Network Security Essentials Fifth Edition by William Stallings Chapter 7 Wireless Network Security “Investigators have published numerous reports of birds taking turns vocalizing; the bird spoken to gave its full attention to the speaker and never vocalized at the same time, as if the two were holding a conversation.” “Researchers and scholars who have studied the data on avian communication carefully write (a) the communication code of birds, such as crows, has not been broken by any means; (b) probably all birds have wider vocabularies than anyone realizes; and (c) greater complexity and depth are recognized in avian communication as research progresses.” —The Human Nature of Birds, Theodore Barber Wireless Security • Some of the key factors contributing to the higher security risk of wireless networks compared to wired networks include: Channel Wireless networking typically involves broadcast communications, which is far more susceptible to eavesdropping and jamming than wired networks Wireless networks are also more vulnerable to active attacks that exploit vulnerabilities in communications protocols Mobility Wireless devices are far more portable and mobile than wired devices This mobility results in a number of risks Resources Some wireless devices, such as smartphones and tablets, have sophisticated operating systems but limited memory and processing resources with which to counter threats, including denial of service and malware Accessibility Some wireless devices, such as sensors and robots, may be left unattended in remote and/or hostile locations This greatly increases their vulnerability to physical attacks Wireless Network Threats Accidental association • Company wireless LANs in close proximity may create overlapping transmission ranges • A user intending to connect to one LAN may unintentionally lock on to a wireless access point from a neighboring network Malicious association • In this situation, a wireless device is configured to appear to be a legitimate access point, enabling the operator to steal passwords from legitimate users and then penetrate a wired network through a legitimate wireless access point Ad hoc networks • These are peer-to-peer networks between wireless computers with no access point between them • Such networks can pose a security threat due to a lack of a central point of control Nontraditional networks • Personal network Bluetooth devices, barcode readers, and handheld PDAs pose a security risk in terms of both eavesdropping and spoofing Identity theft (MAC spoofing) • This occurs when an attacker is able to eavesdrop on network traffic and identify the MAC address of a computer with network privileges Man-in-the-middle attacks • This attack involves persuading a user and an access point to believe that they are talking to each other when in fact the communication is going through an intermediate attacking device • Wireless networks are particularly vulnerable to such attacks Denial of service (DoS) • This attack occurs when an attacker continually bombards a wireless access point or some other accessible wireless port with various protocol messages designed to consume system resources • The wireless environment lends itself to this type of attack because it is so easy for the attacker to direct multiple wireless messages at the target Network injection • This attack targets wireless access points that are exposed to nonfiltered network traffic, such as routing protocol messages or network management messages Securing Wireless Transmissions • The principal threats to wireless transmission are eavesdropping, altering or inserting messages, and disruption • To deal with eavesdropping, two types of countermeasures are appropriate: • Signal-hiding techniques • Turn off SSID broadcasting by wireless access points • Assign cryptic names to SSIDs • Reduce signal strength to the lowest level that still provides requisite coverage • Locate wireless access points in the interior of the building, away from windows and exterior walls • Encryption • Is effective against eavesdropping to the extent that the encryption keys are secured Securing Wireless Access Points • The main threat involving wireless access points is unauthorized access to the network • The principal approach for preventing such access is the IEEE 802.1x standard for port-based network access control • The standard provides an authentication mechanism for devices wishing to attach to a LAN or wireless network • The use of 802.1x can prevent rogue access points and other unauthorized devices from becoming insecure backdoors Securing Wireless Networks Use encryption Use antivirus, antispyware software and a firewall Turn off identifier broadcasting Change the identifier on your router from the default Change your router’s pre-set password for administration Allow only specific computers to access your wireless network Mobile Device Security • Mobile devices have become an essential element for organizations as part of the overall network infrastructure • Prior to the widespread use of smartphones, network security was based upon clearly defined perimeters that separated trusted internal networks from the untrusted Internet • Due to massive changes, an organization’s networks must now accommodate: • • • • Growing use of new devices Cloud-based applications De-perimeterization External business requirements Security Threats • Major security concerns for mobile devices: • The security policy for mobile devices must be based on the assumption that any mobile device may be stolen or at least accessed by a malicious party Lack of physical security controls • It is easy to find and install third-party applications on mobile devices and this poses the risk of installing malicious software Use of applications created by unknown parties Use of untrusted mobile devices • The organization must assume that not all devices are trustworthy Use of untrusted content • The security policy must be based on the assumption that the networks between the mobile device and the organization are not trustworthy Use of untrusted networks Interaction with other systems • Unless an organization has control of all the devices involved in synchronization, there is considerable risk of the organization’s data being stored in an unsecured location, plus the risk of the introduction of malware • Mobile devices may access and use content that other computing devices do not encounter • An attacker can use location information to determine where the device and user are located, which may be of use to the attacker Use of location services IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Overview • IEEE 802 is a committee that has developed standards for a wide range of local area networks (LANs) • In 1990 the IEEE 802 Committee formed a new working group, IEEE 802.11, with a charter to develop a protocol and transmission specifications for wireless LANs (WLANs) • Since that time, the demand for WLANs at different frequencies and data rates has exploded Ta b l e 7.1 IEEE 802.11 Ter m inology Wi-Fi Alliance • The first 802.11 standard