The following lecture will provide an overview of the class, and illustrate the differences
in how science, technology, and engineering are utilized in a contemporary society.
This lesson illustrates the various interpretations of how modern technology is viewed in
a contemporary society.
Ways (1959) and Toffler (1970, 1980) have indicated that the accelerating rate of
change is a result of science and technology. According to Ways and Toffler, such
change can be documented by reviewing the rapid rate of: depletion of nonrenewable
resources, industrialization and population growth.
Ferkiss (1969), Mendlovitz (1975), and Naisbitt (1982) have referred to the
interconnectedness of society in the twentieth century. They wrote that people of the
world are dependent upon each other by virtue of their use of the environment,
resources, trade practices, and technical knowledge. These authors also maintained
that this interconnectedness was being established by the advent of the computer and
networking between nations, state and local governments, businesses, and individuals.
Naisbitt, referring to this interconnectedness, has stated that the United States had
made a 'megashift' from an industrial society to an information society by the 1970s.
Ramo wrote:
Our century might also be labeled the 'century of technology' although obviously
the twentieth will not stand out as the only century affected by technological
advance. Technology has been with us since before the invention of the wheel,
and the future society certainly will find itself under the spell of far more scientific
discovery and technological development than we have so far known. But ours
may go down as the century of technology because . . . in the 1900s society did
more than incorporate its share of technological advances - it became a
technological civilization. (p. 3)
Ferkiss (1969) noted that there was a connection from the industrial society to the
technological society. For Ferkiss, the technological civilization developed from the
industrial society. Ferkiss wrote:
Just as the technology of industrial society has provided the jumping-off point for
the technology of postindustrial society, just as industrial man is both the elder
brother and the father of emergent technological man, so the intellectual
foundations of industrial civilization also provide part of the intellectual
underpinnings of technological civilization. (p. 42)
Ferkiss further noted that although science and technology had changed the industrial
society to the technological society, the previously established social and political ideals
of the nineteenth century remained the dominant organizing elements of the twentieth
century. These social and political ideals were nationalism, liberalism, capitalism, and
the right to life, liberty, property, and the pursuit of happiness and welfare. These
ideals, however, were being challenged through the new uses of science and
technology, and a changing value system concerning personal and environmental
welfare.
Authors such as Cornish (1977), Drucker (1969), Floreman (1981), Toffler (1980), and
Winner (1977) have all furnished optimistic perspectives about the future development
of science and technology. Rifkin (1987) wrote:
Science and technology have become the new means of obtaining salvation. In
times of crisis we look to science and to the technological products of science to
rescue a fallen humanity from the foibles and follies that so often intrude on our
efforts to eke out a safe domain. Modern science and technology are the secular
messiahs in a materialist world. They are the guarantors of our security and,
ultimately, our immortality. Through science and technology we will extend our
control over the future, the forces of nature, and our own bodily duration. We will
live better, live longer, enjoy the good life, and enter into an earthly Eden of our
own making where material abundance will provide a fortress against the
ravages of time and the onslaught of death. (p. 143)
Engle and Longstreet (1978) stated:
Once, technological progress would have meant the hope of something better to
come. Now though vestiges of hope remain, the progress of technology seems
to have become the unfolding of an inexorable human tragedy. . . .
We have lost control of technology and, in the process, of ourselves as well.
This is the critical reality we must confront before we will again be capable of
directing the future. Our loss of control has been an immensely subtle process,
beginning quite slowly and sporadically at first, then growing exponentially. (p.
226)
In addition, there have been numerous reports that have focused on the 'dismal'
condition of the world because of science and technology. Three such reports; The
Limits of Growth (Meadows & Meadows & Randers & Behrens, 1972), Dynamics of
Growth in a Finite World (Meadows et al., 1973), and The Global 2000 Report to the
President (Global Report) (Council on Environmental Quality & United States
Department of State, 1980a, 1980b, 1981a, 1981b) concluded that the quality of human
life was deteriorating, and many of the biological systems that provide resources for
human needs were eroding.
Making reference to these deteriorating factors the Global Report indicated the potential
for progressive impoverishment, if present world trends continue. Specifically the
Global Report (1981b) noted that:
The next 20 years may see a decline in the earth's capacity to support life while
rapid population growth continues; a steady loss of croplands, fisheries, forests,
and plant and animal species; and degradation of the earth's water and
atmosphere (p. iii).
