1 Introduction: Lifespan Development imtmphoto/iStock/Thinkstock Learning Objectives By the end of this chapter, you will be able to: • Recall the characteristics; the biological, cognitive, social, and emotional processes; and the developmental issues associated with the lifespan. • Identify the theoretical perspectives most commonly associated with lifespan development. • Discuss the various ways in which lifespan developmentalists or psychologists collect data, design their research, and conduct ethical studies. 1 shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 1 8/20/14 9:03 AM Lifespan Development Perspective Section 1.1 Introduction This textbook will take you on a journey throughout the human lifespan, examining how we grow and develop from conception to death. Individual topics will be explored—genetics, the environment, prenatal development, physical growth, cognitive development, social and emotional development, social relationships, and the process of dying—each in its own cohesive narrative. The complex interactions between these various topics will also be touched upon as the fascinating process of an individual’s growth over the course of his or her life is illuminated. In this chapter, we will examine the seven characteristics of the lifespan perspective, while exploring the biological, cognitive, social, and emotional processes that humans experience throughout the course of their lives. In addition, we will consider the three developmental issues or debates that scholars have struggled with throughout the last few decades. Next, we will investigate the foundational theories that are associated with development and its application throughout the lifespan. We will examine psychosexual theory, behavioral theory, social cognitive theory, and ecological theory. Additionally, we will discuss how research pertaining to the lifespan is conducted, including the process of collecting data, setting up the design of the study, and engaging in ethical inquiry. 1.1 Lifespan Development Perspective While each of us is unique in our development, there are certain aspects of how each human develops that overlap. We often have a tendency to focus on differences when comparing ourselves to others. Through this text, you will learn that while there are some differences, humans essentially all travel the same path. For example, some children may develop the skill of walking as early as nine months, while other children do not take their first step until they are 14 months old. Yet regardless of the month (and barring any illness or impairment), there is a certain time during an infant’s development that we expect to see him or her walking. Likewise, each of us, if we live into older age, will experience the loss of some of our senses, although this will occur at different ages. This is the general course of human development. Development is defined as the pattern of movement or change that begins with conception and continues throughout the lifespan. In this section, we will explore the characteristics of the lifespan perspective; discuss biological, cognitive, social, and emotional processes; and explain the three major developmental issues that developmentalists and scholars frequently debate. Characteristics of the Lifespan Perspective It is a well-known fact that development is rapid during infancy. In fact, the first few years hold the fastest and greatest amount of growth in a person’s life. However, development is not something that only occurs in infants and children; humans develop and change throughout the lifespan. The lifespan perspective emphasizes that development is lifelong and involves the simultaneous growth and change within and throughout an individual’s biological, social, and cognitive domains (Baltes, 1987, 2003; Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, 2006). In fact, shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 2 8/20/14 9:03 AM Lifespan Development Perspective Section 1.1 according to Paul Baltes (1939–2006), a lifespan development expert, there are several characteristics that work together to form the lifespan perspective: 1. Development is lifelong. Humans are developing throughout their lifespan. There is never a point when they stop growing and developing. 2. Development is multidimensional. Regardless of age, the body, mind, emotions, and relationships will change, and those changes will affect one another. Development includes various dimensions, such as biological, cognitive, and social/ emotional dimensions. 3. Development is multidirectional. Throughout the course of one’s life, some dimensions (biological, cognitive, and social/emotional) expand while others may shrink. For example, an infant who is spoken to in more than one language will have an easier time speaking and understanding that second language than a person who waits until high school to begin second language acquisition. This is because the ability to learn new languages is most developed during childhood and decreases with time. Likewise, the knowledge base of adults increases over time; however, they are more likely to perform poorly on tests that require participants to process information quickly (Ardelt, 2011; Staudinger & Gluck, 2011a). 4. Development is plastic. Plasticity is defined as the capacity for change. For example, we just learned that older adults are more likely to perform poorly on tests that require speed in processing information; however, is that still true for older adults who do daily exercises on the computer to keep their mind sharp? Researchers have found that older adults can improve their cognitive skills through training and development of better strategies (Schaie, 2011; Stine-Morrow & Basak, 2011). 5. Development is contextual. All development takes place in different contexts or settings. Contexts can consist of families, neighborhoods, schools, peers, churches, cities, and countries. According to Kitayama and Uskul (2011), each of these contexts is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors. Just like individuals, these contexts can change; in fact, there are three different types of influences that can occur in these contexts (Baltes, 2003). The first two apply to people as part of a group. These influences affect everyone in a particular society. The third influence is unique to an individual and will not affect all people in a society. The first type of influence is normative age-graded; these are ones that appear to be consistent among individuals who comprise similar age groups. They can be either biological or sociocultural. People go through puberty during adolescence and women experience menopause during late middle adulthood; both of these are biological processes. An example of a sociocultural normative age-graded influence in most cultures, on the other hand, is that children begin going to school for formal education around the age of 6. The next type of influence is normative history-graded—influences that appear to be consistent among particular generations as a result of their shared history. For example, everyone who was alive at the time of the attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, has seen firsthand all of the changes that have occurred in U.S. society as a result of those attacks. For example, people are no longer allowed to be in the gate area of an airport unless they are ticketed passengers, and security in many other public spaces has gotten tighter, as well. The Great Depression of the 1920s and 1930s is another shared experience that shaped the spending and saving habits of those who lived through that difficult time of deprivation. shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 3 8/20/14 9:03 AM Lifespan Development Perspective Section 1.1 The final type of influence is nonnormative life events. These are influences that account for the Think About It: unique experiences that have major implications Nonnormative Life Events for a person’s life. These events do not happen to Do you know someone who has experieveryone, but when they do occur, each individual enced a nonnormative life event? How