1
Families and Children
Jupiterimages/Creatas/Thinkstock
Learning Outcomes
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
ሁሁ
ሁሁ
ሁሁ
Assess the various definitions of family, and explain the key functions that families provide to their
members and communities.
Distinguish key features in American history that have affected how families are structured.
Assess how changes to the idea of family have influenced our concepts of marriage, gender roles,
and social trends.
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Section 1.1
Understanding the Family
Introduction
Throughout history, children have represented society’s hope for survival and the future.
Thus, their development and survival has always been an essential part of any society. However, as the world has developed, changed, and progressed, so too has the way the next generation is raised. Raising children in today’s society can mean many different things. Our goal
in this book is to explore family styles and dynamics, child development, and the rich diversity
of today’s families. Understanding how children develop and interact with their families and
communities will help you anticipate challenges and develop effective strategies for working
with children and their families.
This chapter will provide a foundation for many of the concepts we will discuss throughout
this book, starting with definitions of what it means to be a family and an exploration of family
functions and structures. The second section of this chapter will cover some of the key eras
in American history that have affected how families formed, developed, and operated. In the
third and final section of this chapter, we will examine how changes to the idea of family have
influenced traditional family roles and larger societal trends. Keep an open mind as you read
this chapter and be prepared to challenge what you know about families.
1.1 Understanding the Family
Understanding how families evolve and function in society is critical to being able to work
effectively with them. This first section is intended to serve as a foundation for many of the
concepts discussed throughout this book. In our quest to understand family, we will begin by
attempting to define family. We will begin this quest by meeting Todd and Sharon in the following The Evolving Family feature box. Todd and Sharon are members of two types of families we will follow throughout this chapter.
Defining Family
Families are generally viewed as the primary unit in which children are raised and learn
about the world. However, defining family is not an easy thing to do. There are a variety of perspectives on what it means to be a family. Representing the historical perspective, Elkin and
Handel (1978) defined family as “the first unit with which children have a continuous contact
and the first context in which socialization patterns develop” (p.118). The historical notion of
the traditional family included “married partners and children residing in a household.”
The U.S. Supreme Court’s perspective acknowledges that family structures can vary and offers
the following definitions of family:
1. A traditional “nuclear family” of two parents and their children, and where the parents are presumed to be acting in the best interests of their children;
2. An extended-kin model of family made up of a community of parents, siblings,
grandparents and other relatives which should be recognized as a primary family,
even if the blood-ties are not as strong as in a nuclear family; and
3. An individualist model where family members are autonomous and individuality
should be respected (Dolgin, 2002).
And according to the U.S. Census Bureau,
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Understanding the Family
Section 1.1
T h e E v ol v i n g F a m il y : M eet T odd a n d S haro n
Family composition and roles change over one’s lifespan. During infancy and the early
years of child development, individuals are typically cared for by their family. As individuals age and maturation occurs, the family composition changes, adapts, or is intentionally
modified. As unique as the individuals who comprise today’s families are, so too are the
structures and processes by which families exist. In this chapter, we will follow Todd and
Sharon as they experience the evolution of family. As you read these features, consider how
external influences have shaped your life, expectations, and definition of family.
Todd
After Todd’s parents divorced, their shared custody agreement determined that he would
spend four days of the week at his mother’s home with her new husband and his three children from a previous relationship, and three days, including weekends, with his father. The
split was originally amicable until Todd’s mother remarried. His parents worked very hard
to reassure Todd that their divorce had nothing to do with him and that for the most part
everything else would remain the same. Todd remained active in the extracurricular activities he had always participated in since childhood, and stayed at his mother’s house four
out of five weekdays so that he could remain at his current high school for his Junior and
Senior years. While Todd was typically an A and B student, his grades declined due to the
added family stress he experienced before, during, and after his parents’ divorce. Todd’s
parents send him to a therapist once a week for added support. Through conversations
with Todd, his therapist quickly noticed that Monday mornings seemed to be a difficult
time for Todd. She noted that while Todd’s time at his mother’s house included supervised
activities with the family, his father’s efforts to provide financial support left little time for
leisure activities.