The report further indicated that as many as twenty percent of all animal and plant
species on earth would be irretrievably lost as their habitats vanished.
Thus, we have a fundamental problem with how many people view technology in human
affairs. This perspective does have implications for how people interact with and use
modern technology in human affairs. The questions that are important for us are:
Are people afraid of modern technology?
Do people understand the uses of technology in modern affairs?
Are people literate of technology and how it influences society?
How well are people prepared to make informed decisions regarding technology?
Shen (1975) wrote: "There is little disagreement that, in today's highly technological
world, the public at large would find it profitable to become more scientifically literate,
thus enabling them to take better advantage of science's many benefits while avoiding
its many pitfalls" (p. 46).
Hellman (1976) indicated that a technologically literate populace was needed in order to
avoid extremist views. Hellman reported:
Like it or not this is a technological world, and it requires at least some
technological literacy. Our homes are filled with electrical appliances. Permitting
people who have no basic understanding of electricity to plug into the electrical
system is wrong and dangerous, and may explain a large part of the thousand or
so electrocutions and the many more electrically caused fires that take place
each year. . . .
Technological illiteracy can just as easily lead to a blind, uncomprehending
reverence for science and technology as to an anti-intellectual fear of them. Both
- and we have had too much of both - are equally bad. (pp. xiii-xiv)
Hellman further noted that the need for technological literacy stemmed from the fact that
science and technology have become imbedded in the economic, political, and social
fabric of society.
Wright (1980) also emphasized the need for a sociocultural literacy of technology.
Wright indicated:
It may be correct to suggest that people are technologically illiterate - that is they do not know enough about technology and its general characteristics to
make factual and sound personal judgements concerning the intelligent use and
control of technically related problems and solutions. . . .
Technology is the study of all technique and the ways in which it affects the
world. Understanding technology can help people to cope with rapid change and
to become knowledgeable consumer/decision makers in the future. (pp. 35, 37)
Beginning in the late 1960s the topic of technological literacy was brought to public
attention by political activists, scientists, social scientists, and technologists (cf. Brungs,
1987; Miller, 1987 for religious concerns for scientific and technological literacy).
Miller (1983) noted that the concern about the public's knowledge of various scientific or
technological public policy issues began around 1968. Environmental groups, he noted,
found that some minimal level of scientific knowledge was necessary if citizens were to
understand issues concerning the environment, nuclear power, and the use of Laetrile.
Other authors have maintained that society had individuals suffering from 'future shock,'
'technophobia,' or 'technological illiteracy' (viz., Hellman, 1976; Hersh, 1983a, 1983b;
Snow, 1959; Suzuki, 1984; Toffler, 1970). Hellman (1976) and Toffler (1970) wrote that
these individuals represent the illiterate sector of society, illiterate because they cannot
cope with technological change.
Leaders in the field of education and government have also maintained that the United
States was becoming a society of technological illiterates. Bowden (1982) noted: "We
are poorly prepared to make the political, economic, and social decisions that science
and technology present and impose on us" (p. 5). Saxon (1983) stated: "The pervasive
lack of understanding of science and technology throughout American society is, just
about everyone agrees, a major problem. That our technological illiteracy extends even
to those most educated of Americans - our college graduates - verges on a national
scandal" (p. 12).
Press wrote:
As we enter an era influenced greatly by public interests and public pressures,
we urgently need an enlightened public - one capable of understanding our
complex socio-technological relationship and of realizing what we can and
cannot do, able to evaluate technological change in terms of its costs and
benefits, its environmental and economic impact, and the social change it may
bring. Our success in doing this could determine the degree to which our society
controls its own destiny or is the victim of the circumstances it unknowingly
creates. (p. 51)
In a statement similar to Press, DeVore (1986) wrote:
The constant danger is that the complexities of our technical means today not
only raise the level of comprehension and know-how required of the average
citizen; they also increase the possibility of less involvement by citizens if they
are not literate in and about the technologies and the relation of technical means
to human affairs and social purpose. Technological illiteracy will promote the
demise of democracy and place in control an elite group of people who, by their
knowledge and know-how control the technical systems and who, by default,
control the processes of public and private life (p. 9).
