processus plutôt que sur le produit et aider les apprenants à se voir comme des bâtisseurs actifs de leurs savoirs. Les idées et les approches éducatives requises pour concrétiser ces concepts existent déjà dans la documentation de recherche en éducation, souvent depuis des années. Cependant, lorsque ces idées sont importées dans des systèmes d’éducation construits selon un modèle mental de l’ère industrielle, elles sont souvent diluées ou réduites à des slogans insignifiants. Avant de commencer à mettre ces idées en pratique, nous devons changer les modèles mentaux sous-tendant notre perception de l’éducation. change. People’s understanding of time, space, and place are changing, and the boundaries between countries are breaking down. We are developing new forms of information, new ways of presenting information, and new forms of money. There are new more complex forms of personal identity, and people are connecting with each other in new and different ways. In economic terms, the Knowledge Society is closely associated with the development of new forms of ‘fast’ capitalism, new forms of production, and new management systems. This new work order has a strong focus on knowledge, learning, and innovation and, as a result, these terms now have new meanings. Knowledge is now innovation, innovation is quality, and quality control is knowledge management. In other words, knowledge, in the Knowledge Society, has a different meaning from the one it has in educational contexts. The sociologist Manuel Castells, in his book The Rise of the Network Society,1 says that knowledge is no longer thought of as a ‘thing’, a kind of matter produced by human thought and then codified in disciplines or by expert individuals. Rather it is now understood as being more like energy, something defined by its effectiveness in action, by the results it achieves. It is not something that can be defined, pinned down, stored and measured, but a dynamic, fluid and generative force, or capacity to do things. For Castells, knowledge is now something that causes things to happen: it is no longer thought of as ‘stuff’ that can be learned and stored away for future use. It is something that is produced collaboratively by teams of people, something that happens in the relationships between those people. It is a process rather than a product; it is constantly changing, evolving, flowing and re-generating itself into new forms. French philosopher Jean-François Lyotard predicted this new meaning of knowledge in the mid-1970s in his book The Postmodern Condition.2 Lyotard argued that in the future, knowledge will be important, not as it was in the past because of its relationship with truth, reason and certainty, but for what he calls its ‘performativity’, its energy or ability to do things, its ‘use-value’. Knowledge will be mobilized on an as-and-when-needed basis to produce innovative new products. For Lyotard, the idea of knowledge as a set of universal truths is obsolete. Instead, many reasons, many truths, many knowledges are both possible and desirable. As a consequence, he says, traditional disciplinary boundaries will dissolve, traditional methods of representing knowledge (books, articles and so on) and expert individuals will be far less important, and new conceptions of learning will develop. According to Lyotard, learners will be encouraged to develop an understanding of an organized stock of public and/or professional knowledge (‘old’ knowledge), not in order to add to it, but to pursue ‘performativity’ – that is, to apply it to new situations, to use it and replace it in the process of innovation. They will be encouraged to understand the rules or established procedures of a discipline, profession or trade, not in order to follow them, but in order to see how they might be improved. C A N A D I A N E D U C AT I O N A S S O C I AT I O N I E D U C AT I O N C A N A D A 5 OUR SCHOOLS ARE ORGANIZED TO MEET THE NEEDS OF THE INDUSTRIAL AGE. THEY ARE BASED ON TWO KEY IDEAS: THE IMPORTANCE OF TRADITIONAL DISCIPLINARY KNOWLEDGE AND THE NECESSITY TO SORT PEOPLE ACCORDING TO THEIR LIKELY EMPLOYMENT DESTINATION. So, to summarize so far, the Knowledge Society view of knowledge, learning, and minds is as follows: Knowledge •is a process, not a thing (or stuff); •does things – more like energy than matter; •happens in teams, not in individual experts; •can’t be divided up into disciplines; •develops on as as-and-when-needed basis; •develops to be replaced, not to be stored away. Learning •involves generating new knowledge, not storing old knowledge; •is primarily a group, not an individual, activity; •happens in real world, problem-based contexts; •should be just-in-time, not just-in-case; •needs to be á la carte, not en bloc.3 Minds •are not containers, filing cabinets, or databases – places to store knowledge just in case – but resources that can be connected to other resources for the purpose of generating new knowledge. This view differs in major ways from the ideas that underpin the current education system. The next section takes a look at these ideas O U R C U R R E N T E D U C AT I O N S Y S T E M : W H E R E DID IT COME FROM? Our schools are organized to meet the needs of the Industrial Age. They are based on two key ideas: the importance of traditional disciplinary knowledge; and the need to sort people according to their likely employment destinations. Why are these ideas important and where did they come from? The first idea can be traced back to the work of the Ancient Greek philosophers, in particular Plato and Socrates. Plato wrote a great deal about education. He set out a model for education that, he thought, would produce a stable, secure, just society. This system, while open to all, was specifically designed to educate the ‘philosopher kings’ 6 E D U C AT I O N C A N A D A I C A N A D I A N E D U C AT I O N A S S O C I AT I O N – or future rulers – of his ideal state. The curriculum of this system was explicitly knowledge-centred. Plato thought that exposing individuals to particular kinds of knowledge – the best and greatest knowledge that human minds have been able to produce – would allow their intellectual development to mirror the development of the best minds of the past. His model is the foundation of the traditional liberal or academic curriculum in Western education systems. In most of the two and a half thousand years since Plato, however, only a very small proportion of the population received any formal education. Mass education is a relatively recent phenomenon. It is only in the last 150 years or so that public, state-funded, compulsory schooling for everyone has been the norm. Two imperatives drove this development: the political philosophy of egalitarianism (the idea that everyone should have an equal chance to succeed in life) and the economic need for people with the skills and dispositions necessary for work in the new Industrial Age enterprises. While both of these ideas were probably necessary to the development of mass education, they conflict in important ways. This conflict was resolved through the use of a strategy that cleverly combines Plato’s traditional academic curriculum with one of the Industrial Age’s iconic concepts: the production line. Industrial Age education systems are organized, like production lines, to mass-produce standardized products. Students are ‘processed’ through the system in ‘batches’ (known as year groups or classes). A pre-set curriculum is delivered to them in a pre-set order by people who specialize in different stages of the production. The tasks to be completed are broken down into bite-sized pieces. Students are guided through each stage in a way that, while it allows them to gain certain specific skills (‘the basics’), actively prevents them from seeing and understanding the big picture of what they are learning. As they pass through the system, students are subjected to various ‘quality control’ devices, designed to assess whether or not they measure up to the system’s standards. This production line approach is a very efficient way of dealing with large volumes of product. It is also a reasonably efficient way of ensuring that most of the product meets certain basic stan- dards, while at the same time allowing the system to sort out which of its products have what it takes to go on for further processing. The main instrument of quality control, at high school level, is the traditional academic curriculum. This one-size-fits-all approach is a pragmatic way of resolving the tension between the need to meet the human resource needs of an industrialized society and the need to produce equal opportunity. However, as educational sociologists have long argued, it doesn’t actually produce equal opportunity. This system produces large gaps between the highest achieving students and the lowest achieving students. Large numbers of students do not measure up to the system’s standards. These students are rejected and allowed to drop off the production line. This ‘wastage’ is an integral feature of one-size-fits-all systems. This system works in the Industrial Age context because Industrial Age societies have two main tiers – managers/professionals and workers – and Industrial Age education systems are required to sort people for these tiers. However, this model is not an appropriate foundation for a Knowledge Society education system. W H AT S H O U L D W E D O D I F F E R E N T LY T H E N ? The first thing we need to do is to acknowledge that we’re not in the Industrial Age any more. Then we need to move beyond Industrial Age ways of thinking about education. This will be difficult – because we have had these ideas so long, and because they structure our thinking in ways we are not even aware of. One way of thinking ‘outside the square’ of current ideas is to deconstruct – or look underneath – these ideas to see what drives them. Industrial Age education systems are informed by a set of mental models of knowledge, mind, and learning. At their most basic, these models are as follows: •Knowledge is stuff; •Knowing certain kinds of stuff is important (because it develops the mind in important ways); •Knowledge exists before learners learn it; •The curriculum is made up of different types of knowledge. Some types are harder than others. These harder forms of knowledge can be used to work out who will benefit from higher education and who won’t; •Learning happens in individuals; •Learning involves understanding stuff, storing it away somewhere, and reproducing it later. Some people are better at this than others; •Minds are individual processing and storage centres. These mental models are derived from – and designed to serve – the two Industrial Age ideas outlined earlier: the importance of traditional disciplinary knowledge and the need to sort people. They are very different from the ideas about knowledge, mind and learning we see appearing in the Knowledge Society literature. What does this mean? Do we need to throw out the old ideas? If so, what should we replace them with? My view is that if we want to make our schools responsive to events in the world outside education while also maintaining a commitment to the collective good, we do need to throw out the sorting function of education, but keep the emphasis on disciplinary knowledge. However – and this is important – the reasons for emphasising it are now different. In the Knowledge Age everyone needs the kind of knowledge and skills traditionally only provided in post-secondary education. We need new ways of organizing education based, not on the one-size-fits-all, production-line model, but on new models that allow flexibility, multiplicity, and new ideas about ability. Secondly, we need a new way of thinking about what we teach and why we teach it, a new way of thinking about the traditional disciplines that underpin the school curriculum. I THINK IT DOES MATTER WHAT