did handles the event differently. For example, Sara is this experience impact his or her life? 15 and has found out she is pregnant. She knows she wants to go to college, so she decides that the best thing to do is to give her child up for adoption. However, across town, Nora, who is also 15 and pregnant, is planning to keep her baby because she has never really wanted to go to college. Teen pregnancy is something that will not affect every person, and those who experience it will respond and be influenced in different ways. 6. Development involves an individual’s growth across and within a variety of domains. Baltes (2003) proposed that achieving mastery of life often involves conflict and competition between the three goals of human development: growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss. As we grow older, we may no longer be as concerned with growth as we become more focused on maintenance and regulation of the amount of information that we lose. For example, an elderly man may not worry about creating new memories if he is more concerned with maintaining and recalling the memories that he presently has. 7. Development is a combination of various factors, including one’s culture, biology, and individuality (Baltes, Reuter-Lonrnez, & Rosler, 2006). Our brains are molded by the context we live in and the experiences we have. We can extend beyond the limitations of our generic inheritance and environment to create unique developmental paths that will improve our lives. Here’s an example: Lori was 17 years old when she found out she was pregnant. Her mother, upon hearing the news, told Lori that she could no longer live in her house. Lori then quit school so that she could work to afford a studio apartment. Lori continued to work odd jobs throughout most of her son Louie’s childhood in order to make ends meet. While Lori was at work, a woman who lived in her building cared for Louie and 15 other neighborhood children. Louie was not able to attend the best schools, but he was always an interested student. By the time he was in high school, he was getting such high marks that he was able to enroll in honors courses. During his senior year, he applied to only two colleges because that was all he could afford. Not only was he accepted at both schools, but he was also given a full academic scholarship at each. Despite the challenges of his upbringing, Louie’s individual factors, such as his mom working hard to provide for him and his own drive for academic success, combined to allow Louie to carve out a path for himself that made his life better. Biological, Cognitive, Socio-Emotional Development Humans grow and develop from conception through death. This pattern of development is complex because it encompasses biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional development. In this next section, we will examine each of these domains as a human develops. Biological development produces physical changes in an individual. Things such as height, weight, gross motor skills, fine motor skills, nutrition, and the development of the brain are shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 4 8/20/14 9:03 AM Lifespan Development Perspective Section 1.1 all examples of biological processes. Each one of these processes has an effect on a person’s development. Cognitive development refers to the changes within an individual’s language, thought processes, and overall intelligence. A young child trying to figure out where the pieces of a puzzle go, a teen memorizing his driver education handbook, or an entrepreneur learning another language in an effort to expand her business are all examples of cognitive development. Socio-emotional development involves changes within an individual’s social environment. This domain includes emotions and personality. An infant’s smile in response to being picked up by a parent, a toddler’s first playmate at childcare, a preschooler’s fight with a friend, the excitement of being asked out on a first date, and a couple’s affection for one another at any age are all examples of socio-emotional development. Biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional development are interconnected in the sense that they all influence one another (Diamond, 2009; Diamond, Casey, & Munakata, 2011; Johnson & de Haan, 2012; Park & Bischof, 2011). Think of a baby who is playing with toys by herself. While playing, she spots her favorite toy across the room, the one that lights up and sings when she hits the button. In order to get this toy, the child moves her arms and legs to crawl over to the toy (biological). Once she gets the toy, she knows that she needs to hit the red button on the top to make the toy work (cognitive). Once the toy lights up and sings, the baby begins to laugh (socio-emotional). Developmental Issues Tatiana Gladskikh/iStock/Thinkstock Cognitive development enables us to solve all sorts of problems and puzzles throughout our lives. Do you believe you are in charge of your life and your path, or do you believe that your life is predetermined and you are just moving through it? Do you believe that the environment can play a role in your development, or is it mainly genetics that determines your development? Do you believe that you are developing in stages that are discrete steps, or does your growth flow more continuously as if you are rolling up a ramp? These are the major developmental issues that scholars have been debating for decades. Stability Versus Change The stability versus change debate examines whether (or to what degree) humans remain the same throughout the lifespan (stability) or whether they eventually develop into someone different from who they were as young children (change). Think back to your own childhood. Think about the stories your family and friends share with you about yourself as a child. Do you still possess or display those same characteristics? If you were a child who was very shy and did not like to interact with others that you did not know, are you still like that today, or have you become more social as you have gotten older? shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 5 8/20/14 9:03 AM Lifespan Development Perspective Section 1.1 The role that early experiences play in later life has been the subject of a heated debate for a long time (Schaie, 2011). There are some scholars who argue that infants who are not given warm and nurturing care are impacted by that lack throughout their life, and their development will always be affected (Sroufe, Coffino, & Carlson, 2010). On the flip side, there are scholars who argue that children are flexible and capable of change; even if they have not received nurturing care as an infant, their later development is not necessarily affected as long as they are on the receiving end of a nurturing relationship at some time in their life (Antonucci, Fiori, Birditt, & Jackey, 2010; Fingerman & Birditt, 2011). Nature Versus Nurture The nature versus nurture debate examines whether development is influenced by a person’s genetic background (nature) or the environment (nurture). Some scholars, commonly referred to as the nature proponents, claim that genetics or biological inheritance exerts the biggest influence on a person’s development (Kreman & Lyons, 2011; Raven, 2011). Other scholars, commonly referred to as the nurture proponents, claim that it is the environment that is the most important influence on a person’s development (Grusec, 2011). Think about a set of identical twins who, despite having the exact same genetic make-up, have very different personalities. For example, Aiden and Ashton are 2-year-old identical twin boys. While they look exactly alike, they are easily told apart because of their differing interests. Aiden likes to spend his day playing with his trucks Creatas Images/Creatas/Thinkstock outside in the dirt; Ashton prefers to be Even though identical twins may have the same inside watching movies or looking at genetic make-up and look exactly the same, they his books. may have very different personalities and enjoy doing different things. Web Field Trip: Nature