Sharon
Sharon’s parents truly believed in family first, so when her paternal grandfather passed
away and her grandmother’s health began to decline, Sharon’s family quickly relocated to
her father’s hometown to be closer to her ailing grandmother. Sharon’s mother, a teaching
assistant, quickly found work with a child care program in the area and her father transferred to his company’s local office. In an effort to maintain a sense of normalcy, the family decided to move into a small rental home near Sharon’s grandmother. After Sharon’s
mother was laid off in a reduction in force, her parents found it difficult to maintain the
mortgage on both her grandmother’s home, which had been in the family for several generations, and on their rental home. Eventually, Sharon’s family moved into her grandmother’s
home. Sharon quickly became the primary caregiver for her grandmother and younger sister, as her mother worked with a temp agency and her father worked overtime in an effort
to maintain the middle-class lifestyle to which their family had become accustomed.
Discussion Questions
1. How does Todd’s family composition differ from Sharon’s?
2. What do you think are the anticipated challenges and benefits of each family’s
composition?
A family includes a householder and one or more people living in the same
household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption.
All people in a household who are related to the householder are regarded
as members of his or her family. A family household may contain people not
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Understanding the Family
Section 1.1
related to the householder, but those people are not included as part of the
householder’s family in census tabulations. (2001, p. A-1)
As illustrated by the many definitions of “family,” there are a variety of family types in contemporary society. As you venture into the field of family behavior and dynamics, you must be
conscious of how you interact with children and families. One way to do this is to be culturally
responsive and acknowledge and respect the uniqueness of each family. Being culturally
responsive means that you affirm the cultures of the children and families with whom you
work, and that you view their cultures and experiences as strengths” (Gollnick & Chinn, 2009).
We will discuss cultural responsiveness from various perspectives throughout this text.
P a us e a n d R e f l e c t : W ho D o Y ou C o n sider F ami l y ?
Take a moment to reflect on the way you would have defined your family as a nine year old.
Reflection Questions
1. Who were the members of your family?
2. Were these individuals genetically related to you?
3. Now consider your current definition of family. How has this definition changed
over time?
Family Structures and Family Functions
There is no such thing as a “typical” or “normal” family composition in contemporary society.
Family structures, or kinds of family configurations, can include, but are not limited to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Adoptive families
Blended families
Extended families
Families of divorce
Foster families
Nuclear families
Single parent families by choice
Single parent families by situation
Same sex families
Separated families
Transitioning families
We will discuss family structures more in Chapter 2; however, all families, regardless of their
structure, have a function. Family functions are the essential tasks that all families perform
to meet the essential needs of the children and other family members. According to Berger
(2011), these include:
• Meeting the physical needs of children. Families provide shelter, food, clothes, and
medical care.
• Encouraging learning. Schools cannot succeed without family support, collaboration,
and school-family communication.
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Understanding the Family
Section 1.1
• Contributing to the development of self-esteem. Families need to help their children
feel competent, loved, and appreciated. We will examine the developmental process
of self-esteem more closely in Chapters 2 and 3.
• Providing harmony, stability, and consistency. Children need to feel psychologically
and physically safe at home; they need to feel protected and experience a predictable
environment.
Families and parents do not exist in a vacuum; they reflect and contribute to the cultures and
societies from which they come. As we will see later in this chapter and throughout the book,
societal, historical, and cultural forces significantly impact contemporary families (Socha &
Stamp, 2009).
The lives of children are heavily dependent on their caregivers’ choices, choices which are in
turn influenced by their caregivers’ family, community, and cultural norms. Cultural norms
are customs and rules that guide the behaviors, expectations, and responses of a group. They
can provide insight into how an individual will respond when becoming a parent or caregiver
and dictate appropriate reproductive patterns, caregiving practices, and familial roles, all of
which affect the developing child. For some, the decision to become a parent is a conscious
one based on careful planning and consideration; for others, this decision may be unplanned.