to gain broad industry acceptance was 802.11b • Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA) • • • An industry consortium formed in 1999 Subsequently renamed the Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) Alliance Created a test suite to certify interoperability for 802.11 products • Wi-Fi • • The term used for certified 802.11b products Has been extended to 802.11g products • Wi-Fi5 • • • A certification process for 802.11a products that was developed by the WiFi Alliance Recently the Wi-Fi Alliance has developed certification procedures for IEEE 802.11 security standards Referred to as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) Table 7.2 IEEE 802.11 Services Distribution of Messages Within a DS • The two services involved with the distribution of messages within a Integration • Enables transfer DS are: of data between a station on an IEEE 802.11 LAN and a station on an integrated IEEE 802.x LAN • Takes care of any address translation and media conversion logic required for the exchange of data Distribution • The primary service used by stations to exchange MPDUs when the MPDUs must traverse the DS to get from a station in one BSS to a station in another BSS Association-Related Services • Transition types based on mobility: No transition • A station of this type is either stationary or moves only within the direct communication range of the communicating stations of a single BSS BSS transition • This is defined as a station movement from one BSS to another BSS within the same ESS • In this case, delivery of data to the station requires that the addressing capability be able to recognize the new location of the station ESS transition • This is defined as a station movement from a BSS in one ESS to a BSS within another ESS • Maintenance of upper-layer connections supported by 802.11 cannot be guaranteed • Disruption of service is likely to occur Association-Related Services • To deliver a message within a DS, the distribution service needs to know the identity of the AP to which the message should be delivered in order for that message to reach the destination station • Three services relate to a station maintaining an association with the AP within its current BSS: • Association • Establishes an initial association between a station and an AP • Reassociation • Enables an established association to be transferred from one AP to another, allowing a mobile station to move from one BSS to another • Disassociation • A notification from either a station or an AP that an existing association is terminated IEEE 802.11I Wireless LAN Security • There is an increased need for robust security services and mechanisms for wireless LANs Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) Robust Security Network (RSN) The privacy portion of the 802.11 standard A set of security mechanisms that eliminates most 802.11 security issues Final form of the 802.11i standard Contained major weaknesses Based on the current state of the 802.11i standard Complex IEEE 802.1X Access Control Approach • Port-Based Network Access Control • The authentication protocol that is used, the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP), is defined in the IEEE 802.1X standard 802.1X uses: Controlled ports Uncontrolled ports Allows the exchange of PDUs between a supplicant and other systems on the LAN only if the current state of the supplicant authorizes such an exchange Allows the exchange of PDUs between the supplicant and the other AS, regardless of the authentication state of the supplicant Table 7.3 IEEE 802.11i Keys for Data Confidentiality and Integrity Protocols Pairwise Keys • Used for communication between a pair of devices, typically between a STA and an AP • • Pre-shared key (PSK) • • Also known as the AAAK, and is generated using the IEEE 802.1X protocol during the authentication phase Pairwise master key (PMK) • • • A secret key shared by the AP and a STA and installed in some fashion outside the scope of IEEE 802.11i Master session key (MSK) • • These keys form a hierarchy beginning with a master key from which other keys are derived dynamically and used for a limited period of time Derived from the master key If a PSK is used, then the PSK is used as the PMK; if a MSK is used, then the PMK is derived from the MSK by truncation Pairwise transient key (PTK) • • Consists of three keys to be used for communication between a STA and AP after they have been mutually authenticated Using the STA and AP addresses in the generation of the PTK provides protection against session hijacking and impersonation; using nonces provides additional random keying material PTK Parts • The three parts of the PTK are: EAP Over LAN (EAPOL) Key Confirmation Key (EAPOL-KCK) • Supports the integrity and data origin authenticity of STAto-AP control frames during operational setup of an RSN • It also performs an access control function: proof-ofpossession of the PMK • An entity that possesses the PMK is authorized to use the link EAPOL Key Encryption Key (EAPOL-KEK) • Protects the confidentiality of keys and other data during some RSN association procedures Temporal Key (TK) • Provides the actual protection for user traffic Group Keys • Group keys are used for multicast communication in which one STA sends MPDUs to multiple STAs • Group master key (GMK) • Key-generating key used with other inputs to derive the GTK • Group temporal key (GTK) • Generated by the AP and transmitted to its associated STAs • IEEE 802.11i requires that its value is computationally indistinguishable from random • Distributed securely using the pairwise keys that are already established • Is changed every time a device leaves the network Protected Data Transfer Phase • IEEE 802.11i defines two schemes for protecting data transmitted in 802.11 MPDUs: Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) Designed to require only software changes to devices that are implemented with WEP Message integrity Provides two services: Counter Mode-CBC MAC Protocol (CCMP) Intended for newer IEEE 802.11 devices that are equipped with the hardware to support this scheme Data confidentiality IEEE 802.11i Pseudorandom Function (PRF) • Used at a number of places in the IEEE 802.11i scheme (to generate nonces, to expand pairwise keys, to generate the GTK) • Best security practice dictates that different pseudorandom number streams be used for these different purposes • Built on the use of HMAC-SHA-1 to generate a pseudorandom bit stream Summary • Wireless network security • Network threats • Security measures • Mobile device security • Security threats • Security strategy • IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN overview • Wi-Fi Alliance • IEEE 802 protocol architecture • IEEE 802.11 network components and architectural model • IEEE 802.11 services • IEEE 802.11i wireless LAN security • IEEE 802.11i services • IEEE 802.11i phases of operation • Discovery phase • Authentication phase • Key management phase • Protected data transfer phase • The IEEE 802.11i pseudorandom function
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