STUDENTS ARE LEARNING, AND THAT THE OLD DISCIPLINES ARE STILL IMPORTANT. HOWEVER THE REASONS THEY ARE IMPORTANT ARE NOW VERY DIFFERENT FROM THE REASONS THEY WERE IMPORTANT IN THE PAST. C A N A D I A N E D U C AT I O N A S S O C I AT I O N I E D U C AT I O N C A N A D A 7 Much of the future-focused educational literature emphasizes learning – learning skills, life-long learning, learning how to learn, and so on. Underlying this is the idea that it doesn’t really matter what students are learning, as long as they are learning something, and the old disciplines no longer matter. I think it does matter what students are learning, and that the old disciplines are still important. However the reasons they are important are now very different from the reasons they were important in the past. In the traditional academic curriculum, the disciplines are important as ends in themselves. Knowing about – and being disciplined into – the traditional disciplines developed the mind in particular ways. That is the goal. The extent to which this goal is achieved in any one individual is measured by the assessment system (and students and teachers are judged by the results). In a Knowledge Society education system, I think we need to re-think this. Following Lyotard, I think we need to see the traditional disciplines not as ends in themselves, but as resources for pursuing ‘performativity’.4 Performativity is the ability to take elements from one knowledge system and put them together with elements from another, different knowledge system, re-arranging them to do something new and different. It involves doing things with knowledge: going beyond the mastery of existing knowledge to the generation of new knowledge. Doing this obviously requires one to know quite a lot about the knowledge systems one is using. It requires one to know about these systems, not at the level of their detailed facts, but at the systems or metalevel – how different knowledge systems work; what assumptions underpin them; how experts in those systems generate and justify new knowledge; how one system is different from (and similar to) other systems – that is, how meaning is made in different knowledge systems.5 To summarize then, developing a Knowledge Society education system involves approaches that can: •Develop new knowledge – through real research, not teacher-initiated projects. Knowledge Age schools need to be producers – not consumers – of knowledge; •Develop multi-modal literacy (understanding and using non-print modes of making meaning – images, sounds, gestures/body language and so on); •Foreground the relationships, connections and interactions between different knowledge systems and different modes of representation; •Emphasize difference and diversity, not sameness and/or one-size-fits-all approaches; •Foreground process not product; •Help learners build a sense of themselves as active knowledge-builders – as having a unique niche, role and/or point of difference/contribution to make. This might seem like a bit of a tall order. But the educational ideas and approaches needed to put all this into practice are already out there in the educational research literature and, in many cases, have been there for many years.6 However, when these ideas are imported into education systems that are built on the Industrial Age mental models outlined above, they are often diluted and/or reduced to meaningless slogans. Before we start using these ideas, we need to change the mental models that underpin our thinking about education. However, before we do this, we 8 E D U C AT I O N C A N A D A I C A N A D I A N E D U C AT I O N A S S O C I AT I O N need to have a debate about what we think our schools are for in this new age, about what we think students need and why, and about how we will know when we have been successful in providing those things. This article’s aim has been to make a contribution to that debate. I JANE GILBERT is a chief researcher with the New Zealand Council for Educational Research. Before joining NZCER in June 2003, she was a Senior Lecturer in the School of Education at Victoria University of Wellington. Her research interests include implications of the knowledge society for contemporary public education; curriculum, teaching and learning in secondary schools and tertiary institutions, especially science and technology education. Her recent book, Catching the Knowledge Wave? The Knowledge Society and the Future of Education, was reviewed in the Winter 2007 issue of Education Canada. Notes 1 M. Castells, The Rise of the Network Society, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000). 2 J.-F. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984). 3 These are Lyotard’s terms. 4 This is Lyotard’s term. 5 For an elaboration of this rather complex argument see Chapter 6 of my book: Catching the Knowledge Wave?: The Knowledge Society and the Future of Education (Wellington NZ: NZCER Press, 2005). 6 See, for example, the ideas discussed in C. Bereiter, Education and Mind in the Knowledge Age (Mahwah NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002); C. Bigum, “The Knowledge-producing School: Moving Away from the Work of Finding Educational Problems for which Computers are Solutions,” Computers in New Zealand Schools 15, no. 2 (2003): 22-26; G. Kress, Literacy in the New Media Age (London: Routledge, 2003); C. Lankshear and M. Knobel, New Lliteracy: Changing Knowledge and Classroom Learning (Buckingham, UK: Open University Press, 2003). I.. P ft I 25 cents i\ 7S HE JOHN DAY PAMPHLETS-N, 11 (This special pamphlet contains 64 pager), DARE THE SCHOOL - q BUILD A NEW SOCIAL ORDER ? by GEORGE S. COUNTS I As the possibilities in our societV begin dawn upon us, we, are all, I think, grow inik increasingly weary of the brutalities, the stupidities, the hypocrisies, and, . the gross inanities of contemporary life ._ `We have a haunting feeling that we ere born for better things anal that the tion itself is falling far short of its veers. The fact, that other groups refuse deal boldly and realistically, with the resent situation does not justify the achers of the country in their customary licy of hesitation and equivocation . `The times are 'literally crying for a ew vision of American destiny . The teach' profession, or -at at least its progressive ements, should eagerly grasp the oppor ity which the fates have placed in their L `'--GEORGE DARE THE SCHOOL BUILD A NEW SOCIAL ORDER? -PO T-1 By GEORGE S . COUNTS lu:!,or of The Amr-== Road to C .'ti The Soviet Challenge to America, etc . New York THE JOHN DAY COMPANY S . CouxTs See back flap for a list of, THE JOHN, DAY PAMPHLETS. THE JOHN DAY COMPANY, Inc. 386 Fourth Avenue, New York I 10 tqq FOREWORD This pamphlet is based upon three papers read at the national educational meetings in February of this year . One was read before the Progressive Education Association in Baltimore, a second before a division of the Department of Superintendence in Washington, and a third before the National Council of Education, also in Washington . The titles of these papers were respectively : Dare Progressive Education Be Progressive, Education Through Indoctrination, and Freedom, Culture, Social Planning, and Leadership. Because of the many requests for the papers which have come in from the most diverse quarters and through the courtesy of the John Day Company they are now combined and issued in pamphlet form . GEORGE S . COUNTS. April 15, 1932 . I I I IBE all simple and unsophisticated peoples we Americans have a sublime faith in education . Faced with any difficult problem of life we set our minds at rest sooner or later by the appeal to the school. We are convinced that education is the one unfailing remedy for every ill to which man is subject, whether it be vice, crime, war, poverty, riches, injustice, racketeering, political corruption, race hatred, class conflict . or just plain original sin . We even speak glibly and often about the general reconstruction of society through the school . e cling to this ai spite of the fact that the very period in which our troubles have multiplied so rapidly has witnessed an unprecedented expansion of organized education . This would seem to suggest that our schools, instead of directing the course of change, are themselves driven by the very forces that are transforming the rest of the social order . The bare fact, however, that simple and unsophisticated peoples have unbounded faith in education does not mean that the faith is untenable . History shows that the intuitions of 3 n such folk may be nearer the truth than the weighty and carefully reasoned judgments of the learned and the wise . Under certain conditions education may be as beneficent and as powerful as we are wont to think . But if it is to be so, teachers must abandon much of their easy optimism, subject the concept of education to the most rigorous scrutiny, and be prepared to deal much more fundamentally, realistically, and positively with the American social situation than has been their habit in the past . Any individual or group that would aspire to lead society must be ready to pay the costs of leadership : to accept responsibility, to suffer calumny, to surrender security, to risk both reputation and fortune. If this price, or some important part of it, is not being paid, then the chances are that the claim to leadership is fraudulent . Society is never redeemed without effort, struggle, and sacrifice . Authentic leaders are never found breathing that rarefied atmosphere lying above the dust and smoke of battle . With regard to the past we always recognize the truth of this principle, but when we think of our own times we profess the belief that the ancient roles have been reversed and that now prophets of a new age receive their rewards among the living . That the existing school is leading the way 4 to a better social order is a thesis which few informed persons would care to defend . Except as it is forced to fight for its own life during times of depression, its course is too serene and untroubled . Only in the rarest of instances does it wage war on behalf of principle or ideal. Almost everywhere it is in the of conservative forces and is serving the cause of perpetuating ideas and institutions suited to an age that is gone . But there is one movement above the educational horizon which would seem to show promise of genuine 0 and creative leadership . I refer to the Progressive Education movement. Surely in this union of two of the great faiths of the Ar.2erican people, the faith in progress and the faith in education, we have reason to hope for light and guidance. ere is a movement which would seem t~_o-Mpletel evoe 'to the promotion of social welfare through educaEven a casual examination of the program and philosophy of the Progressive schools, however, raises many doubts in the mind . To be sure, these schools have a number of large achievements to their credit . They have focused attention squarely upon the child ; they .