Week 3: SEC/481: Security Capstone: R2
Emergency and Critical Incident Response
•
•
•
•
(2008). It takes training to make a plan. Security: Solutions for Enterprise Security
Leaders, 45(9), 144-145.
Anderson, A. I., Compton, D., & Mason, T. (2004). Managing in a dangerous world - the
National Incident Management system. Engineering Management Journal, 16(4), 3-9.
Bouchard, J. (2016). Crisis management. Research Starters - Education, 1-12.
Foster, A., & Lipka, S. (2007). Lessons from a tragedy. Chronicle of Higher Education, 53(34),
A12-A13.
Education & Training
It Takes Training to Mai(e a Pian
A
n emergency response plan
that provides the necessary
structure for managing critical incidents is of vitaJ importance to any enterprise.
Those organizations with an emergency
response plan have created and circulated
elaborate policies and procedures designed
to deal with a variery of emergency and
disaster situations. Such plans detaii specific
actions to take in the event of a catastrophic
event or emergency and outline specific
steps during the ensuing recovery effort.
However, far too often, this is where the
planning process ends. Typically, the planning document is filed away and forgotten
until a critical incident occurs.
Complementing the plan should be
ongoing training and testing.
Training and Testing
Aitt-r the plans been finalized, communicated to all affected personnel and integrated into the organization's standard operating
procedures, ic must be thoroughly tested.
h will not work properly unless realistic
training is provided and thoroughly tested
prior to implementation. Testing the plan
helps to identiiy problem areas, as well as
inherent v/eaknesses, that must be corrected
in order to ensure that the plan will work as
designed. Training and testing serve to identify these areas to enhance coordination and
communication among emergency response
personnel.
The first step in the training process is to
assign a security or life safety staff member
responsibility for developing overall training. Additionally, a determination must be
made as to the following:
• Who will actually perfortn the training?
• Who will be trained?
• What type of training activities will be
employed?
• What materials and equipment will be
needed?
• When will the training take place?
• Where will the training take place?
• How long will the training last?
• How will the training be evaluated and
Before a real emergency, tiie security operation needs a response pian. However, that plan weakens without ongoing
training anti testing.
by w h o m r
' How will the training activities be documented?
• How will special circumstances be handled?
• How will training costs and expenses be
budgeted?
Critiques and evaluations are an important training component and must be conducted after each training session. Sufficient
time should be allotted for the critique and
any resulting recommendations should be
forwarded to the emergency planning team
tor further review and action. Additionallv,
chief security officers (CSO) should consider how to involve outside groups and
agencies in the training and evaluation process. This helps avoid conflicts and increase
coordination and communication when a
critical incident does occur.
Emergency response training can take
a variety of forms. FEMA's Emergency
Management Guide for Business and
Industry describes types of training activities
that can be considered: These include:
• Orientation and education sessions —
Sessions designed to provide information,
answer questions, and identify needs and
The Advantages of Home Study
T
he increasing cost of traditional education and training, coupled with the soaring
cost of gas to travel to a site, have made home and online study more attractive.
The International Foundation for Protection Officers (IFPO), established as a nonprofit in 1988, has over the years been an educational source tor training and certification
of protection officers and security supervisors from the commercial and proprietary sectors. Associate and corporate membership are available. In addition, IFPO developed a
number of comprehensive distance delivery courses: the Basic Protection Officer (BPO),
the Certified Protection Officer (CPO) program, the Security Supervision and Management
(SSMP) program and the Certified in Security Supervision and Management (CSSM) program. All programs center on a self-paced schedule of home study.
More information at www.ifpo,org.
September 20DS • SECURITV • SECUR1TYMAGAZINE.COM
concerns.
Tabictop exercise — This is a cost efficienr
and efFective way to have members of
rhe emergency planning team, as well as
key management personnel, meet in a
conference room setting co discuss roles
and responsibilities and identify areas of
concern.
Walk-through drill — The emergency
planning team and response teams actually perform their emei^ency response
functions.
Functional drills - Designed to test specific functions such as medical response,
emergency notifications, and communications procedures, although not necessarily at the same time. The drill is then
evaluated by rhe various panicipants and
problem areas are Identified.
Evacuation drill — Participants walk the
evacuation route to a prc-designated
area where procedures for accounting
for all personnel are tested. Participants
are asked to make note of potential hazards along the way and the emergency
response plan is modified accordingly.
