WRITING FOR SUCCESS: short writing guides for students in the Faculty of Business and Law
WRITING FOR SUCCESS
Short writing guides for students in the Faculty of Business and Law
Business and Law Academic Skills Centre (BLASC) October 2015
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
Contents
A BUSINESS/MANAGEMENT REPORT
3
AN ACADEMIC REPORT
4
A LITERATURE REVIEW
5
A BLOG
6
AN ESSAY
7
A REFLECTIVE STATEMENT
8
THE KEYS TO GOOD WRITING AND GRAMMAR
9
PROOF READING – SOME SIMPLE STEPS YOU MUST TAKE
10
WORD COUNT
11
REFERENCING GUIDES
12
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
A BUSINESS/MANAGEMENT REPORT
A business report must be written as if you were actually doing a job for a company or organisation.
A topic like this: 'Make a plan for introducing performance-related pay into a salaried company',
should be read as a set of instructions that raises questions or problems. The objective of your
report is to solve them. Everything in the report should be focused on that objective.
Avoid remarks such as: “It is interesting to note Professor Blogg’s theory…” Instead, imagine you are
presenting the report to your boss or the board of directors. In a real business or organisation, noone has time just to be interested: they want answers and solutions to business issues (RLF, 2015)
All business reports must contain the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Executive Summary: a one page maximum document which is always excluded from the
word count and which summarises the whole report. It may be written for nontechnical
people or those without the time to read the main report. It should follow the order of the
report and outline: the purpose of the report; how you have approached the subject; the
main conclusions; recommendations.
Contents Page: always follows the Executive Summary and must list Headings, Subheadings
and Page Numbers, set out on the page in a professional manner.
Introduction: States what the report is about. Describes your starting point and gives a brief
background to the problem and outlines your method of enquiry. If you are going to test a
hypothesis, include this at the end of your introduction. The introduction also needs to set
out how the report is structured. One way to start a report is: 'the aim of this report is to...'
Main body: this will use numbered Headings and Subheadings and will contain:
a. The Methodology: the investigation methods used to explore the problem.
b. The Results/Data/Findings: this section has only one job, which is to present the findings
of your research as simply as possible in the format that will achieve this most effectively:
e.g. text, graphs, tables or diagrams. Give each figure a title and describe in words what the
figure demonstrates. Save your interpretation of the results for the Discussion section.
NB: tables and graphs do form part of the word count.
c. The Discussion… is probably the longest section. It brings everything together, showing
how your findings respond to the brief you explained in your Introduction and analyses the
results and findings of the previous section. This is the place to mention if there were any
problems (e.g. your results were different from expectations; you couldn't find important
data; or you had to change your method or participants) and how they were or could have
been solved.
Conclusions: summarise the findings/analysis. They must not introduce any new material.
Recommendations: everything beforehand should have been building up a coherent
argument and supporting evidence to back up the actions you are now suggesting. Be
specific and show that you have taken into consideration any practical constraints and
understand the implications.
Reference List: in Harvard Format (excluded from the word count)
Appendices (if appropriate): do not form part of the word count, but must be referred to in
the main text. This is not the place to dump irrelevant information to pad out your report.
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
AN ACADEMIC REPORT
Academic reports are written as a result of an investigation into an area of study or as the result of a
piece of research into an area. They are read by fellow academics and other interested parties.
The structure of an academic report is as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Abstract: this is the first (and sometimes the only) section to be read and should be the last
to be written. It enables the reader to make an informed decision about whether they will
read the report. Length depends on the extent of the work reported - usually a paragraph or
two and always less than a page. It should briefly explain the purpose of the work, methods
used for research, main conclusions reached and any recommendations. The abstract is not
included in the word count.
Introduction: states what the report is about. It describes your starting point and gives a
short background to the subject, along with a brief outline of your method of enquiry. It will
state the limits of your research and reasons for them. The introduction also needs to set
out how the report is structured in order to help the reader navigate it. If you are going to
test a hypothesis in your research, include this at the end of your introduction.
Literature review: shows your readers that you have an in-depth grasp of your subject and
that you understand where your own research fits into and adds to an existing body of
knowledge. It summarises prior research and says how your project is linked to it. It also
summarises what is known about a subject, demonstrating that you have learnt from others
and that your research is a starting point for new ideas. A good literature review groups
texts in themes in separate sections, gives a critical summary of each text, and shows its
relevance to your research.