~ have recognized the fundamental importance of the interest of the learner ; they have de- o 5 ' fended the thesis that activity lies at the root of all true education ; they have conceived learning in terms of life situations and growth of character ; they have championed the rights of the child as a free personality . Most of this is excellent, but in my judgment it is not enough. It constitutes too narrow a conception of the meaning of education ; it brings into the picture but one-half of the landscape . If an educational movement, or any other movement, calls itself progressive, it must have orientation; it must possess direction. The word itself implies m oving forward, and moving forward can have little meaning in the absence of clearly defined purposes . e cannot, like Stephen Leacock's horseman, dash off in all directions at once. Nor should we, like our presidential candidates, evade every disturbing issue and be all things to all men . Also we must beware lest we become so devoted to motion that we neglect the question of direction and be entirely satisfied with movement in circles . Here, I think, we find the fundamental weakness, not only of Progressive Education, but also of American education generally . Like a baby shaking a rattle, we seem to be utterly content with action, provided it is sufficiently vigorous and noisy . In the last analysis a very large part of American educational thought, W inquiry, and experimentation is much ado about nothing. And, if we are permitted to push the analogy of the rattle a bit further, our consecration to motion is encouraged and supported in order to keep us out of mischief . At least we know that so long as we thus busy ourselves we shall not incur the serious dis- I pleasure of our social elders . The weakness of Progressive Education thus lies in the fact that it has elaborated no theory of social welfare, unless it be that of anarchy or extreme individualism . In this, of course, it is but reflecting the viewpoint of the members of the liberal-minded upper middle class who send their children to the Progressive schools-persons who are fairly well-off, who have abandoned the faiths of their fathers, who assume an agnostic attitude towards all important questions, who pride themselves on their open-mindedness and tolerance, who favor in a mild sort of way fairly liberal programs of social reconstruction, who are full of good will and humane sentiment, who have vague aspirations for world peace and human brotherhood, who can be counted upon to respond moderately to any appeal made in the name of charity, who are genuinely distressed at the sight of unwonted forms of cruelty, misery, and suffering, and who perhaps serve to 7 I soften somewhat the bitter clashes of those real forces that govern the world ; but who, in spite of all their good qualities, have no deep and abiding loyalties, possess no convictions for which they would sacrifice over-much, would find it hard to live without their customary material comforts, are rather insensitive to the accepted forms of social injustice, are content to play the role of interested spectator in the drama of human history, refuse to see reality in its harsher and more disagreeable forms, rarely move outside the pleasant circles of the class to which they belong, and in the day of severe trial will follow the lead of the most powerful and respectable forces in society and at the same time find good reasons for so doing . These people have shown themselves entirely incapable of dealing with any of the great crises of our time-war, prosperity, or depression . At bottom they are romantic sentimentalists, but with a sharp eye on the main chance . That they can be trusted to write our educational theories and shape our educational programs is highly improbable . Among the members of this class the number of children is small, the income relatively high, and the economic functions of the home greatly reduced . For these reasons an inordinate emphasis on the child and child interests 8 is entirely welcome to them . They wish to guard their offspring from too strenuous endeavor and from coming into too intimate contact with the grimmer aspects of industrial society. They wish their sons and daughters to succeed according to the standards of their class and to be a credit to their parents . At heart feeling themselves members of a superior human strain, they do not want their children to mix too freely with the children of the poor or of the less fortunate races . Nor do they want them to accept radical social doctrines, espouse unpopular causes, or lose themselves in quest of any Holy Grail . According to their views education should deal with life, but with life at a distance or in a highly diluted form. They would generally maintain that life should be kept at arm's length, if it should not be handled with a poker. If Progressive Education . is to be genuinely progressive, it must emancipate itself_ from the influence of this class, face_ squarely and coprageously every socialism~e,.come to grips_wt_th life in -all-6t its stark reality, establish an organicrelation with the community, develop a realistic and _comprehensive theory of welfare, fashion, a compelling ancfchallenging vision of human destiny, and become less frightened than it is today at the bogies of imposition and 9 I indoctrination. In a word, Progressive Education cannot place its trust in a child-centered school. This brings us to the most crucial issue in education-the question of the nature and extent of the influence which the school should exercise over the development of the child . The advocates of extreme freedom have been so successful in championing what they call the rights of the child that even the most skillful practitioners of the art of converting others to their opinions disclaim all intention of molding the learner. And when the word indoctrination is coupled with education there is scarcely one among us possessing the hardihood to refuse to be horrified . This feeling is so widespread that even Mr . Lunacharsky, Commissar of Education in the Russian Republic until 1929, assured me on one occasion that the Soviet educational leaders do not believe in the indoctrination of children in the ideas and principles of communism. When I asked him whether their children become good communists while attending the schools, he replied that the great majority do . On seeking from him an explanation of this remarkable phenomenon he said that Soviet teachers f f merely tell their children the truth about human history . As a consequence, so he asserted, 10 practically all of the more intelligent boys and I girls adopt the philosophy of communism . I recall also that the Methodist sect in which I was reared always confined its teachings to the truth The issue is no doubt badly confused by historical causes. The champions of freedom are obviously the product of an age that has broken very fundamentally with the past and is equally uncertain about the future . In many cases they feel themselves victims of narrow orthodoxies which were imposed upon them during childhood and which have severely cramped their lives . At any suggestion that the child should be influenced by his elders they therefore envisage the establishment of a state church, the formulation of a body of sacred doctrine, and the teaching of this doctrine as fixed and final . If we are forced to choose between such an unenlightened form of pedagogical influence and a condition of complete freedom for the child, most of us would in all probability choose the latter as the lesser of two evils . But this is to create a wholly artificial situation : the choice should not be limited to these two extremes. Indeed today neither extreme is possible. I believe firmly that a critical factor must play an important role in any adequate edu11 I I cational program, at least in any such program fashioned for the modern world . An education that does not strive to promote the fullest and most thorough understanding of i the world is not worthy of the name . Also there must be no deliberate distortion or suppression of facts to support any theory or point of view . On the other hand, I am prepared to defend the thesis that all education contains a large element of imposition, that in the very nature of the case this inevitable, that the existence and evolution of society depend upon it, that it is consequently* eminently desirable, and that the frank acceptance of this fact by the educator is a major professional obligation. I even contend that failure to do this involves the clothing of one's own deepest prejudices in the garb of universal truth and the introduction into the theory and practice of education of an element of obscurantism . In the development of this thesis I shall examine a number of widespread fallacies which seem to me to underlie the theoretical opposition to all forms of imposition . Although certain of these fallacies are very closely related and to some extent even cover the same territory, their * Some persons would no doubt regard this as a non sequitur, but the great majority of the members of the human race would, I think, accept the argument. 12 separate treatment will help to illuminate the problem . II 1 . There is the fallacy that man is born free . As a matter of fact, he is born helpless . He achieves freedom, as a race and as an individual, through the medium of culture. The most crucial of all circumstances conditioning human life is birth into a particular culture . By birth one becomes a Chinese, an Englishman, a Hottentot, a Sioux Indian, a Turk, or a one-hundred-percent American . Such a range of possibilities may appear too shocking to contemplate, but it is the price that one must pay in order to be born . Nevertheless, even if a given soul should happen by chance to choose a Hottentot for a mother, it should thank its lucky star that it was born into the Hottentot culture rather than entirely free . By being nurtured on a body of culture, however backward and limited it may be comparatively, the individual is at once imposed upon and liberated . The child is terribly imposed upon by being compelled through the accidents of birth to learn one language rather than another, but without some language man would never become man . Any language, even 13 A-4 the most poverty-stricken, is infinitely better than none at all . In the life cycle of the individual many choices must of necessity be made, and the most fundamental and decisive of these choices will always be made by the group . This is so obvious that it should require no elaboration. Yet this very obvious fact, with its implications, is commonly disregarded by those who are fearful of molding the child . One of the most important elements of any culture is a tradition of achievement along a particular line-a tradition which the group imposes upon the young and through which the powers of the young are focused, disciplined, and developed . One people will have a fine hunting tradition, another a maritime tradition, another a musical tradition, another a military tradition, another a scientific tradition, another a baseball tradition, another a business tradition, and another even a tradition of moral and religious prophecy . A particular society of the modern type commonly has a vast number of different traditions all of which may be bound together and integrated more or less by some broad and inclusive tradition . One might argue that the imposing of these traditions upon children involves a severe restriction upon their freedom . My thesis is that such imposition, provided the tradition 14 is vital and suited to the times, releases the energies of the young, sets up standards of excellence, and makes possible really great achievement . The individual who fails to come under the influence of such a tradition may enjoy a certain kind of freedom, but it is scarcely a kind of freedom that anyone would covet for either himself or his children . It is the freedom of mediocrity, incompetence, and aimlessness . 2 . There is the fallacy that the child is good by nature . The evidence from anthropology, as well as from common observation, shows that on entering the world the individual is neither good nor bad ; he is merely a bundle of potentialities which may be developed in manifold directions . Guidance is, therefore, not to be found in child nature, but rather in the culture of the group and the purposes of living . There can be no good individual apart from some conception of the character of the good society ; and the good society is not something that is given by nature : it must be fashioned by the hand and brain of man . This process of building a good society is to a very large degree an educational process . The nature of the child must of course be taken into account in the organization of any educational program, but it cannot furnish the materials and the 15 guiding principles of that program . Squirm and wriggle as we may, we must admit that the bringing of materials and guiding principles from the outside involves the molding of the child. 