Versus Nurture Visit the following website to learn more about the nature versus nurture debate. http://www.simplypsychology.org/naturevsnurture.html Do you consider yourself to be more of a nativist or an empiricist? What factors have influenced your position on this highly debated topic? Continuity Versus Discontinuity The continuity versus discontinuity debate attempts to answer the question of whether developmental change occurs gradually (like going up a ramp) or abruptly (like walking up shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 6 8/20/14 9:03 AM Section 1.1 Lifespan Development Perspective stairs). See Figure 1.1 for an illustration of both perspectives. Some theorists, such as Freud, believe that children develop in distinct stages and that in order to move from one stage of development to the next, a child must complete the previous level. Other theorists, such as Bandura, believe that development happens slowly, and a child can move back and forth between stages of development. For example, when infants first begin to walk, they realize that even though they have this great new skill, it is taking them longer to get where they want to go because they are moving at a much slower rate than they did when they were crawling. They may return to crawling for a period of time because it allows them to temporarily move faster. Figure 1.1: Continuous vs. discontinuous development Which side of this debate would you choose, and what evidence would you use to support your answer? Adulthood Adolescence Middle Childhood Infancy Adulthood Continuous Development Infancy Early Childhood Discontinuous Development Most scholars believe now that there is no right or wrong answer when it comes to these three debates; development involves a combination of stability and change, nature and nurture, and continuity and discontinuity. There are some things that do not change as we age, but there are other things that do (stability and change). Likewise, it is not just genetics that influences development, nor is it solely the environment; it is a combination of genetics and the environment that shapes us into the individuals that we become (nature and nurture). For example, a child whose parents and siblings are obese may have a genetic predisposition to be obese. However, the family’s eating habits and activity level may play a role as well. Thus, both genetics and the environment interact in this scenario to determine whether the child will be obese. Finally, there are parts of our development that happen more gradually while other parts experience sudden and distinct changes (continuity and discontinuity). Although most scholars do not take extreme positions on one of these positions over another, there will always be a lively debate regarding how strongly development is influenced by each of them (Buss, 2012; Schaie, 2011). shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 7 8/20/14 9:03 AM Section 1.2 Theoretical Perspectives 1.2 Theoretical Perspectives Theories are often used to help explain an individual’s growth and development throughout the lifespan. A theory is defined as a collection of organized principles, assumptions, and ideas that help explain and predict a phenomenon. In addition, lifespan developmentalists rely on the scientific method to revise their existing theories or produce new theories as a result of their studies. For lifespan developmentalists, the scientific method is generally considered a four-step process. The first step involves identifying a developmental problem or process of interest. The second step involves the collection of data. Analyzing the data is the third step. The fourth and final step involves interpreting the data, evaluating the findings, and, ultimately, drawing conclusions based upon the results. Throughout the process, theory is in the background. Either by providing a framework from which to proceed with the study or by emerging from the conclusions, theory helps lifespan developmentalists make sense of the world around them. The following theories (Freud’s psychosexual theory, behavioral theories, social cognitive theory, and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory) are often viewed as foundational to the study of lifespan development. Freud’s Psychosexual Theory Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was a Viennese physician who profoundly impacted the fields of psychology and psychiatry (Greenberg, 2012). He argued that as children develop, they pass through distinct stages. In each of these stages (see Table 1.1), the child derives pleasure or gratification from focusing on a specific body part or bodily function, which shifts as the child ages. Freud believed that pleasure derived first from the mouth (the oral stage), then from the anus (the anal stage), and finally from the genitals (the phallic stage and genital stage). Freud further argued that children who either receive too much or too little gratification in any one particular stage would experience fixation. Fixation is defined as the manifestation of behaviors typically seen during earlier stages of development. For example, an adult who seems to continuously talk, eat, smoke, and chew gum would be categorized as someone fixated at the oral stage. Table 1.1: Freud’s stages of psychosexual development Approximate age Birth to 18 months 18 months to 3 years 3 years to 6 years 6 years to adolescence Adolescence to adulthood Source: Adapted from Freud, S. (1920). shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 8 Stage of psychosexual development Characteristics of that stage Oral Gratification or pleasure is derived from the mouth, which may include sucking, eating, and biting. Phallic Gratification or pleasure is derived from the genitals. Anal Latency Genital Gratification or pleasure is derived from eliminating or withholding feces, which coincides with toilet training. Gratification or pleasure derived from a particular body part is no longer a focus during this stage. Gratification or pleasure reemerges and is once again derived from the genitals. 8/20/14 9:03 AM Theoretical Perspectives Section 1.2 Web Field Trip: Freud The following website explores the extent to which Freud is—and is not—an influential theorist in the field of development. http://psychcentral.com/blog/archives/2011/04/30/the-freudian-problem/ Do you agree with Popper that Freud is no longer an influential theorist in psychology or do you side with the chairs of graduate psychology programs? Why? Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories Unlike Freud’s psychosexual theory, behavioral and social cognitive theories do not rely on a stage approach to development. These theories are predicated on the assumption that each person’s environment uniquely affects him or her. As such, development is individualized, and each individual’s behavior is characterized by the specific environmental factors to which he or she is exposed. Behavioral Theory: Classical Conditioning Using dogs, Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) demonstrated the type of individualized behavior that occurs when an organism is exposed to a unique environmental stimulus. Pavlov’s observations marked the beginnings of what is now called classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is defined as a process by which an individual learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in a very particular way. In his experiments, Pavlov would ring a bell for a period of time just before giving a dog a piece of meat. When the meat was presented to the dog, the dog would immediately salivate. After repeating the procedure several times, Pavlov noted that the dog would salivate after the sound of the bell, but before the meat had arrived. In his study, Pavlov’s dogs salivated (a behavior) when they heard the sound of a bell (an otherwise neutral stimulus) before they were presented with meat (a meaningful stimulus). This was an indication that learning had occurred, in that a neutral stimulus (the bell) was now eliciting a learned and conditioned response: salivation. John B. Watson (1878–1958) applied the principles of classical conditioning to children. In fact, he famously said, “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select–doctor, lawyer, artist–regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1930, p. 104). In one of his early and ethically controversial experiments, Watson caused an infant, “Little Albert,” to become afraid of various small, white, and furry objects via classical conditioning (Watson & Rayner, 1920). However, the principles of classical conditioning can be seen in infants today (and not by using experiments with problematic ethical implications). As an example, Molly is 10-week-old infant who (like most infants) cries when she is hungry. Her mother has noticed that Molly stops crying each time she places a burp cloth on Molly’s stomach before feeding her. In the classical conditioning sense, a neutral stimulus (the burp cloth) has elicited a response (Molly stops crying) before the meaningful stimulus (milk) is presented. Molly has associated her burp cloth with milk. shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 9 8/20/14 9:03 AM Theoretical Perspectives Section 1.2 Behavioral Theory: Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning in that the response or behavior being conditioned is purposeful and voluntary rather than involuntary (such as when Pavlov’s dogs salivated). Operant conditioning is defined as a process by which a behavior or voluntary response is gradually learned via its association with positive or negative consequences. However, unlike classical conditioning, the stimulus in operant conditioning comes after the behavior. For example, imagine Molly again. This time, Molly is lying on a blanket looking up at the ceiling. As Molly’s dad walks past her on the floor, he notices she is smiling so he smiles back at her, kneels down next to her, and gives her a kiss on her cheek. This happens repeatedly throughout the day. Soon, Molly notices that each time she smiles at her dad, he gives her a kiss on the cheek. She now Dynamic Graphics/Creatas/Thinkstock smiles at her dad every chance she gets. According to Watson’s application of classical Molly has learned to operate on her conditioning to children, just the sight of her burp environment in order to bring about cloth will soothe this infant, even before she is fed, desired consequences (Skinner, 1975). because she associates it with milk. Repeating a behavior largely depends upon whether or not it is reinforced. Reinforcement is defined as the process by which a behavior is followed by a stimulus that increases the likelihood of that behavior reoccurring in the future. Further, reinforcement can either be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement occurs when a stimulus is added or introduced after a behavior. Negative reinforcement occurs when an individual engages in specific behavior in an effort to cause something that is perceived as unpleasant to stop or be removed. Finn, a 3-year-old, gets stickers after he cleans his room. This is an example of positive reinforcement. Finn does not like it when his baby sister cries, so he hugs her to get her to stop. This is an example of negative reinforcement. Punishment is defined as the process by which a behavior is followed by a stimulus that decreases the likelihood of that behavior reoccurring in the future. Like reinforcement, punishment can also be either positive or negative. Positive punishment involves the addition of something unpleasant, whereas negative punishment involves the removal of something pleasant. For example, Finn’s mother engages in positive punishment when she requires Finn to clean the floor after he throws his juice. She engages in negative punishment when she takes away Finn’s dessert after he throws his juice. Social Cognitive Theory Social cognitive theory emphasizes learning by the observation of others (Bandura, 1994, 2002, 2007). In contrast to operant conditioning (where learning is arguably a product of trial and error), social cognitive theory holds that learning (and, in effect, behavior) is a product of observing and modeling others’ behaviors. According to developmental psychologist Albert Bandura, when an individual sees another individual’s behavior being rewarded, he or she is more likely to imitate that rewarded behavior. Bandura (1986) argued that this process shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 10 8/20/14 9:03 AM Section 1.2 Theoretical Perspectives involves four steps. First, the individual must be paying attention and be able to determine critical features of the behavior. That is, the individual must see a behavior that can be easily reproduced, such as throwing a ball. Second, the individual must be able to remember the critical features of the behavior. Third, the individual must be able to engage in the exact same behavior. Finally, the individual must be motivated to engage in the behavior. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005) viewed an individual’s development as being at the epicenter of the simultaneous influence of five interacting systems: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, the macrosystem, and the chronosystem (see Figure 1.2). He argued that because the various systems were interconnected, any change in one part of the system would ultimately affect the other parts of the system. Microsystem Dejan Ristovski/iStock/Thinkstock A child’s microsystem is made up of people with whom he or she interacts on a daily basis, such as peers at school. Mesosystem The microsystem is defined as the everyday interactions of an individual’s immediate environment. Bronfenbrenner (1979) defined the microsystem as “a pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal relations experienced by the developing person in a given setting . . .” (p. 22). For example, Amelia is a 4-year-old whose microsystem comprises her parents, her friends, and her childcare teachers. Amelia’s parents, friends, and teachers influence her behavior and development. However, this influence is bidirectional, in that Amelia also influences the behavior and development of her parents, friends, and teachers. The mesosystem is defined as the connections of an individual’s two or more microsystems. For example, each morning when Amelia’s parents drop her off at childcare, they spend a few minutes talking to her teachers about how her night went, what time she woke up that morning, and whether she has eaten breakfast. These interactions of Amelia’s parents with her childcare teachers are part of her mesosystem. Bronfenbrenner argued that the importance of the mesosystem was not so much in the quantity of interrelationships but in the quality of these interrelationships. Exosystem The exosystem is defined as the connections of two or more systems; however, what distinguishes the exosystem from the mesosystem is that one of the systems does not directly contain the individual. Inherent to the exosystem is the direct and indirect influences of any one individual on another. For example, Amelia’s mother, Eileen, was told at the end of one workday that she was being written up for not following company protocol. When she arrives at shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 11 8/20/14 9:03 AM Section 1.2 Theoretical Perspectives Amelia’s school shortly thereafter, she has a short temper and is grumpy with Amelia. Eileen’s work (the system that does not contain Amelia) has an influence on Amelia because after hearing the bad news, Eileen has little tolerance for Amelia’s self-expression and self-reliance. Macrosystem The macrosystem is defined as the broader cultural influences of society on an individual. In this sense, the macrosystem is comprised of the various forms of governments, religions, and values that are part of an individual’s culture. For example, Amelia resides in Chicago, Illinois, with her parents, Eileen and Adrian. As someone growing up in the United States, Amelia is part of a culture that values education. As a result, Amelia’s parents have enrolled her in a prestigious private childcare facility that places the educational