Methodology - should be written so that a reader could replicate the research. Research
methods and choices (questionnaires, focus groups etc.) must be justified. If there were
participants, who were they? How many? How were they selected? Write this section
concisely but thoroughly.
Findings - present as simply as possible. Use the format that will achieve this most
effectively: e.g. text, graphs, tables or diagrams. Label clearly with a title and describe what
the figure demonstrates. Remember that graphs and tables are included in the word count.
Discussion/analysis - probably the longest section. It brings everything together, showing
how your findings respond to the brief and to previous research. Mention any problems or
limitations (e.g. results were different from expectations, you could not find important data,
changes of method/participants) and how they were/could have been solved.
Conclusions - a short section with no new arguments or evidence. The conclusion sums up
the main points of your research.
Recommendations (may or may not be required or included) - if you are making any
recommendations for future research to be carried out, this is the place to make them.
References - in Harvard format (do not form part of the word count).
Appendices - if appropriate if you have used a questionnaire or have transcripts of focus
group discussions etc. which you have referred to in the text, they should be included here.
They are not included in the word count.
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
A LITERATURE REVIEW
A literature review is a search and evaluation of the available literature in your given subject or
chosen topic area. It documents the state of the art with respect to the subject or topic you are
writing about.
A literature review has four main objectives: it surveys the literature in your chosen area of study; it
synthesises the information in that literature into a summary; it critically analyses the information
gathered by identifying gaps in current knowledge by showing limitations of theories and points of
view; and it formulates areas for further research.
A literature review should be structured and should have an introduction, a middle or main body,
and a conclusion.
Introduction
The introduction should:
•
•
•
•
define your topic and provide an appropriate context for reviewing the literature;
establish your reasons – i.e. point of view for reviewing the literature;
explain the organisation – i.e. sequence of the review;
state the scope of the review – i.e. what is included and what is not included (e.g. before or
after certain dates).
Main body
The middle or main body should:
•
•
•
organise the literature according to common themes;
move from a general, wider view of the literature being reviewed to the specific focus of
your research;
provide insight into the relation between your chosen topic and the wider subject area - e.g.
between obesity in children and obesity in general.
Conclusion
The conclusion should:
•
•
•
•
•
summarise the important aspects of the existing body of literature;
evaluate the current state of the literature reviewed;
identify significant flaws or gaps in existing knowledge;
outline areas for future study;
link your research to existing knowledge.
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
A BLOG
Blogs are normally written with the intent of publishing them online. They are short, personal,
interesting and thought provoking. If they are published, readers are able and are encouraged to
leave comments. There is no set structure for a blog posting so you can be more creative when
writing one. Whether or not your blog post is being published, you should aim to write it in an
engaging way. To this end you can use a more informal style and can use ‘I’ throughout. Keep
sentences and paragraphs short.
Make sure you write about an aspect of your topic that interests you and write with enthusiasm. To
engage the reader you should think hard about your headline - it can be factual, pose a question or
be a ‘how to’ statement. It will need to grab the reader's attention. You may want to write your
headline first or develop a working title and come back to it once it is finished.
Blogging is a great way of providing a short opinion piece about a specific topic, and receiving
immediate feedback from individuals accessing your blog-spot. Writing an academic blog allows you
to provide an opinion piece, whilst also commenting on some of the research/theory that underpins
the debate. Blogs are often provoked by current affairs and contemporary concerns, and are
therefore a fascinating way of examining reactions to the latest issues in your area of study.
An academic blog post should provide your opinion about the subject matter, using academic
references to help support your argument/thoughts (these will form part of the word count).
Although they are less formal than other types of academic writing, you should still ensure that you
maintain a high standard of written UK English, avoiding any slang or colloquialisms. You will be
marked on the eloquence of the argument/thoughts/opinions stated and the relevance of the topic
to you.
Your academic blog should demonstrate that you have been able to better understand something
about you or your work, having considered the issue and will highlight your ability to relate the blog
post to a contemporary issue or news item.
While in-text citations form part of the total word count, any references listed at the end of your
piece will not.
Once complete, edit your work. Read it aloud to check the flow and make sure you avoid repetition.
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
AN ESSAY
Your essay will be based on your interpretation of the question and include your thoughts and
opinions expressed according to academic conventions (although in general you should avoid using
‘I’). It will consider and comment on the information you have gathered.