3 . There is the fallacy that the child lives in a separate world of his own . The advocates of freedom often speak of the adult as an alien influence in the life of the child . For an adult to intrude himself or his values into the domain of boys and girls is made to take on the appearance of an invasion by a foreign power . Such a dualism is almost wholly artificial . Whatever may be the view of the adult, the child knows but one society ; and that is a society including persons of all ages . This does not mean that conflicts of interest may not occur or that on occasion adults may not abuse and exploit children . It does mean that in a proper kind of society the relationship is one of mutual benefit and regard in which the young repay in trust and emulation the protection and guidance provided by their elders . The child's conception of his position in society is well expressed in the words of Plenty'coups, the famous Crow chieftain, who spoke thus of his boyhood : "We followed the buffalo herds over our beautiful plains, fighting a battle one day and sending out a war-party 16 against the enemy the next . My heart was afire. I wished so to help my people, to distinguish myself, so that I might wear an eagle's feather in my hair . How I worked to make my arms strong as a grizzly's, and how I practiced with my bow! A boy never wished to be a man more than I ." Here is an emphatic and unequivocal answer to those who would raise a barrier between youth and age . Place the child in a world of his own and you take from him the most powerful incentives to growth and achievement . Perhaps one of the greatest tragedies of contemporary society lies in the fact that the child is becoming increasingly isolated from the serious activities of adults . Some would say that such isolation is an inevitable corollary of the growing complexity of the social order . In my opinion it is rather the product of a society that is moved by no great commanding ideals and is consequently victimized by the most terrible form of human madness-the struggle for private gain . As primitive peoples wisely protect their children from the dangers of actual warfare, so we guard ours from the acerbities of economic strife. Until school and society are bound together by common purposes the program of education will lack both meaning and vitality . 4 . There is the fallacy that education is some 17 pure and mystical essence that remains unchanged from everlasting to everlasting . According to this view, genuine education must be completely divorced from politics, live apart from the play of social forces, and pursue ends peculiar to itself . It thus becomes a method existing independently of the cultural milieu and equally beneficent at all times and in all places . This is one of the most dangerous of fallacies and is responsible for many sins committed in different countries by American educators traveling abroad . They have carried the same brand of education to backward and advanced races, to peoples living under relatively static conditions and to peoples passing through periods of rapid and fundamental transition. They have called it Education with a capital E, whereas in fact it has been American education with a capital A and a small e. Any defensible educational program must be adjusted to a particular time and place, and the degree and nature of the imposition must vary with the social situation . Under ordinary conditions the process of living suffices in itself to hold society together, but when the forces of disintegration become sufficiently powerful it may well be that a fairly large measure of deliberate control is desirable and even essential to social survival . 18 5. There is the fallacy that the school should be impartial in its emphases, that no bias should be given instruction . We have already observed how the individual is inevitably molded by the culture into which he is born . In the case of the school a similar process operates and presumably is subject to a degree of conscious direction. My thesis is that complete impartiality is utterly impossible, that the school must shape attitudes, develop tastes, and even impose ideas . It is obvious that the whole of creation cannot be brought into the school . This means that some selection must be made of teachers, curricula, architecture, methods of teaching . And in the making of the selection the dice must always be weighted in favor of this or that . Here is a fundamental truth that cannot be brushed aside as irrelevant or unimportant ; it constitutes the very essence of the matter under discussion. Nor can the reality be concealed beneath agreeable phrases . Professor Dewey states in his Democracy and Education that the school should provide a purified environment for the child . With this view I would certainly agree ; probably no person reared in our society would favor the study of pornography in the schools . I am sure, however, that this means stacking the cards in favor of the particular systems of 19 value which we may happen to possess . It is one of the truisms of the anthropologist that there are no maxims of purity on which all peoples would agree . Other vigorous opponents of imposition unblushingly advocate the "cultivation of democratic sentiments" in children or the promotion of child growth in the direction of "a better and richer life ." The first represents definite acquiescence in imposition ; the second, if it does not mean the same thing, means nothing . I believe firmly that democratic sentiments should be cultivated and that a better and richer life should be the outcome of education, but in neither case would I place responsibility on either God or the order of nature. I would merely contend that as educators we must make many choices involving the development of attitudes in boys and girls and that we should not be afraid to acknowledge the faith that is in us or mayhap the forces that compel us . 6. There is the fallacy that the great object of education is to produce the college professor, that is, the individual who adopts an agnostic attitude towards every important social issue, who can balance the pros against the cons with the skill of a juggler, who sees all sides of every question and never commits himself to any, who delays action until all the 20 facts are in, who knows that all the facts will never come in, who consequently holds his judgment in a state of indefinite suspension, and who before the approach of middle age sees his powers of action atrophy and his social sympathies decay . With Peer Gynt he can exclaim : Ay, think o f it wish it done-will it to boot,But do it-! No, that's past my understanding! This type of mind also talks about waiting until the solutions of social problems are found, when as a matter of fact there are no solutions in any definite and final sense . For any complex social problem worthy of the name there are probably tens and even scores, if not hundreds, of "solutions," depending upon the premises from which one works . The meeting of a social situation involves the making of decisions and the working out of adjustments . Also it involves the selection and rejection of values . If we wait for a solution to appear like the bursting of the sun through the clouds or the resolving of the elements in an algebraic equation, we shall wait in vain . Although college professors, if not too numerous, perform a valuable social function, society requires great numbers of persons who, while 21 capable of gathering and digesting facts, are at the same time able to think in terms of life, make decisions, and act . From such persons will come our real social leaders . 7. There is the closely related fallacy that education is primarily intellectualistic in its processes and goals. Quite as important is that ideal factor in culture which gives meaning, direction, and significance to life . I refer to the element of faith or purpose which lifts man out of himself and above the level of his more narrow personal interests . Here, in my judgment, is one of the great lacks in our schools and in our intellectual class today . We are able to contemplate the universe and find that all is vanity. Nothing really stirs us, unless it be that the bath water is cold, the toast burnt, or the elevator not running ; or that perchance we miss the first section of a revolving door. Possibly this is the fundamental reason why we are so fearful of molding the child . We are moved by no great faiths ; we are touched by no great passions . We can view a world order rushing rapidly towards collapse with no more concern than the outcome of a horse race ; we can see injustice, crime and misery in their most terrible forms all about us and, if we are not directly affected, register the emotions of a scientist studying white rats 22 in a laboratory . And in the name of freedom, objectivity, and the open mind, we would transmit this general attitude of futility to our children. In my opinion this is a confession of complete moral and spiritual bankruptcy . We cannot, by talk about the interests of children and the sacredness of personality, evade the responsibility of bringing to the younger generation a vision which will call forth their active loyalties and challenge them to creative and arduous labors . A generation without such a vision is destined, like ours, to a life of absorption in self, inferiority complexes, and frustration . The genuinely free man is not the person who spends the day contemplating his own navel, but rather the one who loses himself in a great cause or glorious adventure . 8. There is the fallacy that the school is an all-powerful educational agency. Every professional group tends to exaggerate its own importance in the scheme of things . To this general rule the teachers offer no exception . The leaders of Progressive Education in particular seem to have an over-weening faith in the power of the school . On the one hand, they speak continually about reconstructing society through education ; and on the other, they apparently live in a state of perpetual fear lest the school impose some one point of view upon 23 10 all children and mold them all to a single pattern. A moment's reflection is sufficient to show that life in the modern world is far too complex to permit this : the school is but one formative agency among many, and certainly not the strongest at that . Our major concern consequently should be, not to keep the school from influencing the child in a positive direction, but rather to make certain that every Progressive school will use whatever, power it may possess in opposing and checking the voices of social conservatism andreaction . We know full well that, if the school should endeavor vigorously and consistently to win its pupils to the support of a given social program, unless it were supported by other agencies, it could act only as a mild counterpoise to restrain and challenge the might of less enlightened and more selfish purposes . 