attainment of the child at its forefront. Chronosystem The chronosystem is defined as the underlying influence of time on the individual. The influence of time can include historical events (such as the World Trade Center attacks on September 11, 2001) or timing of environmental changes. For example, the timing of when Amelia’s parents decide to buy a new house and move to a new neighborhood would have an effect on her development. If her parents buy a new home when she is still an infant, the effects of that move will be very minimal to Amelia. On the other hand, if they wait until Amelia is 10 years old to move, that change will have much more of an impact on Amelia if she has to change schools and make new friends. Figure 1.2: Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model and ideologies of the cu des ltur u t i e Att Neighbors L e g g n i a d l se fun rv ol ic o h Religious and i n d i v i d uHealth Neighborhood M sm M i c ro edi a services re T he School al ietal beliefs Soc Age Sex Health tural context Cul group affiliations Family as es Sc All of the systems identified by Bronfenbrenner influence one another to affect an individual’s development. syste m lfa weces l Mesosystem i a i v S oc s er Exosystem Events such as the attacks in the U.S. on September 11, 2001 may impact every other system. Macrosystem Time Chronosystem Historical events that have a comprehensive effect on the other systems Source: Based on Urie Bronfenbrenner. The ecology of human development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979. shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 12 8/20/14 9:03 AM Research in Lifespan Development Section 1.3 1.3 Research in Lifespan Development Research in lifespan development is often categorized into two categories that form more of a continuum rather than a dichotomy. Qualitative research is defined as an interpretive and naturalistic method of research that relies on an individual’s perception and understanding of experience. Qualitative research typically produces data in the form of words. Qualitative research is a process by which “personal experience, intuition, and skepticism work alongside each other to help refine the theories and experiments” (Stake, 2010, p. 11). Creswell (2009) commented that the process of qualitative research involved “emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making interpretation of the meaning of the data” (p. 4). Quantitative research is defined as a research method that examines numerical data used to represent relationships among and within individuals. For example, age and intelligence quotient (IQ) are used to examine the relationship between these two constructs within an individual. The number of siblings and overall family wellbeing ratings are used to examine the relationship between family size and family well-being across individuals. Quantitative research typically produces data in the form of numbers. The quantitative research method is a process that “relies heavily on linear attributes, measurement, and statistical analysis” (Stake, 2010, p. 11). Creswell (2009) commented that quantitative research was “a means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship amongst variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures” (p. 4). Both quantitative and qualitative methodologies employ various ways in which to collect data that helps to understand development across the lifespan. Web Field Trip: Quantitative Versus Qualitative Research Visit the following website, which provides a comparison of qualitative research and quantitative research. http://www.orau.gov/cdcynergy/soc2web/Content/phase05/phase05_step03_deeper _qualitative_and_quantitative.htm Look at the comparison chart. Which do you identify more with? Why? Data Collection Studying development across the lifespan often requires different types of data collection. The type of data that is collected and the method by which it is captured can be as varied as the questions researchers pose. Observation, surveys, and interviews are three of the most popular ways in which lifespan developmentalists collect the data that is used to answer these questions. Observation is the scientific, systematic, and interpretive process that details the what, whom, when, and where of what we see. Data collected via observation can occur in two ways: laboratory observation and naturalistic observation. Laboratory observation occurs in a controlled setting where the researcher has the potential to limit “real world” factors that often impact an individual. Laboratory observation may increase one’s confidence in interpretation because of the ability to control these outside influences (Langston, 2011). Naturalistic shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 13 8/20/14 9:03 AM Research in Lifespan Development observation details the what, who, when, and where of what we see in its natural state, often producing interpretations that otherwise would not be possible in a controlled setting (Gravetter & Forzano, 2012). Lifespan developmentalists use naturalistic observation to capture the real-world experiences of individuals in all facets of their lives. Naturalistic observation can occur in malls, childcare settings, airports, restaurants, and various other locations where people’s public behavior can be seen. For example, researchers have followed and observed families over time within their homes to see and interpret how mothers, fathers, daughters, and sons interact with one another. These observations included “reading mail, preparing dinner, working on homework, watching television, eating, and napping” (Repetti, Robles, Reynolds, & Sears, 2012, p. 167) and offered new insights into the ways in which families interrelate. Section 1.3 Eyecandy Images/Thinkstock Laboratory observation is a method of data collection that allows researchers to control the conditions of each stimulus given to participating subjects. A survey is an instrument or questionnaire that is designed to capture quantitative (and at times, qualitative) data that details people’s self-reported attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. Surveys are useful for capturing a lot of information from a large number of people in a short amount of time. A survey can cover a variety of topics and can be as diverse as capturing people’s perceptions and experiences with regard to menopause across the lifespan (Weidner, Richter, Bittner, Stöbel-Richter, & Brähler, 2012), the similarity of twins as they develop across the lifespan (McGue & Christensen, 2013), and the experience of crisis in families of people with Autism Spectrum Disorder across the lifespan (White, McMorris, Weiss, & Lunsky, 2012). An interview is the process by which data (in the form of an individual’s own words) is captured by talking to them directly. Interviews often take many forms, but are typically categorized as either structured or unstructured (Yin, 2011). A structured interview follows a set of carefully scripted questions that attempt to standardize the interaction. In the case of structured interviews, the researcher only asks questions that have been specified ahead of time, and there is no diverging from the pre-ordered series of questions. All research participants receive the same questions in the exact same order and in the same manner (or conversational style). For example, developmental psychologists used a structured interview to ascertain the prevalence of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in older adults. Based on their interviews, they were able to report that adults aged 60–70 reported significantly more ADHD symptoms than adults aged 71–94 (Michielsen, Semeijin, Comijs, van de Ven, Beekman, Deeg, & Kooij, 2012). An unstructured interview does not follow a series of specific questions, and the conversation as well as the data that is collected is likely to move from topic to topic in no discernible pattern. Each unstructured interview proceeds at its own pace and in its own conversational style. Scientists have used unstructured interviews to examine various