Full-scale exercise — An emergency is simulated as dose to real as possible. Involves
management, emergency response personnel, employees, as well as outside
groups and agencies that wouid also be
involved in the response.
Practical "hands-on" training provides
security and life safety personnel with
opportunities to use skills taught and to
learn new techniques and procedures.
For emergency response training, simulations such as tahletop exercises, drills and
full-scale exercises are particularly valuable for practicitig decision-making skills,
tactical techniques and communications.
Moreover, simulations serve to determine
deficiencies in planning and procedures
that can lead to modifications to the emergency response plan.
Evaluating the
Emergency Response Plan
Regardless ot the tiaiiimg schedule selected, the CSO should conduct a formal audit
of the entire plan at least once a year. In
addition to the yearly audit, evaluate and
modify the plan if necessary:
• After each critical incident
• When there has been a change in personnel or responsibilities
• When the layout or design of a facility
changes
• When there is a change in policies or procedures
Of course, any modifications or changes
to an emergency response plan, training
and testing should be communicated to
affected personnel as soon as possible.
Similarly, changes to the planning document should be incorporated and distributed in a timely manner.
And, remember, that plan will not work
properly unless realistic training is provided and it is thoroughly tested prior to
implementation in an actual emergency.
The training and testing activities should be
ongoing. SECURITY
About the Source
This material, edited tor space and style, is authored
by Ernest G. Vendrell, CPP, CPO, CEt^, and originaliy appeared in Protection News, the publication of the International Foundation tor Protection
• After each drill or exercise
Otticers (IFPO).
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SECURITYMAGAZINE.COM • SECURITV • September 2008
Authors:
Foster, Andrea
Lipka, Sara
Source:
Chronicle of Higher Education. 4/27/2007, Vol. 53 Issue 34, pA12-A13. 2p. 1 Color Photograp
Section:
DARK DAY IN BLACKSBURG
Safety and risk-management experts debate Virginia Tech's response
AS ADMINISTRATORS at colleges around the country closely followed news of the deadly shootings at Virginia
Tech, many of them met on their campuses to discuss what they could do to try to prevent a similar tragedy.
The risk managers and other officials interviewed for this article were hesitant to criticize Virginia Tech for its
response, but shaken by the incident, and by the idea that it could have happened anywhere, they began to weigh
the lessons of last week.
Emergency-notification procedures received much of their attention. Among the questions administrators dealt with
was how to notify students and employees of a critical incident, when to do so, and what to say--to convey necessary
information without causing widespread panic.
Efficient communication is the most important element of an institution's disaster response, risk and crisis experts
said, but getting an announcement across a campus is a difficult task.
"Emergency-notification systems are becoming more and more important, but at 7 o'clock in the morning, how do you
get a message out to everyone on your campus that they shouldn't be there?" said Richard W. Bell, director of risk
management at Loyola University New Orleans. "We don't have an effective method to do that."
Colleges can use e-mail, telephone-broadcast systems, online postings, and public-address systems, but inevitably
some people will not get the message, Mr. Bell said. Students may wake up minutes before class and run out the
door, and employees may already be pulling into parking lots.
Some security experts and members of the media have argued that Virginia Tech officials should have notified the
campus sooner that there had been a shooting, but others are unsure an earlier warning would have minimized the
deaths (See article on Page A13).
Risk and safety experts scrambled last week to come up with other possible means of thwarting a violent attack-more surveillance cameras, maybe, or more campuswide public-address systems, which few institutions now have.
Installing speakers outdoors, as well as in all campus buildings, would be "a massive undertaking," said Rebecca L.
Adair, risk manager at Iowa State University. "But it could very well be where we need to head."
Another measure she and others proposed was an emergency-notification system by cellphone text message (See
article on Page A16). On the day of the shootings, a Virginia Tech spokesman said the university had been
developing such a system in recent months.
LOCKDOWN PROCEDURES
Over the past few decades, violence, natural disasters, and other crises on college campuses have spurred new
security measures, like swipe cards for building entrances, emergency telephone and lighting systems, and
evacuation procedures. In considering where the Virginia Tech incident may lead, experts also pointed to lockdowns.
To respond to a gunman on the loose, they said, a college might want to develop a plan to quickly secure a campus
perimeter, as well as dozens or hundreds of buildings.