9. There is the fallacy that ignorance rather than knowledge is the way of wisdom . Many who would agree that imposition of some kind is inevitable seem to feel that there is something essentially profane in any effort to understand, plan, and control the process. They will admit that the child is molded by his environment, and then presumably contend that in the fashioning of this environment we should close our eyes to the consequences of 24 i our acts, or at least should not endeavor to control our acts in the light of definite knowledge of their consequences . To do the latter would involve an effort to influence deliberately the growth of the child in a particular direction-to cause him to form this habit rather than that, to develop one taste rather than another, to be sensitive to a given ideal rather than its rival . But this would be a violation of the "rights of the child," and therefore evil . Apparently his rights can be protected only if our influence upon him is thoroughly concealed under a heavy veil of ignorance. If the school can do no better than this, it has no reason for existence. If it is to be merely an arena for the blind play of psychological forces, it might better close its doors . Here is the doctrine of laissez faire, driven from the field of social and political theory, seeking refuge in the domain of pedagogy . Progressive Education wishes to build a new world but refuses to be held accountable f or the kind of world it builds . In my judgment, the school should know what it is doing, in so far as this is humanly possible, and accept full responsibility for its acts. 10. Finally, there is the fallacy that in a dynamic society like ours the major responsibility of education is to prepare the individ25 ual to adjust himself to social change . The argument in support of this view is fairly cogent. The world is changing with great rapidity ; the rate of change is being accelerated constantly ; the future is full of uncertainty . Consequently the individual who is to live and thrive in this world must possess an agile mind, be bound by no deep loyalties, hold all conclusions and values tentatively, and be ready on a moment's notice to make even fundamental shifts in outlook and philosophy. Like a lumberjack riding a raft of logs through the rapids, he must be able with lightning speed to jump from one insecure foundation to another, if he is not to be overwhelmed by the onward surge of the cultural stream . In a word, he must be as willing to adopt new ideas and values as to install the most up-to-the-minute labor - saving devices in his dwelling or to introduce the latest inventions into his factory . Under such a conception of life and society, education can only bow down before the gods of chance and reflect the drift of the social order . This conception is essentially anarchic in character, .exalts the irrational above the rational forces of society, makes of security an individual rather than a social goal, drives every one of us into an insane competition with his neigh26 bors, and assumes that man is incapable of controlling in the common interest the creatures of his brain . Here . we have imposition with a vengeance, but not the imposition of the teacher or the school. Nor is it an enlightened form of imposition . Rather is it the imposition of the chaos and cruelty and ugliness produced by the brutish struggle for existence and advantage . Far more terrifying than any indoctrination in which the school might indulge is the prospect of our becoming completely victimized and molded by the mechanics of industrialism . The control of the machine requires a society which is dominated less by the ideal of individual advancement and more by certain far-reaching purposes and plans for social construction . In such a society, instead of the nimble mind responsive to every eddy in the social current, a firmer and more steadfast mentality would be preferable. III If we may now assume that the child will be imposed upon in some fashion by the various elements in his environment, the real question is not whether imposition will take place, but rather from what source it will come. If 27 we were to answer this question in terms of the past, there could, I think, be but one answer : on all genuinely crucial matters the I school follows the wishes of the groups or classes that actually rule society ; on minor matters the school is sometimes allowed a certain measure of freedom . But the future may be unlike the past . Or perhaps I should say that teachers, if they could increase sufficiently their stock of courage, intelligence, and vision, might become asocial force of some magni- tnde:About this eventuality I am not over sanguine, but a society lacking leadership as ours does, might even accept the guidance of teachers . Through powerful organizations they might at least reach the public conscience and come to exercise a larger measure of control over the schools than hitherto . They would then have to assume some responsibility for the more fundamental forms of imposition which, according to my argument, cannot be avoided. That the teachers should delib erately reach for power and then iiia-ke the most of their gjuest is my firm conviction. To extent that they r are permitted to fashion the curriculum and the procedures of the school they f will definitely and positively influence the social attitudes, ideals, and behavior of the comon tie ing generation. In doing this they should resort to no subterfuge or false modesty . They should say neither that they are merely teaching the truth nor that they are unwilling to wield power in their own right. The first position is false and the second is a confession of incompetence . It is my observation that the men and women who have affected the course of human events are those who have not hesitated to use the power that has come to them . Representing as they do, not the interests of the moment or of any special class, but rather the common and abiding interests of the people, teachers are under heavy social obligation to protect and further those interests . In this they occupy a relatively unique position in society . Also since the profession should embrace scientists and scholars of the highest rank, as well as teachers working at all levels of the educational system, it has at its disposal, as no other group, the knowledge and wisdom of the ages. It is scarcely thinkable that these men and women would ever act as selfishly or bungle as badly as have the so-called "practical" men of our generation-the politicians, the financiers, the industrialists . If all of these facts are taken into account, instead of shunning power, the profession should rather seek power and then strive to use that power fully 29 -I and wisely and in the interests of the great masses of the people . The point should be emphasized that teachers possess no magic secret to power . While their work should give them a certain moral advantage, they must expect to encounter the usual obstacles blocking the road to leadership . They should not be deceived by the pious humbug with which public men commonly flatter the members of the profession . To expect ruling groups or classes to give precedence to teachers on important matters, because of age or sex or sentiment, is to refuse to face realities . It was one of the proverbs of the agrarian order that a spring never rises higher than its source . So the power that teachers exercise in the schools can be no greater than the power they wield in society. Moreover, while organization is necessary, teachers should not think of their problem primarily in terms of organizing and presenting a united front to the world, the flesh, and the devil . In order to be effective they must throw off completely the slave psychology that has dominated the mind of the pedagogue more or less since the days of ancient Greece .. They must be prepared to stand on their own feet and win for their ideas the support of the masses of the people . Education as a force for social 30 regeneration must march hand in hand with the living and creative forces of the social order. In their own lives teachers must bridge the gap between school and society and play some part in the fashioning of those great common purposes which should bind the two together. This brings us to the question of the kind of imposition in which teachers should engage, if they had the power . Our obligations, I think, grow out of the social situation . We live in troublous times ; we live in an age of profound change ; we live in an age of revolution . Indeed it is highly doubtful whether man ever lived in a more .eventful period than the present. In order to match our epoch we would probably have to go back to the fall of the ancient empires or even to that unrecorded age when men first abandoned the natural arts of hunting and fishing and trapping and began to experiment with agriculture and the settled life . Today we are witnessing the rise of a civilization quite without precedent in human history-a civilization founded on science, technology, and machinery, possessing the most extraordinary power, and rapidly making of the entire world a single great society . Because of forces already released, whether in the field of economics, politics, morals, re31 J ligion, or art, the old molds are being broken . And the peoples of the earth are everywhere seething with strange ideas and passions . If life were peaceful and quiet and undisturbed by great issues, we might with some show of wisdom center our attention on the nature of the child. But with the world as it is, we cannot afford for a single instant to remove our eyes from the social scene or shift our attention from the peculiar needs of the age . In this new world that is forming, thereis one set of issues which is peculiarly fundamental -an d .which is certain_ to be the center of bitter and prolonged stru Ie. I refer to those ~'g issues which_ may be_ styled economic. `President Butler has well stated ie case : "For a generation and more past," he says, "the center of human interest has been moving from the point which it occupied for some four hundred years to a new point which it bids fair to occupy for a time equally long . The shift in the position of the center of gravity in human interest has been from politics to economics ; from considerations that had to do with forms of government, with the establishment and protection of individual liberty, to considerations that have to do with the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth ." Consider the present condition of the na32 tion . Who among us, if be had not been reared amid our institutions, could believe his eyes as he surveys the economic situation, or his ears as he listens to solemn disquisitions by our financial and political leaders on the cause and cure of the depression) Here is a society that manifests the most extraordinary contradictions : a mastery over the forces of nature, surpassing the wildest dreams of antiquity, is accompanied by extreme material insecurity ; dire poverty walks hand in hand with the most extravagant living the world has ever known ; an abundance of goods of all kinds is coupled with privation, misery, and even starvation ; an excess of production is seriously -offered as the underlying cause of severe physical suffering ; breakfastless children march to school past bankrupt shops laden with rich foods gathered from the ends of the earth ; strong men by the million walk the streets in a futile search for employment and with the exhaustion of hope enter the ranks of the damned ; great captains of industry close factories without warning and dismiss the workmen by whose labors they have amassed huge fortunes through the years ; automatic machinery increasingly displaces men and threatens society with a growing contingent of the permanently unemployed ; 33 racketeers and gangsters with the connivance of public officials fasten themselves on the channels of trade and exact toll at the end of the machine gun ; economic parasitism, either within or without the law, is so prevalent that the tradition of honest labor is showing signs of decay ; the wages paid to the workers are too meager to enable them to buy back the goods they produce ; consumption is subordinated to production and a philosophy of deliberate waste is widely proclaimed as the highest economic wisdom ; the science of psychology is employed to fan the flames of desire so that men may be enslaved by their wants and