ESSAY STRUCTURE:
Introduction
This will comment upon the essay topic, but should not repeat or paraphrase it. It will discuss the
issues or main points you will be covering and how these will be examined. It will emphasise the
purpose of the assignment. The key to an introduction is to be specific (what will your essay do?
How will you be approaching it?) Generalisations, such as ‘this essay will be based on reading
academic journals and in-depth research in order to answer the above question’, or a paraphrase of
the question, will not gain you any marks. What research/ideas specifically have you engaged with?
While the introduction forms a crucial part of any essay, you may want to leave writing it until after
you have written the main body as your ideas and opinions will probably change and become clearer
as you write.
The Main Body
Will include three or four main issues and should be organised into paragraphs that follow a
coherent and logical structure. Sentences should be kept short (two lines on average) and
paragraphs should be approximately 5-8 sentences long. Ideas should be supported with examples
and/or evidence, using in-text citations/references.
Paragraphs should include a topic sentence (what is the paragraph about?). The analysis should
consist of making a point, supporting the point with an example, and then commenting upon this.
Points and examples without any commentary will reduce your impact and your marks.
The Conclusion
Will summarise your main points and offer a firm answer to the question, even if the answer is that
there is no definitive answer. It will not introduce any new material but will reflect your
introduction. It will also identify wider implications and may suggest further lines of investigation.
References - a full list of all sources referred to in the text are listed here in the correct referencing
format.
Word count - in an essay all sections are included in the word count - except the full list of
references at the end. Citations/in-text references DO form part of the word count. There is
normally a margin of 10% higher or lower for word count – unless the assignment brief states, for
example: ‘2,000 words maximum’. In this case, any words in excess of the maximum will not be
taken into account and you may be marked down for exceeding the word count.
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
A REFLECTIVE STATEMENT
Reflective writing provides an opportunity for you to gain further insights from your work through
deeper reflection on your experiences, while taking into account other perspectives from people and
theory. Through reflection we can we can deepen the learning from work.
The Nature and Content of Reflection
In Learning by Doing, Gibbs (1988) outlines the stages for a ‘Structured Debriefing’. The stages are
based on Kolb’s (1984) Experiential Learning Cycle which encourages deeper reflection. Your
reflective statement/journal therefore needs to contain the following;
Description: What is the stimulant for reflection (incident, assignment, event, theoretical idea)?
What are you going to reflect on?
Feelings: What were your reactions and feelings?
Evaluation: What was good and bad about the experience? Why did you feel that way?
Analysis: What sense can you make of the situation? Bring in ideas from outside the experience to
help you (both personal and theoretical). What was really going on?
Conclusions: What can be concluded from these experiences and the analyses you have
undertaken?
Personal Action plans: What would you do differently in this type of situation next time? What steps
are you going to take on the basis of what you have learnt?
Even though this will be a personal piece, as with all academic writing, if you refer to concepts and
theories these will need to be referenced. In text citations will form part of the word count. End
references will not.
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
THE KEYS TO GOOD WRITING AND GRAMMAR
Keep your writing simple. Even though you are at university, this does not mean that your writing
has to be complicated and difficult to understand. The more complex the ideas, the more clearly
they should be expressed. Use everyday language, while applying the technical terms appropriate to
your subject.
Avoid generalisations. Comments such as ‘many people have suggested’ or ‘this research is based
on wide reading of journals and articles’ are too vague. Who has suggested? What specific articles
are informing your work? Right from the outset, you need to highlight what, in particular, your
assignment is going to be doing.
Keep your sentences short. For example, if your sentences tend to run to four lines, try cutting them
into two two-line sentences. Your writing will instantly become clearer.
Paragraphs should be an average of 5-8 sentences long. They should be on one particular aspect of
your topic. Make sure you know the purpose of each paragraph and ensure there is a logical
connection to the next point/paragraph.
Colons (:) introduce lists and can replace the word namely. For example, there are seven colours in
the rainbow: red, orange, yellow etc.
Semi colons (;) are unnecessary. Do not use them unless you are 100% certain about their purpose.
They are not an alternative to commas, except in very specific circumstances.
Commas should be used sparingly. If you have many more than two commas in a sentence, the
sentence may be overly complicated. Commas follow introductory words and phrases including:
nevertheless, for example, on the other hand.
Do not use contractions – i.e. ‘is not’ should not be written as ‘isn’t’.
Do not use synonyms to replace a word unless you are familiar with the replacement. Otherwise
you might unintentionally change the meaning of your work, or it may make no sense.