Statements such as these and the noted need to reform public education to include
more science and technology (e.g., Adler, 1982, 1983, 1984; Boyer, 1983; Brunschwig
& Breslin, 1982; Hurd, 1984; National Science Board Commission on Precollege
Education in Mathematics, Science and Technology, 1983; Shamos, 1982; Shen, 1975;
Task Force on Education for Economic Growth, 1983; the Report of the Task Force on
Teaching as a Profession, 1986) has as DeVore (1986) and Waks & Prakash (1985)
indicated, led to a focusing on the need for scientific or technological literacy in
education.
Gies (1982) noting the differences between science and technology wrote:
Technology is not to be confused with science. Science is what the universe,
macrocosm, and microcosm, consists of - stars, planets, galaxies, cells, atoms,
particles. Technology is tools, machines, power, instrumentation, processes,
techniques. Science is knowledge discovered, and being discovered, by man.
Technology is knowledge created, and being created by man. (p. 17)
Hurd (1984) also illustrated the differences between science and technology. For Hurd,
the purpose of science was to discover new knowledge, while technology applied
knowledge for a social need. Hurd described these differences:
Through science and technology act as an integrated system, they are not
synonymous in meaning. Science is a way of knowing; it is a breeder of new
knowledge. Scientists who pursue knowledge for its own sake, are motivated by
their curiosity to learn how and why nature behaves as it does. Their satisfaction
arises from discovering new facts, formulating new theories, and developing
predictive laws that their peers consider significant in advancing a science
discipline. The results of scientific research are judged on the basis of their
integrity, not their usefulness in practical ways. . . .
Technology, on the other hand, is a process that seeks new uses of knowledge.
Technologists work with a definite purpose in mind, such as designing a more
fuel-efficient airplane, an intelligent robot, improved cancer therapy, safer roads
for travel, synthetic insulin, and communication satellites in outer space. The
work of the technologist responds to industrial and social needs and whatever
product or process people might find useful. (pp. 6-7)
Cutcliffe (1985) noted that science is viewed as that body of theoretical knowledge that
is concerned with natural phenomena. As such, individuals involved with scientific
research attempt to provide a coherent account of physical and biological objects and
events by way of observation and experimentation. Since a variety of authors appear to
agree as to the meaning of science; for the purposes of this study, science will be taken
to mean: That knowledge base which is concerned with the theoretical understanding
of the physical and biological world. This knowledge base has or appears to have a
factual, objective, systematic, or methodological basis.
Cutcliffe (1985) wrote:
Traditionally, definitions of technology center around the end-products of
engineering problem-solving, with, in [sic] the last hundred years, direct input
from scientific research as well. Increasingly, however, scholars of the social
impact of 'technology' have taken the term to refer to the complex of social,
value-based processes through with the work of the engineer is channeled into
society through society's financial, legal, and political institutions, and as a
general rule with little input from engineers themselves. Thus, technology is
different from engineering, a term that refers to the specific activity that generates
particular artifacts and technologies. It is also much more than applied science,
although it certainly draws upon scientific knowledge and methodology. (p. 11)
The different perceptions of technology are largely dependent on a person's
background, the amount of study and reflection about technology, and the personal
experiences one has had with technology. Viewpoints of technology range from
technology as a tool, to technology as a major component of the human adaptive
system. It has been defined as skill, craftpersonship, hardware, artifacts, technique,
work or a system of means, an effect, and other similar constructs (DeVore, 1980; Kline,
1986). The following definitions illustrate the variety of interpretations of technology.
Bugliarello (1982) wrote that technology was:
The enhancement of our biological reach through artifacts, both tangible and
intangible - is an exquisitely human phenomenon. It extends the power of our
muscles, our senses and our brain, it lessens our dependence on the
environment and it makes it increasingly possible for us to modify the biological
processes within our own body and to influence evolution. (pp. 1-1)
DeVore (1980) indicated that:
As a discipline technology is used to denote a field of study in the same way that
biology, psychology or anthropology is used. Technology: the study of the
creation and utilization of adaptive systems including tools, machines, materials,
techniques and technical means and the relation of the behavior of these
elements and systems to human beings, society and the civilization process. (p.