bound to the wheel of production ; a government board advises the cotton-growers to plow under every third row of cotton in order to bolster up the market ; both ethical and Eesthetic considerations are commonly over-ridden by "hard-beaded business men" bent on material gain ; federal aid to the unemployed is opposed on the ground that it would pauperize the masses when the favored members of society have always lived on a dole ; even responsible leaders resort to the practices of the witch doctor and vie with one another in predicting the return of prosperity ; an ideal of rugged individualism, evolved in a simple pioneering and agrarian order at a time when 84 free land existed in abundance, is used to justify a system which exploits pitilessly and without thought of the morrow the natural and human resources of the nation . and of the world. One can only imagine what Jeremiah would say if he could step out of the pages of the Old Testament and cast his eyes over this vast spectacle so full of tragedy and of menace . The point should be emphasized, however, that the present situation is also freighted with hope and promise . The age is pregnant with possibilities. There lies within our grasp the most humane, the most beautiful, the most majestic civilization ever fashioned by any people . This much at least we know today . We shall probably know more tomorrow . At last men have achieved such a mastery over the forces of nature that wage slavery can follow chattel slavery and take its place among the relics of the past . No longer are there grounds for the contention that the finer fruits of human culture must be nurtured upon the toil and watered by the tears of the masses . The limits to achievement set by nature have been so extended that we are today bound merely by our ideals, by our power of self-discipline, by our ability to devise social arrangements suited to an industrial age. If 35 J we are to place any credence whatsoever in the word of our engineers, the full utilization of modern technology at its present level of development should enable us to produce several times as much goods as were ever produced at the very peak of prosperity, and with the working day, the working year, and the working life reduced by half. We hold within our hands the power to usher in an age of plenty, to make secure the lives of all, and to banish poverty forever from the land . The only cause for doubt or pessimism lies in the question of our ability to rise to the stature of the times in which we live . Our generation has the, good or the ill fortune to live in an age when great decisions must be made. The American people, like most of the other peoples of the earth, have come to the parting of the ways ; they can no longer trust entirely the inspiration which came to them when the Republic was young ; they must decide afresh what they are to do with their talents . Favored above all other nations with the resources of nature and the material instrumentalities of civilization, they stand confused and irresolute before the future. They seem to lack the moral quality necessary to quicken, discipline, and give direction to their matchless energies. In a recent 36 paper Professor Dewey has, in my judgment, correctly diagnosed our troubles : "the schools, like the nation," he says, "are in need of a central purpose which will create new enthusiasm and devotion, and which will unify and guide all intellectual plans ." This suggests, as we have already observed, that the educational problem is not wholly intellectual in nature . Our Progressive schools therefore cannot rest content with giving children an opportunity to study contemporary society in all of its aspects. This of course must be done, but I am convinced that they should go much farther . If the schools are to be really effective, they must become centers for the building, and not merely for the contemplation, of our civilization . This does not mean that we should endeavor to promote particular reforms through the educational system. We should, however, give to our children a vision of the possibilities which lie ahead and endeavor to enlist their loyalties and enthusiasms in the realization of the vision . Also our social institutions and practices, all of them, should be critically examined in the light of such a vision . 37 IV In The Epic of America James Truslow Adams contends that our chief contribution to the heritage of the race lies not in the field of science, or religion, or literature, or art but rather in the creation of what he calls the "American Dream"--a vision of a society in which the lot of the common man will be made easier and his life enriched and ennobled . If this vision has been a moving force in our history, as I believe it has, why should we not set ourselves the task of revitalizing and reconstituting it? This would seem to be the great need of our age, both in the realm of education and in the sphere of public life, because men must have something for which to live . Agnosticism, skepticism, or even experimentalism, unless the last is made flesh through the formulation of some positive social program, constitutes an extremely meager spiritual diet for any people . A small band of intellectuals, a queer breed of men at best, may be satisfied with such a spare ration, particularly if they lead the sheltered life common to their class ; but the masses, I am sure, will always demand something more solid and substantial . Ordinary men and women crave a tangible purpose towards which to strive and 38 which lends richness and dignity and meaning to life. I would consequently like to see our profession come to grips with the problem of creating a tradition that has roots in American soil, is in harmony with the spirit of the age, recognizes the facts of industrialism, appeals to the most profound impulses of our people, and takes into account the emergence of a world society .* The ideal foundations on which we must build are easily discernible . Until recently the very word America has been synonymous throughout the world with democracy and symbolic to the oppressed classes of all lands of hope and opportunity . Child of the revolutionary ideas and impulses of the eighteenth century, the American nation became the embodiment of bold social experimentation and a champion of the power of environment to develop the capacities and redeem the souls of common men and women . And as her stature grew, her lengthening shadow reached to the four corners of the earth and everywhere impelled the human will to rebel against ancient * In the remainder of the argument I confine attention entirely to the domestic situation . I do this, not because I regard the question of international relations unimportant, but rather because of limitations of space . All I can say here is that any proper conception of the world society must accept the principle of the moral equality of races and nations . 39 wrongs . Here undoubtedly is the finest jewel in our heritage and the thing that is most worthy of preservation . If America should lose her honest devotion to democracy, or if she should lose her revolutionary temper, she will no longer be America . In that day, if it has not already arrived, her spirit will have fled and she will be known merely as the richest and most powerful of the nations . If America is not to be false to the promise of her youth, she must do more than simply perpetuate the democratic ideal of human relationships : she must make an intelligent and determined effort to fulfill it . The democracy of the past was the chance fruit of a strange conjunction of forces on the new continent ; the democracy of the future can only be the intended offspring of the union of human reason, purpose, and will . The conscious and deliberate achievement of democracy under novel circumstances is the task of our generation . Democracy of course should not be identified with political forms and functions-with the federal constitution, the popular election of officials, or the practice of universal suffrage. To think in such terms is to confuse the entire issue, as it has been confused in the minds of the masses for generations . The most genuine expression of democracy in the 40 United States has little to do with our political institutions : it is a sentiment with respect to the moral equality of men : it is an aspiration towards a society in which this sentiment will find complete fulfillment . A society fashioned in harmony with the American democratic tradition would combat'all forces-tending to produce social distinctions and classes ; repress every form of privilege and economic parasitism; manifest a tender regard for the weak, the ignorant, and the unfortunate ;` place the heavier and more onerous social burdens on the backs of the strong ; glory in every triumph of man in his timeless urge_ to_ express himself and to make the world more__ habitable ; exalt human labor of hand an 'd brain as the creator of all wealth and culture ; provide adequate material and spiritual rewards for every kind of socially useful work ; strive for genuine equality of opportunity among all races, sects, and occupations ; regard as paramount the abiding interests of the great masses of the people ; direct the powers of government to the elevation and the refinement of the life of the common man ; transform or destroy all conventions, institutions, and special groups inimical to -the underlying principles of democracy ; and finally be prepared as a last resort, in either the defense or the realiza41 tion of this purpose, to follow the method of revolution. Although these ideals have never been realized or perhaps even fully accepted anywhere in the United States and have always had to struggle for existence with contrary forces, they nevertheless have authentic roots in the past . They are the values for which America has stood before the world during most of her history and with which the American people have loved best to associate their country. Their power and authority are clearly revealed in the fact that selfish interests, when grasping for some special privilege, commonly wheedle and sway the masses by repeating the words and kneeling before the emblems of the democratic heritage . It is becoming increasingly clear, however, that this tradition, if its spirit is to survive, will have to be reconstituted in the light of the great social trends of the age in which we live. Our democratic heritage was largely a product of the frontier, free land, and a simple agrarian order . Today a new and strange and closely integrated industrial economy is rapidly sweeping over the world . Although some of us in our more sentimental moments talk wistfully of retiring into the more tranquil society of the past, we could scarcely induce many of our fellow citizens to accompany us . 