Apostrophes indicate possession: that something belongs to something else
e.g. The student’s essay (singular: the essay belonging to one student)
The students’ assignments (plural: the assignments of more than one student)
The subject and verb must agree, e.g. Jones (2006) argues (singular)
Smith and Jones (2006) argue (plural)
And finally, if you are still writing at 4am, it is likely that you will be losing focus and clarity as well as
sleep!
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
PROOF READING – SOME SIMPLE STEPS YOU MUST TAKE
Proof reading your work prior to submission is key. Proof reading well is a skill and one that you will
need in the workplace as no document, whether printed or on-line, should be full of mistakes. A
professional document is always well presented, well laid out on the page and error free. You must
care about your work enough to make sure it is the best it can be.
The most important thing to remember is to leave enough time to proof read your assignments. You
may need to do it more than once and you will need to leave a gap between finishing writing and
proof reading. So when planning your time, think about this element.
Start by reading your document forwards and out loud to check that it flows and to check
punctuation. If you cannot read a sentence without pausing for breath, it is too long and needs
breaking up with full stops. If you need to pause in order for it to make sense, you definitely need a
comma.
Listen carefully as you read, have you got the subject of the verb correct? If you can, record yourself
reading it and then listen back to the recording whilst checking the written form. Many non-native
English speakers can hear mistakes this way but cannot spot them so well if they only look at the
written form.
Lastly, read your work backwards. Start at the last word and work backwards, looking carefully at
each word in turn. This way you will spot spelling mistakes. If you read forwards, your brain will see
what it expects to see and you may miss them.
Check confusing words carefully. For example, their and there, its and it’s, to and too (and two),
practice and practise, affect and effect, accept and except, complement and compliment. If in doubt,
look them up and make sure you have the correct one. Do not rely on spell check!
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
WORD COUNT
It is important that you look carefully at the required word count for each assignment, as they will all
be different. The word count starts at the first word of the introduction and finishes with the last
word of the assignment. It includes any in-text references and citations (quotes), tables and
diagrams.
It does NOT include: the title page, contents page, executive summary, the full, final list of
references or any other appendices.
The specified word count must be adhered to and the actual word count should be stated on the
title page. There is a 10% tolerance margin (both over and under) which will be applied. If you find
that your work is significantly under the word count, it is highly likely that your work does not fully
address the requirements. Any reports which are more than 10% over the specified word count will
only be marked up to the word count limit + 10%. The rest of the work will not be marked.
It is worth noting that many of the best submissions are over the prescribed word count when they
are first completed. They are then carefully edited to reduce the word count and to be made more
concise. This can be achieved by cutting out unnecessary words (waffle) and generalisations. Focus
on specific points and arguments, always remembering the central theme of your assignment. The
purpose of business communication is to be clear, concise and easily understood. A reader wants to
read a document and understand it straight away, so always use a simple and direct style.
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WRITING FOR SUCCESS IN THE FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND LAW – A short guide for students
REFERENCING
Referencing is acknowledging the sources you used to produce your piece of work. Referencing is
not difficult, but it can be time consuming. You should ensure it is correctly used from the start of
your academic career. Poor referencing will lose you marks and may result in accusations of
plagiarism. Correct referencing is a crucial element of all academic writing.
Business students use the Harvard Referencing system and Law students use the OSCOLA
Referencing System.
Guides to both systems are available on the Kingston University website: My Kingston – LibraryReferencing. Here you will find both full and quick guides to both systems.
The Kingston Business School’s short guide to Harvard Referencing can also be found via the
following link:
https://mykingston.kingston.ac.uk/library/Documents/Referencing/Harvard%20Referencing%20for
%20Business%20students.pdf
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Exam Essay Example
Exam Question:
It takes more than technology to profit from
technology. Explain what you understand by this
statement.
Introduction
(CONTEXT) Profit can only be generated by companies
who have competitive advantage over their competitors.
In the digitized economy, technology is part of the
company’s intellectual capital. (OVERAL ARGUMENT)
However, technology alone cannot be considered a
competitive
advantage,
it
has
to
be
effectively
incorporated into the business processes as a powerful
tool to generate competitive advantages. (OUTLINE OF
STRUCTURE) This text will demonstrate three business
processes, including knowledge management, supply
control and strategic positioning which can be turned into
competitive advantages with the help from technology,
based on some theoretical and empirical examples from
Bhimani (1999), Boiney (2000), and Porter (1998).