The chief of police and director of public safety at the University of Maryland at Baltimore, Cleveland Barnes, pointed
last week to his institution's computer-controlled door-lock system, which allows the police to lock all exterior doors
and some interior doors in seconds. (The doors are locked only from the outside, to allow people a means of escape.)
Many institutions, such as Cornell and Drexel Universities and the University of Pennsylvania, sent campuswide email messages last week to remind students of their emergency procedures. At many colleges, officials reviewed
policies with an eye toward updating or testing them.
Meanwhile, some consultants promoted their services for ensuring campus safety. Sheldon E. Steinbach, a
prominent higher-education lawyer, criticized them for opportunistically hawking their wares to the fearful.
As for another common fear among colleges--legal liability--one expert said that Virginia Tech's would be limited.
Families of the students and professors who died there may sue the university, but it will be largely protected under
the legal concept of sovereign immunity.
Sovereign immunity prohibits an individual from suing a state institution like Virginia Tech in federal court, said
William E. Thro, solicitor general of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Family members of the victims could file
negligence lawsuits in state court against the commonwealth, he said, but they could collect no more than $100,000
each--assuming they prevailed in litigation.
Was 2 Hours Too Long?
AT 7:i5 A.M. on April 16, the Virginia Tech Police Department received a 911 call about shootings in West Ambler
Johnston Hall.
More than two hours passed before officials informed students and employees of the incident, by e-mail and
telephone messages, at 9:26. After a second 911 call, about shootings in Norris Hall, officials issued another warning
within five minutes.
Should the first warning have come sooner?
The answer is not so simple.
If police officers interpreted the first incident as a domestic dispute, a two-hour interval seems reasonable, say
experts on crisis planning.
"The common pattern is that these are one-on-one or one-on-two types of events. They don't typically erupt into
larger threats," said Ann H. Franke, a lawyer and a consultant to colleges on risk management. "I don't think an
institution with tens of thousands of students would cease operations."
But incidents similar to the dormitory shootings at Virginia Tech have usually resulted in the assailant's quick suicide.
When the shooter is at large, the situation becomes dire. The Virginia Tech police said they thought the shooter had
fled the campus.
"If there is that unknown, that kind of information would be what you were trying to communicate," said Rebecca L.
Adair, risk manager at Iowa State University. "There should be measures to get that information out as soon as
possible."
If the first warning had come sooner, some people may have stayed home, or in their dorms or offices, and locked
their doors. But not everyone, said Richard W. Bell, director of risk management at Loyola University New Orleans: "I
don't think that within two hours the whole campus could be notified that there was a problem and they needed to
stay put."
Many students and employees were probably in transit that morning. Others might not have checked their e-mail or
campus phones. And a determined killer might still have found a group of victims gathered inside, or opened fire on a
sidewalk.
Cho Seung-Hui, the gunman, knew the Virginia Tech campus. With his weapons concealed, he did not stick out. "It
only takes seconds to do what he did in each of those instances," said Mr. Bell. "Unless there is a police officer at the
right place at the right time, he's not going to intercept someone who wants to cause that kind of damage."
--SARA LIPKA
PHOTO (COLOR): Cho Seung-Hui, a Virginia Tech student, killed 30 people at Norris Hall, at the center of the
campus. Administrators have closed the building for the rest of the semester.
~~~~~~~~
By Sara Lipka
Contributed by Andrea Foster
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email articles for individual use.
Managing in a Dangerous World-The National Incident Management System: EMJ EMJ
Anderson, Anice I;Compton, Dennis;Mason, Tom
Engineering Management Journal; Dec 2004; 16, 4; ProQuest Central
pg. 3
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RESEARCH STARTERS
ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS
Crisis Management
School Safety > Crisis Management
Table of Contents
Abstract
Overview
What is Crisis Management?
What Constitutes a Crisis?
Applications
Crisis Prevention
Studies Conducted After Columbine
Preparation
Crisis Management Materials
Drills & Exercises
Response
Evacuation
Lockdown
Shelter in Place
Recovery
Crisis Intervention & Debriefing
Managing Crises in Post-Secondary Schools
Viewpoints
Do Practice Drills Cause More Harm Than
Help?