lifespan development topics from the impact of family poverty in rural communities in Cameroon (Tchombe, Shumba, Lo-Oh, Gakuba, Zinkeng, & Teku, 2012) to the accessibility of buildings for the elderly and disabled in Malaysia (Rahim & Samad, 2010). shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 14 8/20/14 9:03 AM Research in Lifespan Development Section 1.3 Research Design Research in lifespan development generally follows three different designs, typically classified as descriptive research, correlational research, or experimental research. The aim of the descriptive research method is to observe, record, and describe a phenomenon, behavior, or characteristic of a population. In this regard, a descriptive research design cannot prove causal effects, but it can offer insight into the perceptions of individuals. A correlational research method attempts to predict the behavior of individuals by describing the strength of the relationship between two or more behaviors, characteristics, or events. In this regard, the stronger the relationship between the two behaviors, characteristics, or events, the easier it is to predict one from the other. One drawback of the correlational design is that the researcher has no way of determining which behavior, characteristic, or event causes the other (Field, 2009). Any time two behaviors (or perceptions, characteristics, events, etc.) are quantitatively measured, the relationship between the two can be statistically analyzed to yield a numerical measure of the relationship (or degree of association). This is called the correlation coefficient, a numerical value (ranging from –1.0 to +1.0) used to describe the degree of association between the two characteristics in a relationship. A negative number indicates an inverse relationship. A positive number indicates a positive relationship. For example, lower socioeconomic status (SES) is associated with increased problems related to the cognitive functioning of children (Duncan & Magnuson, 2012). This would be considered an inverse relationship. In contrast, a positive correlation exists between nutrition and cognitive functioning in children (Taki et al., 2012) in that children with better diets exhibit increased cognitive abilities. In terms of the correlation coefficient, the higher the number, the stronger the association. This applies to both negative and positive correlation coefficients. Coefficients with numbers closer to either –1.0 or +1.0 are stronger than coefficients that are closer to zero. For example, in the case of the positive relationship between nutrition and cognitive functioning, the association between the two would be higher if the correlation coefficient were .80 rather than .20. Conversely, in the case of the negative relationship between lower SES and greater problems in cognitive functioning, the negative association between the two would be greater if the correlation coefficient was –70 as opposed to –.30. However, given that these findings are associated with correlational research, there is no way to say conclusively that either SES or nutrition causes changes in cognitive functioning. In order to make causal arguments, experimental research is needed. An experimental research method attempts to determine causality through rigorous scientific procedures involving independent and dependent variables. An independent variable is a manipulated aspect of a study, such as a treatment, condition, or intervention. A dependent variable is the measured outcome of the study, whose change is a result of the independent variable. As such, the dependent variable depends upon (or is affected by) the independent variable. In any given study, there may be more than one independent or dependent variable. However, the more independent and dependent variables that are added, the more complex the design. There are two fundamental experimental research designs: a randomized experimental design and a quasi-experimental design (Gliner, Morgan, & Leech, 2009). In a randomized experimental design, participants are randomly assigned to either a treatment or control group and an independent variable is actively manipulated. Scores on a dependent variable shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 15 8/20/14 9:03 AM Research in Lifespan Development Section 1.3 are then compared between the two groups. A quasi-experimental design still maintains an actively manipulated independent variable and the dependent variable is still compared between the treatment and control groups, but the participants are not randomly assigned. Random assignment is when all participants have an equal opportunity of being assigned to either the treatment or control group, and their assignment is based purely upon chance. With random assignment, the likelihood of some preexisting condition having an impact on the dependent variable is reduced, and researchers have more confidence that changes in the dependent variable are due to the independent variable alone (Christensen, Johnson, & Turner, 2011). As an example, a randomized experimental design was used to investigate the impact of an employment-based intervention geared toward getting parents to facilitate the participation of their children in structured out-of-school activities. Parents (and their children) were randomly assigned to either the intervention or a control group. Parents who were part of the intervention had children who participated in more structured out-of-school activities (such as musical lessons, religious activities, and sports) than parents who were in the control group and, thus, didn’t receive the intervention (Epps, Huston, & Bobbitt, 2013). Conducting Ethical Research Lifespan developmentalists are obligated to conduct research in an ethical way. Every participant in every study has certain rights, and it is the responsibility of every researcher to ensure those rights in an effort to keep the safety and best interests of the participants at the forefront (Stangor, 2011). In this vein, researchers of today follow the ethical principles detailed in the Belmont Report, a paper issued by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978). In the report, three overarching principles and guidelines are presented. The first principle details a respect for people. Participants should be treated in a manner that highlights their ability to make choices for themselves. Under this principle, certain groups of people, such as children and prisoners, are given special and prioritized protection. The second principle detailed in the report highlights the importance of maximizing benefits while minimizing risks. Researchers should not physically or mentally harm participants. The third principle stipulates that research should be fair, with an even distribution of risks and benefits across all people. Research should not exploit certain groups of individuals. In addition, those who are exposed to greater risk should reap the greatest benefit. All research participants should have the choice of whether to voluntarily participate or not. The 1978 Belmont Report detailed this choice through the use of informed consent. Informed consent is defined as the process through which participants are provided with information about the study as they decide whether or not they want to participate or continue participating. It is important to note that informed consent is a process and that participants have every right to discontinue their participation at any time during a study. When conducting research, lifespan developmentalists typically create informed consents that adhere to the guidelines established by the American Psychological Association (APA) (2010). According to the APA, all participants should be made aware of the following eight key features of any informed consent: 1. The purpose, duration, and procedure of any study. 2. The participants’ right to decline or withdraw their participation at any time. shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 16 8/20/14 9:04 AM Research in Lifespan Development Section 1.3 3. Any consequences of their declining or withdrawing participation. 4. Potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects that may be associated with their participation. 5. Limits to confidentiality as a result of their participation. 6. Potential benefits of their participation. 7. Incentives for participation. 8. Contact information for those responsible for conducting the study in case the participant has questions or concerns. One of the elements of informed consent involves an explanation of the purpose, duration, and procedure of any study. However, notifying the participants of all of the elements of a study beforehand has the potential to impact the results of the study. As a result, participants are debriefed at the study’s conclusion. Debriefing is defined as the act of informing participants of the study’s purpose and the methods that were used in the study. Often debriefing is necessary when one or more elements of a study involve deception. Deception is defined as the deliberate withholding of information relevant to a study in order to assure that participants’ behavior is not altered due to their knowledge of the study beforehand. Deception can only be used if its inclusion does not psychologically or physically harm a participant in any way and must always be accompanied by a debriefing at the study’s conclusion. Case Study 1.1: The Milgram Obedience Studies Stanley Milgram (1933–1984) was a researcher who began working at Yale University shortly after completing his doctoral studies at Harvard in 1960. While at Yale, Milgram conducted 19 different (and now infamous) obedience experiments. Participants were ordered by an authority figure to deliver increasingly strong electrical shocks to another person when the person gave an incorrect response to a question. The question-answerer was a confederate (which meant that they were actually acting in the experiment and were not hurt in any way). However, the participants believed they were administering shocks of up to 300 volts to the person who was acting. Surprisingly enough, the majority of participants in these studies delivered the maximum amount of “shock” simply because they were told to do so from someone posing as an authority figure. Due to concerns regarding the potential anxiety that participants may have experienced as a result of being part of the experiment, the participants were debriefed at the conclusion of the studies and were told that the “shocks” experienced by the confederates were fake and that the behavior of the confederates was all an act. Milgram’s studies raised many ethical questions. In fact, many critics of his studies argued that what he did was unethical in that he subjected his participants to an extreme amount of duress. His experiments were deemed so controversial that he was later denied tenure at Harvard because of the debate surrounding whether or not the studies should have even been conducted. The extraordinary findings and real-world implications were questioned and debated throughout the scientific community because of the way in which they were discovered. Eventually, ethical guidelines (like those presented by APA) and ethical review boards at universities were established in an effort to protect the rights of study participants. Minimizing Bias Individuals throughout all walks of life should be the focus of research. By capturing human diversity across the lifespan, researchers are able to identify individual differences and shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 17 8/20/14 9:04 AM Summary and Resources similarities with regard to various factors that may be linked to culture, ethnicity, gender, race, and socioeconomic status, as well as other characteristics. In fact, Banks (2010) has argued that research on lifespan development should be void of bias or prejudice. However, critiques of current research devoted to the lifespan have argued that little research actually focuses on such factors as culture, race, and ethnicity (Graham, 2006; Hammer, 2012; Jackson, 2011). Future research must be mindful of this gap in the literature, and focus efforts on all people from around the globe. By actively avoiding bias, researchers would be well served in their efforts to understand all individuals as they develop across the lifespan. Summary and Resources Summary In this chapter, we explored the lifespan perspective, which emphasizes that development is lifelong and involves growth, maintenance, and the regulation of loss. As an individual progresses throughout life, a number of factors (biological, social, and cognitive) are working in conjunction to shape that person. A person’s environment plays a pivotal role in terms of his or her development, as well. We also took a look at three developmental issues that scholars have been debating for decades: stability versus change, nature versus nurture, and continuity versus discontinuity. We then examined the theoretical perspectives that are most often used to explain an individual’s growth and development. These include Freud’s psychosexual theory, behavioral and social cognitive theory, and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory. Next, we considered the ways in which lifespan developmentalists acquire new knowledge as a result of conducting research. Methods of data collection and research design were addressed. In addition, we discussed how to conduct ethical research. Key Ideas • • • • • • • shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 18 While every individual path is unique, there are certain aspects of human development that are common. There are several characteristics that work together to form the lifespan perspective. The pattern of development is complex because it encompasses biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes. Three major developmental issues that scholars have been debating for decades include stability versus change, nature versus nurture, and continuity versus discontinuity. Theories are often used to help explain an individual’s growth and development throughout the lifespan. Freud’s psychosexual theory, behavioral theories, social cognitive theory, and Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory are often viewed as foundational to the study of lifespan development. Qualitative research typically produces data in the form of words; quantitative research typically produces data in the form of numbers. Studying development across the lifespan often requires different types of data collection, including observation, surveys, and interviews. 8/20/14 9:04 AM Summary and Resources • • • Research in lifespan development generally follows three different designs, typically classified as descriptive research, correlational research, or experimental research. Lifespan developmentalists are obligated to conduct research in an ethical way. Research examining the lifespan should include individuals of different genders and diverse cultures, ethnicities, races, and socioeconomic statuses (among other factors). Critical Thinking Questions 1. Can you think of a time in your own life when your development was multidimensional? What domains of your development were interacting with other domains? Describe these interactions. 2. Aside from September 11, 2001, can you think of another time in history when people might have experienced normative history-graded influences? Use scientific support to explain how you think that experience might have affected the people of that generation. 3. Looking at the continuity-discontinuity debate, where do you fall? Do you believe that changes happen gradually or abruptly? Support your decision with both an anecdote from your own experience and empirical evidence from research. 4. Think back to your own life and give an example of when an adult used the techniques of operant conditioning on you. What did they use as reinforcement to get you to continue that behavior? What did they use as punishment to get you to stop a behavior? 