4)
Kranzberg and Pursell (1967) wrote:
Technology is man's effort to cope with his physical environment - both that
provided by nature and that created by man's own technological deeds, such as
cities - and his attempts to subdue or control that environment by means of his
imagination and ingenuity in the use of available resources. (pp. 4-5)
Winner stated: "It [technology] is now used in ordinary and academic speech to talk
about an unbelievably diverse collection of phenomena - tools, instruments, machines,
organizations, methods, techniques, systems and the totality of all these and similar
things in an experience" (p. 8). Winner additionally concluded that there was nothing
unusual in the discovery that an important term lacks precision in meaning. What was
important was an understanding of its concepts and uses within society.
You will likely notice that this definition of technology has many of the same
components of those provided by a number of different authors. We will use this
definition in our discussions for this class.
A secondary definition for literacy is "a well-informed educated person" (p. 762).
Implicitly interwoven with reading and writing is comprehension. Since reading and
writing includes composites of punctuation, sentence structure, spelling ability, and
other dimensions, literacy is a multidimensional concept.
Having made these basic premises (i.e., literacy is a multidimensional concept; science
and technology are different, with each maintaining their own knowledge base,
methodologies of inquiry, and purposes), the curriculum areas of liberal arts, science,
and technology education have been investigated to determine the common elements in
technological literacy, its constructs, and instructional strategies used in teaching for this
ideal. As previously noted, since science and technology literacy have often been
described in conjunction with technological literacy, these components have, therefore,
been included in this investigation. The first curriculum area to be reviewed is the liberal
arts approach: science, technology, and society studies (STS).
These arts included thinking clearly and logically, speaking effectively, reading
analytically, having knowledge of the world and human nature, and knowing the ways in
which the universe operated. Mason wrote:
The purpose of such an education was not to prepare a man for some economic
vocation, but to prepare him for the moral life in which he used his disciplined
intelligence in making choices affecting his nation, his family, and himself. (p. 25)
These ideals in education can be traced to Plato's Republic where Socrates and his
companions discussed the type of education suitable for the governors of the state, and
Aristotle's discussion on liberal and practical (i.e., mechanical) education in Politics.
During the Middle Ages the liberal arts included the study of arithmetic, geometry, and
astronomy, in addition to grammar, rhetoric, logic, and music. Griswold (1962) outlined
the need and purpose of this education for the twentieth century:
Not only does it [liberal education] concern itself more directly and vitally than
any other type of education with the good life that is the end of all political
society; it also shows a like concern for the means whereby that society is to be
governed and the good life achieved. . . . The purpose of liberal education is to
expand to the limit the individual's capacity - and desire - for self-improvement,
for seeking and finding enjoyment and meaning in everything he does. . . .
The purpose of the liberal arts is not to teach business men business, or
grammarians grammar, or college students Greek and Latin. . . . It is to awaken
and develop the intellectual and spiritual power in the individual before he enters
upon his chosen career, so that he may bring to that career the greatest possible
assets of intelligence, resourcefulness, judgement, and character. (pp. vi-13)
The liberal arts tradition is also synonymous with that of general education. Thomas
(1962) wrote: "The change in relative emphasis upon general and liberal [education] is
especially interesting in view of the fact that there is almost no substantive change in
the procedures by which the students fulfill the goals of liberal education" (p. 189). The
concept of general education, which developed during the nineteenth century, consisted
of a common core of disciplines considered essential to all liberally educated students.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the curriculum of the colleges was limited in
scope and heavily weighted with classical studies. This was viewed as necessary as
many of the college students were preparing for the professions of law, medicine, or the
divinity. The range of disciplines studied was general, and lacked depth in most areas
except classical languages and mathematics. College education was viewed as neither
preprofessional or vocational. The colleges, however, were pressured to extend the
scope of their course offerings to the interests of students not entering the profession of
law, medicine, or the divinity. As modifications were made to the curricular offerings,
there was a tendency to differentiate the disciplinary and cultural functions of education
from numerous vocational functions (Thomas, 1962).
The idea of general education was therefore viewed as a way to meet the elements of
the changing school and society. With a common core of disciplines and additional
studies related to the student's vocational interests, the colleges were able to offer
education to those not entering the traditional professions, while maintaining their ideals
of liberal education. This type of curriculum was viewed as more liberal with its greater
flexibility in course offerings and free electives than the classical curriculum. The
concept of general education, however, was eventually questioned for weakening the
cultural objectives of colleges. Thomas (1962) reported that institutions of higher
learning began to ask "whether the colleges, in becoming more liberal in the service of
individual interests, had not become less liberal in serving the common cultural needs of
students" (p. 13).