Regardless, families have a function and a direct effect on the development and behavior of
the children within them.
The way in which families function has been viewed as one of the greatest predictors of a
child’s psychological well-being. For emotional well-being, infants and toddlers need sensitive, responsive adult caregivers. They need warm, caring adults who are able to form enduring relationships (Honig, 2002). An infant’s survival is dependent upon the willingness of others to provide for his or her primary needs. When caregivers are responsive, children learn to
trust those around them. “Infants are ready from birth to connect emotionally, interact, and
start relationships with their primary caregivers” (Freeney, Galper, & Seefeldt, 2009, p. 60).
The individuals that comprise a family provide the first relationships that a child will experience. It is from these relationships that children develop their expectations for the future.
Family Systems Theory, discussed in the next section, is one of the most common frameworks
in which to view how families function.
The Family Systems Theory
According to Turner and Welch (2012), “The manner in which parents interact with and
guide their children influences the child’s development in more ways than are immediately
visible” (p.30). With this in mind, professionals must seek to understand the children within
the context of their families and communities. Family instability is commonly associated with
the inability to complete necessary family tasks, and when families function ineffectively or
are not able to fulfill their family tasks, the results can affect the larger community. According
to Robles de Melendez and Beck (2010), there are six key tasks that effective families provide:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Basic needs
Socialization tasks
Emotional support and spirituality
Economic tasks
Educational tasks
Crisis management tasks
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Understanding the Family
Section 1.1
Dr. Murray Bowen’s Family Systems Theory, developed in the 1950s, is a theoretical framework that focuses on universal characteristics found among families (boundaries, roles, rules,
hierarchy, climate, and equilibrium). It views families in the context of interconnected and
interdependent individuals by examining each individual family member’s influence on each
other in predictable, consistent ways, with an emphasis on family dynamics and communication styles. The individuals that comprise the system are a collection of friends, coworkers, or
family members. The primary focus is the dynamic of the group rather than the individuals
who are a part of the group. Like a well-oiled machine, a family system is a cohesive unit in
which each member is affected by others in the system. If the family system is destabilized by
the actions or decisions of one member,
the remaining parts of the system must
adapt. Family Systems Theory is commonly viewed from two perspectives:
family composition and family process
(McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994).
The family composition perspective
examines the impact of the family structure and suggests that two-parent, intact
families are optimal for a child’s development. Proponents of this approach argue
the benefits of two biological parents and
monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock
the social capital the two parents can
ሁሁ According to the family composition perspective,
provide. Social capital is considered the
children raised by two biological parents benefit
emotional, economic, and educational
from a greater amount of social capital than other
support that famlies provide (McLanahan
family systems.
and Sandefur, 1994). For example, when
children live with both biological parents,
they are said to benefit from the ability to interact with and learn from two knowledgable
adults who are invested in the wellbeing of their children. The biological parents in an intact
family are thought to be fully invested in the successful outcomes of their children and thus
are likely to provide the necessary support associated with positive outcomes
(McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994).
David Sacks/Digital Vision/Thinkstock
ሁሁ According to family process perspective, non-
biological and single-parent families can create just
as supportive environments as biological, twoparent families; in some cases they can be more
supportive.
Family process researchers, on the other
hand, support the position that the process of the family can mitigate the impact
of the family structure, focusing on the
quality of the parent-child relationships
within each family configuration (Acock &
Demo, 1994). In other words, unlike the
family compostion belief, the family process perspective supports the belief that
social capital does not have to come from
both biological parents, but can be provided by another individual, including a
single parent. The value is perceived to be
in the quality of the adult interaction
rather than in the quantity (McLanahan &
Sandefur, 1994).
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Historical Influences on Family Development
Section 1.2
T h e E v ol v i n g F a m il y : T odd a n d S haro n
as a C oup l e
Sharon and Todd attend the same high school and saw one another in the hallways numerous times. While at first glance the two seemed to have little in common, their platonic
friendship became romantic. However, they were concerned about the interracial nature of
their relationship (Sharon is Black and Todd is White). Interracial dating was not common
in their community, so they worked diligently to keep their relationship a secret. Sharon
assumed that her parents would not approve of her relationship with Todd based on conversations she had overhead about the contentious racial climate in their community, while
Todd avoided most conversation with his mother and rarely saw his father.