MAIN BODY
(TOPIC SENTENCE – introducing sub-argument 1)
Knowledge is recognised as one of the most important
aspects of intellectual capital for a business, and
knowledge management is increasingly embodied and
embedded
in
the
business
process
and
related
experiences (Bhimani 1999). (DEVELOPMENT) Internet
and information technologies have enabled almost realtime information sharing with data automatically stored in
an
electronic
database.
(EXEMPLIFICATION)
For
example, the CFO of Cisco, with his PC, can access
comprehensive enterprise-wide financial information that
is only 24 hours old. This supports quick decision-making
by providing all available real-time information to the
management. (DEVELOPMENT) The advantage is that
new technology can sift through the endless data, in
effect
capturing
vital
(EXEMPLIFICATION)
For
organisational
instance,
the
knowledge.
Enterprise
Resource Planning system does not just drive down
costs, but is also able to respond to changing conditions
quickly and can be used to pursue new opportunities
aggressively.
(WRAP-UP)
Hence,
technology
can
enhance an organisation’s learning process and assist
the development of new capabilities in the long term.
(TOPIC SENTENCE – introducing sub-argument2)
Second, internet technology has reduced suppliers’
bargaining power, and eliminates powerful distribution
channels in the market which directly saves costs for
businesses in outsourcing and distribution expenses.
(DEVELOPMENT) Moreover, new technologies can also
integrate and enhance their supply control system,
intensify their interactive relationship with suppliers and
customers. (EVIDENCE) For example, Dell shares realtime information on its production, distribution and
customer feedback within the organisation, anywhere in
the world, through its ERP system which greatly reduces
inventory costs and production time (Boiney, 2000).
Chrysler’s SPIN system connects over 3500 of its
suppliers and enables them to share production
information. This allows instant adjustment to intrasupply and demand. As a result, Chrysler’s lead-time to
the customer is reduced from 6 to 2 days, and saved
process time by 25-50%. (WRAP-UP) Hence, we are
able to conclude that an integrated supply control system
can cut costs and improve operational efficiency.
(TOPIC SENTENCE – introducing sub-argument 3)
However, the improvement to operational efficiencies
can sometimes be imitated by competitors, in which case
such efficiencies can no longer be regarded as
competitive
advantages
(Porter,
1998).
(DEVELOPMENT) Therefore, what is important is to
focus
on
incorporating
technology
into
strategic
positioning. All companies in all sectors must create
advantages in delivering unique customer value with the
help of technology. (EVIDENCE) For example, the ERP
system
allows
Dell
to
manage
their
large-scale
production line while also manufacturing tailor-made PCs
for customers. Apple’s continuous effort to integrate
software, unique designs and proactive strategies have
enabled them to become market leader with their unique
products iPod and iTunes. (DEVELOPMENT) This
example implies that apart from high technology, the
underlying strategic thinking is the key. This is to be
proactive and create ‘customer-perceived’ value by
continuously introducing new ideas, designs, concepts
(online
music
store)
to
the
customers
with
the
complement supports from technology. As a result, the
target is to ‘lock-in’ customers, by increasing their
switching costs. (WRAP-UP) Therefore, strategy building
of this sort is the most important business process in the
creation of competitive advantage.
CONCLUSION
(SUB-ARGUMENT 1, 2) In conclusion, technology
integrated knowledge management and supply control
systems can save costs and improve operational
effectiveness for the businesses. (SUB-ARGUMENT 3)
Moreover, unique strategies must take into account
technology as a powerful tool, and be proactive and
aggressive
in
terms
to creating customer
value.
(CONCLUSION) Only by doing so, can companies
create unique competitive advantages and ultimately
generate profit.
Case Analysis Worksheet
Name of Case……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Guided Questions
In what time period is the case set?
Which company is involved? What ‘characters’ if
any are in the case
What is the key problem and challenges the case
is addressing?
What is the background context?
What is the focus of the case: what concepts do
you think are being applied?
What terminology is used?
Are any potential solutions suggested? What are
the pros and cons of these?
Does the case present information/solutions
from a number of different viewpoints? If so
what are these? Can you see the issues from
these different perspectives?
Are there any ‘red herrings’ in the discussion
which are there to lead you down a blind alley. It
is important to identify these!
What assumptions are made?
Can you poke holes in any of the evidence, data
or arguments?
Are there any hidden meanings? What potential
solutions can you see?
Findings
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