Having now developed a foundation of what is meant by science and technology, our
goal is to explore how technology and engineering are utilized by a contemporary
society and how these uses influence our human values. The overall goal of this course
is to help promote a greater understanding of technology development and promote
technological literacy. Throughout this course we will be examining both the positive
and negative consequences of technological development and how this development
shapes our social, economic, legal, and cultural institutions.
An Overview of Technology
By Dr. Anthony F. Gilberti, DTE
Introduction
The technology at our disposal often leaves us both delighted and terrified. Technological
developments have provided us with such wonders as spacecraft capable of leaving the solar
system, access to billions of Internet pages to advance our knowledge, and the ability to cure
diseases via gene therapy. Yet, technological advances have also produced overpopulation, the
threat of nuclear war, global warming and pollution, and the loss of biodiversity on the planet.
Technological change has also produced social interferences. These can be seen where
technological development in the form of automation has caused a loss of jobs in an industry, or
where new weapons are developed and it causes an upset in the balance of power between
nations. Social interferences can also be found in the failure of technology. The failure of
nuclear power plants (i.e., Chernobyl and Fukushima disasters) created immense social
interference that will continue for many decades.
Even with all of the problems associated with technological failures, the public generally is in
favor of technology (view the following web site: U.S. Views of Technology). While it is still
possible to find people concerned about certain technologies, there is an overall acceptance that
technology aids society in many different ways. This has been documented by numerous
surveys both nationally and internationally. However, the support of technology is based more
on trust than on an understanding of the technology that is used. We trust that our technology
will continue to work as it has in the past, and new technologies will be developed to support
human endeavors. Yet, the general populace has little in-depth knowledge of the how specific
technologies work or how they are applied in society.
Lack of Understanding
As an example of how little people understand technology, assume you are sitting in an office
area while reading this overview of technology. Within the office there are computers, laser
printers, cell phones, hard wired Internet ports, wireless Internet ports, and perhaps a
microwave to heat drinks or food. How many people could describe how each of these devices
work, illustrate the technology and support systems required to allow them to function, or be
able to illustrate some of the positive and negative consequences associated with their use?
Likely very few people could do so. To read more about this lack of understanding of scientific
and technological concepts or to test your own knowledge visit the following site: Public’s
Knowledge of Science and Technology.
Overview of Technology
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The inability to understand technology and recognize its effects on society and ourselves is a
significant problem for society. The need for greater understanding of technology is rooted in a
fundamental belief. In a world permeated by technology, an individual can function more
effectively if he or she is knowledgeable of technology. Understanding technology helps
individuals to make informed choices in their role as consumers and decision makers.
Our society is full of technological products and services that help to ease our burdens in life.
These technological devices can make us more efficient, productive, or even healthier. A person
that understands the technology at even a basic level, should be able to be aware of its
advantages and disadvantages, how to operate or interact with the technology, and decide to
accept or reject it.
Employees and Citizens
It should be noted that people are not only consumers of technology; they are also employees
and citizens in a democracy. Pick up any local, regional, or national newspaper and one can
find numerous articles detailing the development or use of technology. It is quite common to
find referendums on issuing bonds for the construction of new public works projects (i.e.,
roadways, power plants, incinerators, waste disposal plants, etc.). The question one would ask
is how prepared are our citizens to evaluate these technologies and the potential negative
consequences that may result from their implementation? These same concerns could be found
for employees. For example, an employer offers employees the option to no longer having to
carry an identification card for access into buildings, rooms, or to pay for onsite meal purchases.
Instead the employee will have an electronic chip placed into the soft tissue beside their thumb
(Microchip Implants for Employees?). The electronic chip now takes the place of the
identification card. Does the employee know enough about the technology to determine if it is
safe, how they can be tracked by the chip, how secure is the information being stored by the
company, etc.? While it is not possible to have an understanding in all things technological, it
would be valuable for people to have a greater understanding of technology and the roles it
plays in society.
The following sections will offer a very brief overview of societal development as a result of
technology. This overview is an attempt to illustrate how some of our tools aided in our
survival and helped to transform society. As new tools were introduced to society, they helped
to alter the social and cultural traditions of the people using those tools. This resulted in new
patterns of work and often positive and negative consequences to the social, cultural, or
environmental conditions of people.