5. Using Bandura’s social learning theory as a guide, provide an example of when you have observed a child using the principles of this theory. Was the behavior a positive or a negative one? 6. Apply Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model to your own life. First, describe the people in your microsystem. Then, give an example of an interaction that may occur in your mesosystem. Describe a hypothetical interaction within your exosystem that would impact you. Describe a few of the macrosystemic processes that affect your day-today life. Finally, describe how the chronosystem has affected you and your online learning. 7. What parts of your life would be appropriate to study using a correlational design? Why? Provide empirical evidence to support your decision. 8. As a potential research participant, what element of informed consent do you find to be most important? Why? Key Terms biological development Processes that produce physical changes in an individual. chronosystem The underlying influence of time on the individual. classical conditioning A process by which an individual learns to respond to a neutral stimulus in a very particular way. shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 19 cognitive development Processes that produce changes within an individual’s language, thought processes, and overall intelligence. continuity versus discontinuity The debate regarding whether developmental change occurs gradually (like going up a ramp) or abruptly (like walking up stairs). 8/20/14 9:04 AM Summary and Resources correlational research method A type of research design in which the aim is to predict the behavior of individuals by describing the strength of the relationship between two or more behaviors, characteristics, or events. correlation coefficient A numerical value (ranging from –1.0 to +1.0) used to describe the degree of association between the two characteristics in a relationship. debriefing Upon completion of a study, the act of informing participants of the study’s purpose and the methods that were used in the study. deception The deliberate withholding of information relevant to a study in order to assure that participants’ behavior is not altered based on their knowledge of the study beforehand. dependent variable The measured outcome of a study whose presumed change is a result of the independent variable. descriptive research method A type of research design where the aim is to observe, record, and describe a phenomena, behavior, or characteristic of a population. development The pattern of movement or change that begins with conception and continues throughout the lifespan. exosystem The connections of two or more systems where one of the systems does not directly contain the individual. experimental research method A type of research design in which the aim is to determine causality through rigorous scientific procedures that involve an independent and dependent variable. fixation The manifestation of behaviors typically seen during earlier stages of development. shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 20 independent variable A manipulated aspect of a study, such as a treatment, condition, or intervention. informed consent The process by which participants are provided with information about the study as they decide whether or not they want to participate or continue participating. interview The process by which data (in the form of an individual’s own words) is captured by talking to them directly. lifespan perspective A view that emphasizes that development is lifelong and involves the simultaneous growth and change within and throughout an individual’s biological, social, and cognitive domains. macrosystem The broader cultural influences of society on an individual. mesosystem The connections of an individual’s two or more microsystems. microsystem The everyday interactions of an individual’s immediate environment. nature versus nurture A debate that examines whether development is influenced by a person’s genetic background (nature) or by the environment (nurture). nonnormative life events Influences that account for the unique experiences that have major implications for a person’s life. normative age-graded Influences that appear to be consistent among individuals who comprise similar age groups. normative history-graded Influences that appear to be consistent among particular generations as a result of their shared history. observation The scientific, systematic, and interpretive process that details the what, whom, when, and where of what we see. 8/20/14 9:04 AM Summary and Resources operant conditioning A process by which a behavior or voluntary response is gradually learned via its association with positive or negative consequences. plasticity The capacity for change. punishment The process by which a behavior is followed by a stimulus that decreases the likelihood of that behavior reoccurring in the future. qualitative research An interpretive and naturalistic method of research that relies on an individual’s perception and understanding of experience. quantitative research A research method that examines numerical data that is used to represent relationships among and within individuals. quasi-experimental design An experimental design that maintains an actively manipulated independent variable and compares the scores on a dependent variable between the treatment and control groups, but the participants are not randomly assigned. random assignment In an experiment, random assignment occurs when all participants have an equal opportunity of being assigned to either a treatment or control group, and ultimately their assignment is based purely upon chance. randomized experimental design An experimental design in which participants are randomly assigned to either a treatment or control group and an independent variable is actively manipulated. Scores on a dependent variable are then compared between the two groups. shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 21 reinforcement The process by which a behavior is followed by a stimulus that increases the likelihood of that behavior reoccurring in the future. socio-emotional development Processes that involves changes among and within an individual’s social environment. stability versus change A debate that examines whether (or to what degree) humans remain the same throughout the lifespan (stability) or whether they eventually develop into someone different from who they were as young children (change). structured interview An interview protocol that follows a set of carefully scripted questions that attempts to standardize the interaction. survey An instrument or questionnaire that is designed to capture quantitative (and at times, qualitative) data that details people’s self-reported attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. theory A collection of organized principles, assumptions, and ideas that help explain and predict a phenomenon. unstructured interview An interview that does not follow a series of specific questions and in which the conversation (and the data that is collected) is likely to move from topic to topic in no discernible pattern. 8/20/14 9:04 AM Summary and Resources Web Resources • • • • • • • • shr81691_01_c01_001-022.indd 22 The Center for Lifespan Psychology at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development: http://www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/en/research/lifespan-psychology Margret and Paul Baltes, pioneers in Lifespan Development: http://www.margret-und-paul-baltes-stiftung.de/Englishwebsite/lifeoffounders english.htm The APA (2010) Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct: http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx The Belmont Report: http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/belmont.html The Milgram Obedience experiment: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fCVlI-_4GZQ The Bronfenbrenner Center for Translational Research: http://www.bctr.cornell.edu/about-us/urie-bronfenbrenner/ The B. F. Skinner Foundation: http://www.bfskinner.org Classical conditioning and the “Little Albert” experiment: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hBfnXACsOI 8/20/14 9:04 AM
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