42 Even the most hostile critics of industrialism would like to take with them in their retirement a few such fruits of the machine as electricity, telephones, automobiles, modern plumbing, and various labor-saving devices, or at least be assured of an abundant supply of slaves or docile and inexpensive servants . But all such talk is the most idle chatter. For better or for worse we must take industrial civilization as an enduring fact : already we have become parasitic on its institutions and products . The hands of the clock cannot be turned back. If we accept industrialism, as we must, we are then compelled to face without equivocation the most profound issue which this new order of society has raised and settle that issue in terms of the genius of our people-the issue of the control of the ma chine. In whose interests and for what purposes are the vast material riches, the unrivaled industrial equipment, and the science and technology of the nation to be used? In the light of our democratic tradition there can be but one answer to the question : all of these resources must be dedicated to the promotion of the welfare of the great masses of the people . Even the classes in our society that perpetually violate this principle are compelled by the force of 43 l public opinion to pay lip-service to it and to defend their actions in its terms . No body of men, however powerful, would dare openly to flout it . Since the opening of the century the great corporations have even found it necessary to establish publicity departments or to employ extremely able men as public relations counselors in order to persuade the populace that regardless of appearances they are lovers of democracy and devoted servants of the people. In this they have been remarkably successful, at least until the coming of the great depression . For during the past generation there have been few things in America that could not be bought at a price . If the benefits of industrialism are to accrue fully to the people, this deception must be exposed . If the machine is to serve all, and serve all equally, it cannot be the property of the few. To ask these few to have regard for the common weal, particularly when under the competitive system they are forced always to think first of themselves or perish, is to put too great a strain on human nature . With the ,present concentration of economic power m the hands of a small class, a condition that - is likely to get worse before it gets better, the survival or development of a society that could in any sense be called democratic is unthink44 able. The hypocrisy which is so characteristi of our public life today is due primarily our failure to acknowledge the fairly obvious fact that America is the scene of an irreconcilable conflict between two opposing forces . On the one side is the democratic tradition inherite d from the past ; on the other_is a system of economic_ arrangements which increasingly partakes of the nature of industrial feudalism . Both of these forces cannot sigvive: one or the other must give way . Unless the democratic tradition is able to , organize, and coniucTasuccessful attack on the economic system, its__ complete destruction_ 4_M- . evitable. If democrac is to survive, it must seek a neweconomic foundation . Our traditional democracy rested upon small-scale production in both agriculture and industry and a rather general diffusion of the rights of property in capital and natural resources . The driving force at the root of this condition, as we have seen, was the frontier and free land . With the closing of the frontier, the exhaustion of free land, the growth of population, and the coming of large scale production, the basis of ownership was transformed . If property rights are to be diffused in industrial society, natural resources and all important forms of capital >'e. will have to be o' ectively owned . Obviously every citizen cannot hold title to a mine, a fac°iy', a railr oacT, a leparCiierif-store~ or even a -thoroughly mecbarnzte "farm, This clearly means that, if' democracy -is to survive in, the United , States it must abandon its individualistic affiliations in the sphere of, economics . What precise form a democratic society will take in the age of science and the machine, we cannot know with any assurance today. We must, however, insist on two things : first, that technology be released from the fetters and the domination of every type of special privilege; and, second, that the resulting system of production and distribution be made to serve directly the masses of the people . Within these limits, as I see it, our jjg=atic tradition must ,of_nece$sity . evolve-40 gradually assume an essentially collectivistic pattern . The only conceivable alternative is the abandonment of the last vestige of democracy and the frank adoption of some modern form of feudalism. V The important point is that fundamental changes in the economic system are impera tive . Whatever services historic ca ita ism 46 may have rendered in the ast, and the have its days are numbered. Withh its e ca ion of t iI pr nci e oo selfishness, its exaltation of the ro t motive, its reliance upon the forces of competition, and its laein` gofproperty above human rig ts, it will either 'have to be - displaced altogether or changed - so radically in form and spirit that its identity will be completely- lost . In view of the fact that the urge for private -gain nt ten s to debase everything that it touches, whether business, recreation, religion, art, or friendship,, the r indictment against capitalism has commonly been made on moral grounds . But today the indictment can be drawn m other u Capitalism is proving itself weak at the very point where its champions have thought it impregnable . It is failing to meet the prag 1 matic test; it no onger works ; it is unable even to organize and maintain production . In its present form capitalism is not only - cruel and inhuman ; it is aTso'wasteful' and ineflicient . It has exploited our natural' resources wit out t e sh~ght s egard . for e future needs of our society ; it as force technology o' serve the interests of the few rather than the many ; it has chained the engineer to the vagaries and inequities of the price system ; 47 J l. I-UL+ rl U .. %AUUl r,C J. l.0 rivate capitalism . . . must be replaced by some fo 'I of s ized economy . . . our demo- . . 1~e_ crate tradition must ity evolve and gradually . assume ' j an essentially Collectivistic pattern . 4 it has plunged the great nations of the earth into a succession of wars ever more devastating and catastrophic in character ; and only recently it has brought on a world crisis of such dimensions that the entire economic order is paralyzed and millions of men in all the great industrial countries are deprived of the means of livelihood . The growth of science and technology has carried us into a new age where ignorance must be replaced by knowledge, competition by cooperation, trust in providence by careful planning, and private capitalism by some form of socialized' economy . Already the individualism of the pioneer and the farmer, produced by free land, great distances, economic independence, and a largely self-sustaining family economy, is without solid foundation in either agriculture or industry. Free land has long since disappeared . Great distances have been shortened immeasurably by invention.' Economic independence survives only in the traditions' of our people . Self-sustaining family econbmy has been swallowed up in a vast society which even refuses to halt before the boundaries of nations . Already we live in ~In economy which in its functions is fundamentally cooperative . There remains the task of reconstructing our economic institutions and of 48 reformulating our social id, als so that they may be in harmony with the underlying facts of life . The man who would live unto himself alone must retire from the modern world . The day of individualism in the production and "distribution of goods is gone . The fact cannot be overemphasized that choice is no longer between individualism and collectivism . It is rather between two forms of collectivism : the one essentially democratic, the other feudal in spirit ; the one devoted to the interests of the , people, the other to the interests of a privileged i class. The objection is of course raised at once t! L,a_ _plaz ued , coordinated, and socialized economy, managed- in the -inTeresTsof - the peo= lp ,would involve severe restrictions on personal freedom. Undoubtedly in suQh an economy the individual would not be permitted to do many things that he has customarily `done in the past . $e would not be permitted to carve a fortune out of the natural resources of the nation to organize a business purely for the purpose of_ making money, to build a new factory or railroad whenever and wherever the economic he lease-&,-to is system out own private of gear for the protection of interests, to amass or to attempt to amass great riches by the corruption of the political F 49 J life, the control of the organs of opinion, the manipulation of the financial machinery, the purchase of brains and knowledge, or the exploitation of ignorance, -frailty, and misfortune . In exchange for such privileges as these, which only the few could ever enjoy, we would secure the complete and uninterrupted functioning of the productive system and thus lay the foundations for a measure of freedom for the many that mankind has never known in the past . Freedom without a secure economic foundation is only a word : in our society it may be freedom to beg, steal, or starve . The right to vote, if it cannot be made to insure the right to work, is but an empty bauble . Indeed it may be less than a bauble : it may serve to drug and dull the senses of the masses . Today only the members of the plutocracy are really free, and even in their case freedom is rather precarious. If all of us could be assured of material security and abundance, we would be released from economic worries and our energies liberated to grapple with the central problems of cultural advance . Under existing conditions, however, no champion of the democratic way of life can view the future with equanimity . If d nocracy is to be achieved in the industria age, - werul classes must be persuadecT po f i s - - render their privileges, arid, institutions deeply rooted in popular preju`lc ice will have to be radically modified or abolished . And accord_ record, this . proe h ing to , e historical _attended bitter struggle by been and even bloodshed. Ruling classes_never surrend_ertIeir privile s voluntarily . Rather do they cling to what they have been accustomed to regard as their rights, even though the heavens fall. Men customarily defend their property, however it may have been acquired, as tenaciously as the proverbial mother defends her young. There is little evidence from the pages of American history to support us ` in tliehope that we may adjust our dlfeulties through the ine[Eodof sweetnes s and the settlement~f o tt_ rst colonists along the Atlantic seaboard we have practiced and become inured to violence . This is peculiarly true wherever and whenever property rights, actual or potential, have been involved . Consider the pitiless extermination of the Indian tribes and the internecine strife over the issue of human slavery . Consider the long reign of violence in industry, from the days of the Molly Maguires in the seventies down to the strikes in the mining regions of Kentucky today . Also let those, whose memories reach back a dozen years, recall the ruthlessness with l commonly el f 51 l-ight_ i which the privileged classes put down every expression of economic or political dissent during the period immediately following the World War . When property is threatened, constitutional guarantees are but scraps of paper and even the courts and the churches, with occasional exceptions, rush to the support of privilege and vested interest . This is a dark picture . If we look at the future through the eyes of the past, we find little reason for optimism . If there is to be no break in our tradition of violence, if a bold and realistic program of education is not forthcoming, we can only anticipate a struggle of increasing bitterness terminating in revolution and disaster. And yet, as regards the question of property, the present situation has no historical parallel . In earlier paragraphs I have pointed to the possibility of completely disposing of the economic problem . For the first time in history we are able to produce all the goods and services that our people can consume . The justification, or at least the rational basis, of the age-long struggle for property has been removed . This situation gives to teachers an opportunity and a responsibility unique in the annals of education . In an economy of scarcity, where the population always tends to outstrip the food sup52 ply, any attempt to change