Overview of Technology
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Early Development of Technology
The development of technology predates written history. Yet, it is as old as humanity. Some
3.4 million years ago our primitive ancestors began to use simple tools to help aid in their
survival. The ability to make and use tools, among other developments, has distinguished
humans from other species. These simple tools consisted of sticks, rocks, and pebbles that could
be shaped to perform different functions.
It should be noted here that humans are not the only tool users on this planet. There are
numerous other species that have demonstrated that they do in fact use simple tools. Beavers
can build dams, apes and chimpanzees have used sticks and folded leaves to extract termites
from their nests, and otters can crack open shellfish with rocks. What distinguishes these
animals from humans however is that they rely on vary simple tools (minimal modification of
the tool).
Early humans lived in primitive conditions. These conditions were determined by nature. The
primitive people thus existed with nature. They did not attempt to control nature or improve
the natural conditions. For example, people of primitive cultures depend on harvesting natural
vegetation and hunting game. A drought could severely affect their food supply, and there was
nothing that could be done about it. If nature did not provide ample food, the people starved.
Additionally, primitive people could only use naturally occurring materials to build shelters
and fabricate clothing.
As was previously noted, the ability to make and use tools is a distinguishing characteristic of
humans. The development of technology through tool use was responsible for the survival and
expansion of a species that does not have the innate abilities of other animals. If you consider
the human body, we cannot match the speed of a cheetah, the strength of a bear, or the leaping
ability of an impala. We do not have the keen eyesight of a hawk or eagle, or the defensive
armament of a porcupine. Further, we are among the 25 percent of all species that cannot fly.
Overall, one could note that we are inferior to other animals based on our physical
characteristics. However, by using technology, humans have overcome these limitations and
advanced civilization.
Evolution of Civilization – Stone Age
The evolution of civilization is directly related to the tools of the time (A brief history of
technology can be found here: History of Technology). In fact, the major divisions of the
history of civilization are named for the materials used to fabricate tools. During the Stone Age,
simple stone tools were shaped to cut and pound vegetables and cut meat from animal
carcasses. The Stone Age is usually divided into three separate periods--Paleolithic Period,
Overview of Technology
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Mesolithic Period, and Neolithic Period--based on the degree of sophistication in the fashioning
and use of tools. The Stone Age started about 3.4 million years ago and continues to about 9,600
BCE. The illustration below provides an example of some of these stone tools. Note how the
tools changed over time from a simple one face cutting edge to multifaceted cutting edges. The
early stone tools would have consisted of blades, points, scrapers, and burins, as well as tools
worked from bone and antler. As time moves forward, these tools become more sophisticated
and are combined with other natural and human made elements to form complex tools for
specific functions.
The Bronze Age
The Bronze Age began sometime before 3000 BCE. Note that it may have started later on some
continents. The Bronze Age is characterized by the introduction of metal and metal tools into
society. While metal had been used previously during this portion of human history, the
distinction here is that metal was used beyond ornamentation in the crafting of jewelry. During
Overview of Technology
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this time period one can find the earliest forms of written script, large urban population centers,
domestication of animals, religious and political administration, and commerce.
In the early phases of the Bronze Age, copper was used without any additives to create tools.
Later discoveries found that by adding elements like tin to copper formed the harder bronze.
Bronze tools made included flanged axes, daggers, halberds (i.e., a combined spear and battleax), swords, razors, and shields. Below is an example of some of these tools.
Iron Age
The Iron Age represents a period of human history where this metal replaces bronze in
implements and weapons. Iron is harder and more durable than bronze. The time period
varies geographically, but starts about 1,200 BCE. While Iron had been used as early as 3,000
BCE, it was scarce and considered a precious metal. Between 1,200 and 1,000 BCE the
knowledge of iron metallurgy and production of iron objects spread widely. The production of
iron made weapons allowed the masses to become armed for the first time in human history.
This technology led to larger areas of commerce and large-scale movements of people as a result
of war.
The Iron Age had many innovations applied to agriculture. A much smaller percentage of the
population could now grow the food and clothing fiber required to sustain the population. This
period of time also saw the development of special machines to weave cloth, grind grain, and
shape metal and wood. Centralized power sources like the waterwheel attached to drive shafts
helped to increase production and consumption tremendously during this time period.
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Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution starts in England about 1750. Prior to the Industrial Revolution
manufacturing of products was often done in people’s homes via hand tools or some basic
machines. Society was primarily based around an agrarian based economy with rural societies.