In an attempt to escape the stress of dating in secret, which they had been doing for a year,
Sharon and Todd decide they will move into a small apartment together their senior year
of high school. While their friends accepted this decision as the “next step” to their relationship, they were very apprehensive about telling their parents. When Sharon formally
introduced Todd to her family and informed them of their plan to move in together, her
parents were less than pleased with her decision to cohabit. Yet they were also relieved
when Sharon agreed to remain close to the family home to continue caring for her sister
and grandmother while she completed high school. She also agreed to attend classes at the
local university after graduation.
When Todd mentioned his plans to move in with Sharon and get a full-time job after high
school, rather than go on to college, his mother expressed her disappointment and ended
their rare conversations. Todd’s father initially appeared to accept Sharon. However, he
later expressed concern about Todd’s well-being given the racial tension in the area and
predicted that neither of them would graduate high school.
Discussion Questions
1. How has the proposal of moving in together changed Todd’s and Sharon’s family
structures and functions?
2. Is the Family Systems Theory applicable to this scenario? If so, how?
1.2 Historical Influences on Family Development
To better understand the modern family, it is important to consider the cultural and economic
events that have modified it over the course of time. These events impact the way families
function and also shape the social identity of the individuals within the family. Social identity
is the way in which individuals view themselves, how they interact with others, and how they
live their lives. Because social identity is influenced by both time and context, it is in a constant state of flux. For example, the history of the American family, as well as in most developed nations, can be described in three economic eras: agricultural, industrial, and service.
The Agricultural Era (1500 to 1800)
This era reflects a historical period in which most people survived on income earned from
agricultural work or farming land. While by present day standards these individuals were
primarily self-employed, their wages were not significant. Most families during this period
grew or made many of the items they needed for daily living and bartered for items they could
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Section 1.2
Historical Influences on Family Development
not produce. Individuals were valued for their economic contributions, and while women had
little legal power, many men sought skilled women who could contribute as co-providers to
the household’s ability to remain self-sufficient.
The Industrial Era (About 1800 to 1970)
Propelled by the Industrial Revolution in Europe and a number of advances in technology and
medicine, the United States experienced its own era of industrialization. During this time,
society saw a reduction in infant mortality as life expectancy increased. As industry grew,
families and residential patterns shifted. Gains from farm work were replaced with wages
earned from industrial jobs as families relocated from rural living arrangements to the more
common urban settings of today. In many cases, mandatory public school systems were developed and child labor laws passed to prevent children’s exposure to the harsh working conditions familiar to most industrial workers.
In the United States, racial and ethnic
demographics became increasingly more
diverse during this era as a result of the
Mexican-American war (1848), the Civil
War and the legal end of slavery (1860),
the Spanish-American War (1898), and
waves of immigration (mid-1800s to early
1920s). Despite the legal end of slavery
in 1860, legal segregation occurred for
another century.
The Service Era (1970s
to Present)
Everett Collection/Everett Collection/Superstock
ሁሁ Scenes such as this one were not uncommon
before the passage of child labor laws restricted the
age of child workers as well as the conditions under
which they might be employed.
As indicated by the name, during the Service Era employment patterns shifted
from industrial to service-sector jobs (i.e.
retail, banking, policing etc.). Influenced
by several economic and political events,
these types of jobs increased wages from
previous eras and sparked an increase
of women in the work force. With the
return to a co-provider structure, known
today as dual-income families, household incomes increased. The increase
of women in the workforce continues to
impact family structures and fuel changes
in traditional domestic roles.