The Effectiveness of Post-Crisis Counseling
Conclusion
Terms & Concepts
Bibliography
Suggested Reading
Abstract
Crisis management refers to the policies and procedures developed for handling emergency situations. Since crises vary in size
and scope, methods and management procedures vary across
grade levels and situations. The imperative steps to creating and
implementing any effective crisis management plan are mainly
prevention, preparation, response and recovery. Debates surround the value of emergency drills and post crisis counseling
methods.
Overview
What is Crisis Management?
Crisis management is a term that refers to the policies and procedures developed for handling emergency situations in public
schools. The 1999 Columbine shootings, the terror attacks of
September 11, 2001 and, more recently, the devastation caused
by Hurricane Katrina, have prompted local and national governments to research the most effective ways to manage crises in
schools.
In 2002, the Department of Safe and Drug-Free Schools together
with the Harvard School of Public Health, the Prevention
Institute, and the Education Development Center developed a
program entitled, "The Three R's to Dealing with Trauma in
Schools: Readiness, Response and Recovery" designed to assist
schools with crisis management ("Taking the Lead," 2007). In
2003, Education Secretary Rodney Paige and the Secretary of
Homeland Security Tom Ridge launched a $30 million initiative providing grants to help schools buy safety equipment, train
staff, parents and students in crisis management ("Taking the
Lead," 2007).
Crisis often strikes fast so reaction time must be quick. This can
only happen when procedures are in place and have been practiced. When a crisis occurs, schools must evaluate the crisis in
order to decide whether to evacuate, lockdown, or use schools
as a shelter (Poland, 2007). Because every school community
is different, it is important for schools to practice a variety of
crisis management procedures to determine if they are appropriate. Schools should then personalize their plans to the needs
of their community. Plans also should accommodate the age
EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © 2014 EBSCO Information Services, Inc. • All Rights Reserved
Crisis Management
of the student population, as elementary school students will
behave differently than middle or high school students (U.S.
Department of Education, 2003). The Office of Safe and DrugFree Schools recommends schools and emergency personnel
conduct drills and practice scenarios until they have procedures memorized (Black, 2004). Leadership, preparation and
communication are essential qualities in managing any type of
emergency.
What Constitutes a Crisis?
Webster's Dictionary defines a crisis as an unstable or crucial
time or state of affairs in which a decisive change is impending,
especially one with the distinct possibility of a highly undesirable outcome (as cited in U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
This definition of a crisis is broad. It can range from incidents
that only affect a few students to situations that halt an entire
community. Crises can happen at any time, in any place, with
and without warning. Incidents that qualify as crises include, but
are not limited to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bomb threat
Chemical spill
Fire
Natural disaster
Pandemic
School violence
Student or faculty death
Terrorist attack
War
Weather emergency
The one thing all crises have in common is the need for clear
communication and quick decision-making. Regardless of the
type of crisis, every crisis management plan should include procedures for prevention, preparation, response and recovery (U.S.
Department of Education, 2003).
Applications
Crisis Prevention
The first step in crisis management is prevention. Schools should
conduct safety assessments of school property in order to determine if floor plans, lockdown procedures and evacuation routes
need to be updated ("Taking the Lead," 2007). It is important
to connect with local emergency responders to determine what
types of problems are most common in the area and with students ("Taking the Lead," 2007). Emergency responders include
law enforcement agents, firefighters and emergency medical
technicians.
Prevention often means controlling a problem before it spreads
or escalates. In some cases, such as with infectious diseases
which can lead to a pandemic, prevention efforts can be as basic
as teaching hygiene and providing anti-infection products such
as hand sanitizer and anti-viral tissues (St. Gerard, 2007). Education is often the first step in crisis prevention.
Studies Conducted After Columbine
Following the 1999 Columbine High School shooting in Colorado, which resulted in 15 fatalities and 23 injuries, the U.S.
Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education conducted a
study of 37 school attacks. Their report, released in 2002, concluded that no common profile existed among attackers except
for the fact that most of the perpetrators had been bullied or
injured by others (Dillon, 2007). This report proves the value of
fostering a positive school climate that welcomes diversity and
teaches compassion (Dillon, 2007). The report recommends that
schools focus on providing a supportive community that helps
students mediate and resolve conflicts. Penalties should also
be communicated and set forth to discourage students and parents from violent and threatening actions (Dillon, 2007). Dillon
(2007) also cites that lawmakers in Pennsylvania considered
putting schools on permanent lockdown to prevent violence in
schools. In the wake of a school shooting, Platte Canyon High
School in Colorado began a program in which parents volunteer
to greet visitors at the door and log them in so that no intruder
will enter the building unnoticed (Butler, 2007). Increasing
police presence and installing metal detectors are other methods
used to curb school violence (Dillon, 2007).