The Industrial Revolution is marked by a shift to powered, special purpose machinery. This
machinery created factories, mass production, and the urbanization of manufacturing centers.
The rapid increases in iron and textile manufacturing, along with the development of the steam
engine, transformed all of society. The Industrial Revolution could be characterized by the use
of interchangeable parts, dividing jobs into parts that could be assigned to separate workers,
material-handling devices that brought the work to the worker, and professional management
of enterprises. The result of the Industrial Revolution saw improved systems of transportation,
communication, commerce, and an increased volume and variety of manufactured goods. This
helped to improve the standard of living for some, but it also resulted in terrible working and
living conditions for the poor and working class.
Information Age
Our current society is often classified as being part of the Information Age. This began around
1975. The information age does not place an emphasis on the manufacturing of products and
goods. While we still have these functions in society, the majority of the workforce is working
on the processing of information to support areas of commerce, agriculture, manufacturing, etc.
The Information Age can be classified by the following characteristics:
Wide use of automatic machining, production equipment, and information processing;
High demand for technologists and engineers;
Declining number of low-skilled jobs;
Constant need for job training and retraining of workers;
High quality products, goods, and services;
High energy production and consumption;
Technological unemployment due to newer developments and introduction of superior
technologies;
Technological unemployability as a result of poorly educated workers that can no longer
compete for jobs.
The needs of a society based on the above criteria are uniquely different than previous time
periods. This will create challenges for society, as the rate of technological development is
accelerating at a far greater rate than what was witnessed during other previous periods. The
information provided below will establish a few of the unique characteristics of technology that
can be found in an Information based society. These will be explored in much greater detail
during this course.
Overview of Technology
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Characteristics of Technology
One of the unique characteristics of technology can be found in how it is applied. Technological
development relies on more than simply tools, materials, processes and the application of
knowledge. Behind technological development is an organized effort. One person cannot
develop technology on their own; it often takes a group effort. If you think of a simple
technology like a new coffee dispenser, the design, testing, and production of this device will
likely require a network of material suppliers, tool makers, and marketing agents. The actual
production may require the use of specialized material handling equipment, robotics (to
maximize production efficiencies), computerized manufacturing systems, an educated labor
force, packaging, and distribution networks. While one person could attempt to learn all of the
skills needed, this is impractical and is often beyond the scope or knowledge base of many
individuals.
A second defining characteristic of technology is that it often exists as a system to accomplish
needed goals or objectives. If one was to think about the delivery of clean water to homes, one
is quickly able to view this technology as a system of processes, resources, inputs and outputs,
and feedback loops. Water must first be acquired from a source, it must be managed as a
resource, it is filtered and made potable, it must be distributed and metered, and users must be
billed for the resource used. During this process the technology is dependent upon many
individuals and subsystems to deliver the resource on a consistent basis. The water delivery
system is also depended on the electrical grid (a system as well) to operate all of the machinery,
pumps, filters, to deliver this product. The interconnections of systems lead to efficiency, but it
also increases the complexity of the technology.
Technological systems do not emerge overnight. In some cases systems may take extended
periods of time before they are integrated into society. Thus, system integration can be seen as
a piecemeal event, and at the outset, all of the system components may not fit neatly together to
meet the goals or desires of the users or developers. This may result in changes being made to
the tools, techniques, systems or organizational structures already in place. Additionally, many
social, cultural, and environmental consequences result with the introduction and use of
technology. These consequences (both good and bad) often lead to changes in the technology or
support systems to allow them to operate. On a personal and social level, one can also find
psychological, economic, educational, or political adjustments. Clearly technological
development is not always a smooth process, and it is often fraught with tension and
discomfort by users and society.
Technological development is often dynamic and a cumulative process. These are defining
characteristics of technology. Technology is always in the process of refinement; this represents
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the dynamic nature of it. Technologists and engineers are always trying to improve the
technology, to make it more efficient, to use less energy, to better meet its intended needs, or to
reduce or eliminate social, cultural, or environmental concerns. It is cumulative in that older
forms of technology often provide the impetus for change. What we learn from a past or
existing technology provides a knowledge base to make future improvements. Thus,
technology evolves from older forms of technology. These two attributes can be seen as a
method of progress.