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Section 1.3
Changes in the Family
T h e E v ol v i n g F a m il y : T odd a n d S haro n
S tart a F ami l y
Determined to prove their naysayers wrong, Sharon and Todd settled into their small
home and worked together to build a better life than each felt they had in their parents’
homes. Sharon fulfilled her promise and continued to assist her family while going to
school and working part time to help Todd with their household bills. Todd graduated with
honors and accepted a lucrative part-time job with the city in hopes of obtaining a full-time
city job in the near future. Sharon and Todd agreed that while the job was too good to pass
up, Todd would take night classes and obtain the necessary credential for a management
position with the city.
When Sharon was ten months away from graduating with a degree in early childhood
education, she learned she was pregnant and would give birth just before graduation.
Todd remained a part-time worker with the city where both his hours and compensation
increased. The two vowed to work hard to provide for their baby together, and while the
idea of marriage had never been an issue for the two of them, they did not want to compound two life-changing events. Sharon’s grandmother passed away one week before the
birth of Sharon’s daughter, Maia. While Sharon and Todd’s families lived in the same city,
their interactions were rare, yet Maia’s birth was a reminder that they were now family.
These two once different families now shared a common goal: to love, nurture, and protect
the next generation.
Discussion Questions
1. How do you think the birth of Maia will influence their family functions?
2. How might Todd and Sharon’s family circumstances have differed had they lived in one
of the previous historical eras discussed in this section?
1.3 Changes in the Family
According to Donald J. Hernandez, Chief of the Marriage and Family Statistic branch of the U.S.
Bureau of the Census, “never during the past half century were a majority of children born
into ‘Ozzie and Harriet’ families” (1995). Hernandez analyzed the impact of the three eras
discussed in the previous section (agricultural, industrial, service) on the American family.
Hernandez describes at least five major revolutions of family structures (Feldman, 2003).
These revolutions are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1800s: An increase in non-farm work by fathers
1930s: A decrease in family size
1870–1930: An increase in school attendance
1960s: An increase in women entering the workforce
1960s: An increase in one-parent, mother-only families
Hernandez attributes the first revolution to the rise of industrial work by fathers, a shift from
the large farm families of the mid-1800s. During this time families consisting of a mother,
father, and multiple children worked daily on the farm to support themselves. This revolution
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Section 1.3
Changes in the Family
forever changed the parental role of the family, with fathers now earning an income outside of
the home while many mothers became homemakers responsible for childrearing and domestic duties. This change in parental roles contributed to the second revolution, a decrease in
family size.
As fathers struggled to support their previously large families with wages from work outside the home, the traditional family decreased from eight or more children to two or three
(Feldman, 2003). The third revolution increased the rate of schooling for children, as mothers became homemakers and fathers made a living outside the home. Additional revolutions
involved women entering the workforce and the increase of one parent, mother only families
in the 1960s.
not only has family structure gone through revolutions, but also the ideal family size has
changed over time. In general, families in the United States are smaller today than they were
one hundred years ago, and families in developed societies tend to be much smaller than in
developing societies (Trawick-Smith, 2014).
As indicated in Figure 1.1, between 1960 and 2000, the number of married couples with children decreased, while other family structures increased.
Figure 1.1: Proportions of U.S. household types, 1960–2000
100
Other nonfamily
Women living alone
80
Percent of households
Men living alone
Other families
without children
60
Other families with children
Married couples without children
40
20
Married couples with children
0
1960
1970
Family households
1980
1990
2000
Nonfamily households
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, March supplements of the Current Population Surveys, 1960 to 2000
f01.01
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Changes in the Family
Section 1.3
Marital Instability and Cohabitation
Past revolutions in family structure mean that today there are more unmarried mothers leading families, as well as unmarried couples living together. In the 1700s and 1800s, women married and typically started their families in their late teen years. However, by the 1970s, divorce
rates and births to unmarried women increased. The reasons for these changes in the ‘60s and
‘70s include real wages increasing for women and decreasing for men; a weakened economy;
women joining the workforce due to the downturn in the economy; and women gaining access
to legal rights, education, birth control, and paid work (McLanahan & Casper, 2001).