radically the rules of the game must inevitably lead to trial by the sword . But in an economy of plenty, which the growth of technology has made entirely possible, the conditions are fundamentally altered . It is natural and understandable for men to fight when there is scarcity, whether it be over air, water, food, or women . For them to fight over the material goods of life in America -today is sheer insanity . Through the courageous and intelligent reconstruction of their economic institutions they could all obtain, not only physical security, but also the luxuries of life and as much leisure as men could ever learn to enjoy . For those who take delight in combat, ample provision for strife could of course be made ; but the more cruel aspects of the human struggle would be considerably softened . As the possibilities in our society begin to dawn upon us, we are all, I think, growing increasingly weary of the brutalities, the stupidities, the hypocrisies, and the gross inanities of contemporary life . We have a haunting feeling that we were born for better things and that the nation itself is falling far short of its powers . The fact that other groups refuse to deal boldly and realistically with the present situation does not justify the teachers of the country in their customary 53 J policy of hesitation and equivocation. The times are literally crying for a new vision of American destiny . The teaching profession, or at least its progressive elements, should eagerly grasp the opportunity which the fates have placed in their hands . Such a vision of what America might become in the industrial age I_ would introduce into our hools as tle supreme imposition, but one to w is our c i ren are entitle -a priceless legacy which_ it _ should_ be the first eoncern..of our profession to fashion and be-7 gueath. The o sec ion will of course be raised that this is asking teachers to assume unprecedented social responsibilities . But we live in difficult and dangerous . , tunes-tunes when fRieeedents lose their significance . I we are content- to remain where allis safe and quiet_ and - serene, we shall dedicate ourselves, as teachers have commonly done in the past, to a role_ of futility, i not of positive socia reaction. Neutrality with respect_ _to_ the--great issues that agitate_ society, while perhaps theoretically possible is practically tantamount to wing support to the forces of cons ervatism As Justice Holmes has candidly said in his essay on Natural Law, "we all, whether we know it or not, are fighting to make the kind of world that we should like ." If neutrality is 54 impossible even in the dispensation of justice, whose emblem is the blindfolded goddess, how is it to be achieved in education? To ask the question is to answer it . To refuse to face the task of creating a vision of a future America immeasurably more just and noble and beautiful than the America of today is to evade the most crucial, difficult, and important educational task . Until we have assumed this responsibility we are scarcely justified in opposing and mocking the efforts of so-called patriotic societies to introduce into the schools a tradition which, though narrow and unenlightened, nevertheless represents an honest attempt to meet a profound social and educational need. Only when we have fashioned a finer and more authentic vision than they will we be fully justified in our opposition to their efforts . Only then will we have discharged the age-long obligation which the older generation owes to the younger and which no amount of sophistry can obscure. Only through such a legacy of spiritual values will our children be enabled to find their place in the world, be lifted out of the present morass of moral indifference, be liberated from the senseless struggle for material success, and be challenged to high endeavor and achievement. And only thus will 55 we as a people put ourselves on the road to the expression of our peculiar genius and to the making of our special contribution to the cultural heritage of the race . 56 r 1 TE NTRODUC x ~JOWAUD ; SCOTT a;d others i , hk 94 0 9 4 THE-: ECQNOMIC, CONSE I T16 s a not' o f utait' i's roada 1e`" George'Bernord Shaw root of ; th ma leve i comes nearest to getting at the truth, ;concerniu 4nt)y ;written din re ion and,,because }t` is,b sere °r e r t A `"Becayse' I ~cat~s ;of ep, : ' e't: MONEY P:QWER ;AND y k?$ r ; RE_IaTD,E4 S91 1 LIFE N , me } 0 7 oc 1` hin P at ho"! E i f I HNOL f CI 0 a can lift,us Qu r: Rugg argues tliatheither'Teehno ra s nor,$n~nexe,.engineering withh of depression, : that we ,must integrate economics and social psychology . -,' Catching the Knowledge Wave? WORKSHOP Jane Gilbert Catching the Knowledge Wave? The literature predicts that our secondary and tertiary institutions will undergo major change they will be managed very differently they will be physically different student learning will be organised differently teachers work will be very different... All institutions will be multi-campus entities offer multi-layered, modularised learning programmes function as learning ‘brokers’ - matching students with whoever/whatever can best meet their learning needs work closely with other agencies and community organisations They will have ... integrated cross-curricular programmes that will develop students’ skills in: thinking learning and problem-solving working collaboratively in teams creativity ingenuity and innovation All this will happen in an ICT rich environment... BUT... something missing here ... very little being said about KNOWLEDGE i.e. what students need to learn WHY IS THIS? The Knowledge Society – What is it? A paradigm shift Totally new ideas about what knowledge is how it develops how it is used who owns it … The Knowledge Society – What is it? ‘Knowledge’ societies No longer rely on the exploitation of natural resources. KNOWLEDGE is the key resource for economic development. The Knowledge Society – What is it? “The generation, application and exploitation of knowledge is what drives modern economic growth. Most of us make our money from thin air: we produce nothing that can be weighed, touched or easily measured. Our output is not stockpiled at harbours, stored in warehouses or shipped in railway cars. Our children will not have to toil in dark factories, descend into pits or suffocate in mills. They will not hew raw materials or turn them into manufactured products. They will make their living through creativity, ingenuity and imagination.” Leadbetter, C. (1999) Living on Thin Air: The New Economy. (London: Penguin). KNOWLEDGE has a NEW MEANING How did this happen? 1. SOCIAL THEORISTS 70s 80s & 90s 2. BUSINESS MANAGEMENT THEORISTS 3. PHILOSOPHERS The shift FROM the modern - or Industrial - age TO the post-modern - or Knowledge - age is a paradigm shift equal in significance to the pre-industrial industrial age transition Result of interaction between many different factors - e.g. crisis in traditional capitalism globalisation major social and economic changes massive expansion in knowledge new ICTs - if it’s not digitisable, it’s not knowledge... - web-based, multi-media technologies RESULT KNOWLEDGE is NO LONGER linked to TRUTH but to ‘PERFORMATIVITY’ - what it can do and to INNOVATION Manuel CASTELLS The Rise of the Network Society (2000) Knowledge in the Knowledge Society’ is: dynamic, fluid, generative, something that causes things to happen; no longer an object or a ‘thing’ that is codified into ‘disciplines’, but more like energy KNOWLEDGE is a process, not a ‘thing’ does things happens in teams, not in individual ‘experts’ can’t be ‘codified’ into ‘disciplines’ develops on an as-and-when needed basis develops to be replaced, not stored. LEARNING: involves generating knowledge not storing it; is primarily a group - not an individual activity; happens in ‘real world’, problem-based contexts; should be ‘just-in-time’, not ‘just-in-case’; needs to be à la carte, not en bloc. MINDS are not ‘containers’ or ‘filing cabinets’ - to STORE knowledge ‘just in case’: they are RESOURCES that can be CONNECTED to other resources in order to GENERATE NEW KNOWLEDGE But - wait a minute……. These ideas challenge the foundations of our education system... WHAT ARE ITS FOUNDATIONS? PLATO The Republic The Laws set out a model education system a stable, secure, ‘just’ society Plato’s education system was designed to develop the qualities needed in ‘philosopher kings’ (society’s watchdogs or guardians) Plato’s system was knowledge-centered The mind is best developed by exposing it to the best and greatest knowledge Plato’s curriculum was based on knowledge chosen not because it is ‘useful’, but because it develops the mind - in particular ways Plato’s model is the basis of the traditional ‘academic’ curriculum Mass education relatively recent two quite different purposes: i. human resource needs of the economy ii. equal opportunity many important conflicts THE ‘PRODUCTION LINE’ MODEL students are ‘processed’ in ‘batches’ (year groups) all ‘processed’ at the same rate pre-set curriculum ‘delivered’ to all in ‘bite-sized’ pieces in a preset order aim is to produce a standardised, quality ‘product’ ‘products’ easily sorted according whether or not they meet the quality control standards THE ‘PRODUCTION LINE’ MODEL One size fits all the traditional academic curriculum is the quality control mechanism - used to sort students many are rejected - and allowed to drop off the production line For most of 20th century this seemed OK to most people system gave everyone ‘the basics’ higher education rationed to those with ability • very low unemployment • plenty of low-skill jobs for the production line’s ‘rejects’ ... THIS IS NO LONGER THE CASE ALSO it has produced some important splits ‘academic’ discipline’s needs discipline’s needs the economy’s needs rigour ‘universal’ knowledge elitism vs vs vs vs vs vs vs ‘applied’ knowledge learner’s needs the economy’s needs the learner’s needs inclusiveness ‘local’ knowledge access to knowledge for all these need to be PUT BACK TOGETHER educational debate is often split - protagonists forced to take one of two positions - no robust middle ground…. often unproductive... If we allow these splits to persist, we will not be able to prepare students well for life in the Knowledge Societies of the future... EVERYONE needs the kind of knowledge and skills traditionally only provided in ‘higher’ education EVERYONE needs ‘academic’ and ‘applied’ knowledge HOWEVER: they need more than this… To participate in the Knowledge Age, people need to: ☺ know about knowledge • how different knowledge areas ‘work’ • what assumptions underpin each knowledge area • how people working in a knowledge area generate and justify new knowledge i.e. a systems - or meta - level understanding of a knowledge area is just as important as knowing its detailed facts They need to: ☺ go beyond mastering existing knowledge ☺ be able to do things with knowledge (once they have it) ‘Performativity’ (aka innovation) = the ability to ☺ take elements from one knowledge system ☺ put them together with elements from another knowledge system ☺ re-arrange these elements to do something new… focus on investigations, generating new knowledge - long before their formal ‘apprenticeship’ is completed. They need the ability to: ☺ communicate their knowledge - to a wide range of audiences - in a wide range of contexts - on their own and as part of a team e.g. - presenting the results of their investigation - contributing their expertise to a multidisciplinary team - coaching a sports team HOW COULD WE DO THIS….?. The answers are already out there some examples… • Critical literacies and/or the new ‘multiliteracies’ Lankshear & Knobel 2000) • Narrative-based pedagogies • ‘Real’ research projects (Bereiter 2002)…. Whatever, it will be important to… • avoid standardised appro...
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