The final characteristic of technology concerns progress. Note, that there are other defining
characteristics of technology that are not presented here at this time. These will be illustrated in
the near future. When considering the dynamic and cumulative characteristics of technology,
these often represent a form of progress. Most would generally agree that an improvement in
any form of technology to better meet its intended objectives is a form of progress. This is
because the newer forms of the technology may be more efficient, may use less resources, can be
done less expensively, and one could go on and on here. Thus, many people often equate
technological development as a sign of progress. In one sense this is true, as new technologies
bring society new options in the form of products, goods, and services. A quick examination of
the integration of new technologies associated with cell phones for work and leisure could be
viewed as progress for a society. However, while a technology may be introduced and it is
better compared to what was previously available, one should be careful about viewing this as
progress. To illustrate this point, the country of North Korea will be used as an example.
North Korea can be classified as a communist state and dictatorship. However, their
constitution established the country as a socialist state in 2012, and the governments name is the
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. The state is far from a democratic society and is more
in the form of a dictatorship, with the Chief of State being Kim Jong Un and the Head of
Government under Premier Pak Pong-ju. The legislative body passes all proposals by the
government into law with no debate or modification. There is no judicial review, and security
forces have control over the judicial branch of the government. The society is considered a
closed society with no freedoms of speech, religion, or personal choices. Citizens of the country
work to fulfill the mission of the state with little regard to basic human needs. Forced labor
camps are used for those that speak out or question the society or their role or place within that
society.
North Korea does have many forms of advanced technology. Yet, most citizens are unable to
acquire this technology due to economic hardships. Per capita income is less than $2,000 per
year, and food and fuel shortages have led to severe famine and widespread starvation
(approximately 40 percent of the population is considered malnourished).
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The government of North Korea continues to place an emphasis on military technology and
spends more than 20 percent of its annual GDP on military hardware. The country has made
‘progress’ in military technology, and now have the capability of launching a nuclear weapon
via an intercontinental ballistic missile. The fact that a society is able to develop and make use
of advanced technologies and improve upon past technologies is not always a sign of progress.
This is because advancements in technology may not be used to benefit other needs within a
society or for its people. If we consider the spending of North Korea in light of food and energy
shortages or the ability to provide an infrastructure to support its people, one could conclude
that this is not progress, especially when the treatment of the people of North Korea can only be
described as inhumane.
Conclusions
This material outlined the historical development of technology and illustrated some of the
defining characteristics of technology. The development and application of technologies into
society require active participation of its citizenry in order to become good consumers and
decision makers. Yet the sophistication and complexity of technologies often preclude
involvement by all members of society. This has created a problem. While we may have a huge
array of technology at our disposal, we may not fully understand the social, cultural, or
environmental consequences that may result from their implementation. Technological
development and change will not stop. We need to be better skilled at identifying potential
problems and take steps as citizens to maximize the greatest potential to bring about a more just
and humane society. Throughout this course, we will examine various technologies and
hopefully identify possible techniques to allow us to participate in future decision making
processes associated with technological development.
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Dialogue – Aid Sheet
Please type all Information
Students must develop the ability to assess the implementation technology has on society including its
social, cultural, and environmental consequences. Future graduates need to assess technology as part of
their job related duties in business, industry, government, or as private citizens. Technology is constantly
assessed in an attempt to determine its overall value in meeting human needs, wants, and desires. The
introduction of new technology has costs and benefits that can result in anticipated and unanticipated
consequences for society. It is often the role of individuals to determine if a technology should be adopted
and fostered in society. As you complete this dialogue aid sheet, please use complete sentences, and
provide more than just a sentence or two. For most of the topics being addressed in the readings, you will
need to develop several paragraphs or more for each section on this sheet to fully illustrate your ideas.
Simply type your responses and add as many paragraphs or pages as necessary. Please check your spelling
and grammar before submitting these for grading.
Student Name:
APA Reference (Article Read)
Title:
Author:
Date:
1. Identify three basic, yet major concepts which were dealt with in the readings:
2. What do you believe to be the most insightful ideas in this reading?
3. What do you believe to be the greatest weakness in this selection?
4. What are the ethical issues and perspectives that are associated with this
technology or presented in the readings?
5. What are the social, cultural, or environmental issues associated with this
technology or presented in the readings?
6. What generalizations can be made from the readings about the impact of
technology on the quality of life? Note you may look at this from the point of
view of a specific technology or technology in general.
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