Between 1970 and 1999, the percentage of women aged 40 to 44 who were married declined
from 82% to 64%. Despite this decrease in marriage rates among women, cohabitation rates
increased. Cohabitation is defined as a living arrangement in which an unmarried couple
shares a household. Many individuals view cohabitation as a step after dating yet before
marriage (for those who do marry) (Turner & Welch, 2012). This also includes unmarried,
blended families. According to Child Trends, more than two-thirds of all couples who married
for the first time previously cohabited. In 2006, there were 5.5 million unmarried heterosexual partner households and 5.3 % of all children under the age of 18 in the U.S. lived in this
family structure (Child Trends, 2014).
Social Changes and Trends
In addition to the many behavioral and role changes that have occurred since the 1960s,
numerous family-related social changes and trends have influenced how we define family.
For example, today 51% of all U.S. adults over 18 years of age are married; in 1960, that figure
was 72%. In 2012, 40.7% of children born in the U.S. were born to unmarried mothers (Pew
Research Center, 2014b). Today, 68% of children live with two parents—either biological or
stepparents—and 28% in one-parent homes (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family
Statistics 2012).
Challenging Traditional
Gender Roles
All of the changes to the idea of family
have led to evolutions in traditional gender roles. Balancing family and work
responsibilities often requires that twoparent families challenge traditional gender roles and learn ways to be more flexible and efficient. However, many parents
struggle to change their accustomed roles,
partly because they tend to parent like
their own parents did, with strictly sepaJeff Randall/Digital Vision/Thinkstock
rate spheres for husband and wife (Fagan ሁሁ More and more families are beginning to
& Palm, 2004; Gary, 1987; Palm & Palkov- challenge traditional gender roles, although there is
itz, 1988; Thompson & Pleck, 1995; Tur- still a long way to go before equality is reached.
biville & Marques, 2001). Also, many contemporary immigrants come from societies where gender roles and expectations are more
strict or inflexible than in other countries (Roopnarine, Shin, & Lewis, 2001).
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Changes in the Family
Section 1.3
Although gender is an important factor in determining the distribution of household and child
care responsibilities in many families, research suggests that this picture is slowly changing (Coltrane, 2000). In one study, researchers found that from 1989 to 1999, men slightly
increased their performance of housework and in households with more balanced sharing of
labor, women experienced less depression and higher overall marital satisfaction. However,
even though men’s contributions increased, women still performed at least twice as much
routine housework as men (Coltrane, 2000). Thus, parents and caregivers need to continually
struggle against the temptation to fall into the traditional gender-role trap when considering
duties, responsibilities, and job allocation in caring for their children and home.
One approach to addressing gender role changes in contemporary families is for each parent
or caregiver to acknowledge, respect, and appreciate all contributions to the family as equal,
regardless of the type of job each individual does and whether it is paid or unpaid (e.g., career,
job, caring for the children, cooking, repairing the home, attending PTA meetings, or doing
housework). Taking an egalitarian approach does not mean that each parent or caregiver
should not have clear roles and responsibilities or that every task is necessarily negotiable;
what it does mean is that all activities involving the family are seen as equally valid, regardless
of who does them (Coltrane, 2000). This sense of equality is, of course, very challenging to
achieve, as many have learned to value punctuality, discipline, and work requirements more
highly than flexibility, child rearing, healthy give-and-take with one’s spouse, and homerelated tasks.
T h e E v ol v i n g F a m il y : T odd a n d S haro n
as P are n ts
After their daughter was born, Todd and Sharon married and quickly accepted nontraditional family roles. On a middle working class salary, Sharon and Todd continued to
provide for Maia in a way very different than their own parents had provided for them.
Todd felt that his part-time status allowed him to be an active emotional provider for his
daughter. He enjoyed his daily interactions with Maia and prided himself on being one of
only a few fathers actively involved in her preschool. Todd enjoyed fatherhood, and his parenting style was one of the reasons Sharon agreed that they should plan to have another
baby. As a teacher, Sharon was aware of the benefits of effectively planning the birth of
their baby to coincide with a school break to reduce the amount of maternity leave she
would have to take. Todd did not receive paternity leave; however, he was able to take time
off to assist Sharon with her recovery and to help take care of their new child.
Now five years old, Maia attends a bilingual French International school for the full school
day until Todd picks her up and takes her home on his way to night classes. Maia and her
one-year-old brother, Jordan, are often cared for by Todd’s mother in the family’s home.
Discussion Questions
1. Does Todd’s active paternal role reflect your cultural norms? Explain.
2. What influence do you believe Maia’s family will have on her development and
understanding of family?
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Summary and Resources
P a us e a n d R e f l e c t : F ami l ies i n the M edia
For many, the 1970 television sitcom The Brady Bunch served as an introduction to a family
structure known as the blended family, as two previously married individuals with children combining their two families remained the story line for the show’s duration. In 1984,
The Cosby Show portrayed a family configuration similar to the previous iconic 1950s television family of Ozzie and Harriet with a noticeable difference in the ethnicity of the main
characters.
Both The Brady Bunch and The Cosby Show were popular television shows of their respective times; however, neither reflected the common family configuration of their viewers.
While television shows can provide insight into common cultural norms, it is important to
note the difference between entertainment and educational information.
Reflection Questions
1. Do you believe today’s reality television accurately portrays the daily lives of the majority of Americans?
2. When seeking information about the children you work with, what do you think should
be the primary source of information?
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
This chapter provided a foundation for many of the concepts you will encounter throughout
this book. We began by defining family and exploring how families function. We then covered key eras in history that influenced how families work. We also discussed some signficant
changes to the idea of family, including the changing nature of family structures and the evolving roles within families. In the next chapter, we will take a closer look at some of the common
family structures you might encounter in your work with children and families.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. As we discussed in this chapter, the family has undergone some profound changes
in modern times. Which changes, if any, do you think have had positive impacts on
families? Which, if any, do you think have had negative impacts on families? Explain.
2. Explain why it can be difficult to define family. Of the definitions we discussed in this
chapter, which do you think is the most accurate? Why?
3. What do you think are the most important family functions? Are there any that were
not included in this chapter?
4. What do you think is essential for healthy family functioning?
Key Terms
cohabitation A living arrangement in which expectations, and response of the group.
an unmarried couple shares a household; in These norms may change or be modified.
many states, this is not a legally recognized
culturally responsive An approach to
partnership.
working with children and families that
cultural norms Informal cultural cusaffirms their cultures and views their cultoms and rules that guide the behaviors,
tures and experiences as strengths.
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Summary and Resources
family composition The makeup of family structures; the specific individuals who
comprise a family.
family composition perspective A view of
family systems that examines the impact of
the family structure. This perspective suggests that two-parent, intact families are
optimal for a child’s development.
family structures The different kinds of
family configurations, such as two-parent
families, single-parent families, and grandparents raising grandchildren.
Family Systems Theory A theoretical
framework that focuses on universal characteristics (boundaries, roles, rules, hierarchy,
climate, and equilibrium) found among families. It examines the individual family memfamily functions The essential tasks that all bers’ influence on each other in predictable,
families perform, regardless of the family’s
consistent ways, with an emphasis on family
structure, to meet the essential needs of the dynamics and communication styles.
children and other family members.
social capital The emotional, economic, and
family process perspective A view of fam- educational support that families provide to
ily systems that examines the quality of the
their members.
adult interaction rather than the quantity.
This perspective supports the belief that
social identity The way in which individusocial capital does not have to come from
als view themselves, how they interact with
both biological parents, but can be provided others, and how they live their lives.
by another individual, including a single
parent.
Additional Resources
U.S. Census Bureau: http://www.census.gov/
The U.S. Census provides many statistics about the state and nature of American families. This website is a good place to start when you are researching facts about American
families.
Children’s Defense Fund: http://www.childrensdefense.org/
The Children’s Defense Fund is a prominent advocacy and research group that advocates on
behalf of children. It is a good place to find resources for children and families in need.
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