The Secret Service and Department of Education also discovered
that, in about 80% of the incidents studied, at least one person
knew what was going to happen (Dillon, 2007).
Recognizing a potential crisis, and responding quickly, can make
a world of difference. Schools need to educate students and
teachers how to recognize warning signs. Platte Canyon school
district participates in the "Safe to Tell" program, which was
initiated after the Columbine shootings (Butler, 2007). The program provides an anonymous hotline where students can report
information regarding potential threats (Butler, 2007).
The Department of Education's guide, Practical Information
on Crisis Planning encourages schools to consider every possible scenario and utilize every resource to help prevent crises
or lessen their impact (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
Some suggestions include providing IDs for students and staff,
conducting hurricane drills and taking an inventory of hazardous materials on school grounds (U.S. Department of Education,
2003).
Preparation
Since not all crises can be prevented, the key to successful
crisis management is preparation. Schools must make sure that
they use all of the resources available: teachers, administrators,
social workers, security officers, and emergency responders
(U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Every responder must be
familiar with the school's procedure for handling an emergency.
EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © 2014 EBSCO Information Services, Inc. • All Rights Reserved
Page 2
Crisis Management
Communication is essential to success. A chain of command
should be established and methods of communication determined. A common vocabulary is essential. A crisis committee of
faculty, parents and students can help better prepare schools for
emergencies (Poland, 2007). This team of people should conduct
research to determine what types of crises could occur in a given
school and make recommendations as to how to handle them
(U.S. Department of Education, 2003). The committee should
also examine major issues from past years and evaluate how they
were handled. This process ensures that schools regularly review
and update procedures (Poland, 2007). The committee should
make sure parent contact information is up to date and establish
connections with local hospitals and emergency service personnel (Poland, 2007).
Crisis Management Materials
Poland (2007) states that the distribution of crisis management
materials is a necessary step in making sure schools are prepared
for emergencies. Materials may include phone trees, floor plans,
evacuation routes, first aid instructions, and health awareness
lists identifying persons with special needs. These materials
should be reviewed carefully with staff and students (Poland,
2007). The Department of Education's Emergency Response and
Crisis Management Technical Assistance Center also advises
schools to provide emergency supply kits to faculty including
items such as flashlights, batteries, contact information, first aids
supplies and instructions ("Taking the Lead," 2007). The Red
Cross recommends schools keep a stock supply of certain items,
especially water, first aid and sanitation supplies in the event of
a crisis ("Taking the Lead," 2007).
Drills & Exercises
Crisis practices should be thorough, repetitive and easy to follow
(McGiboney & Fretwell, 2007). Drills and practice exercises
should be performed regularly to prepare school communities
to effectively respond to crisis if necessary (Dillon, 2007). It
is important to anticipate and prepare for a variety of potential
emergencies from hurricanes to school shootings to terrorist
attacks. William Modzeleski of the Office of Safe and Drug-free
Schools emphasizes the importance of having a consistent crisis
plan that is customized to an area's geographic, economic and
social needs (Black, 2004). A school close to a power plant, for
example, has to factor that element into its crisis management
plan. Emergency plans and procedures cannot follow a one size
fits all model. Variety is essential if lockdown and evacuation
drills are going to be effective (Dillon, 2007).
Response
Depending on the crisis at hand, school response should vary. Successful crisis management plans will have different approaches to
different situations. School officials need to be able to quickly
assess the crisis at hand and choose the best response (U.S.
Department of Education, 2003). Emergency responders should
be notified as soon as possible (U.S. Department of Education,
2003).
Evacuation
Evacuation requires students and faculty to leave the building.
Fires and bomb threats are possible crises that would require
evacuation. Evacuation plans should have designated meeting points outside of the building and should have alternative
locations to shelter students if needed (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Evacuation plans must include accommodations
for students with disabilities (U.S. Department of Education,
2003).
Lockdown
A lockdown requires students and staff to stay inside their classroom or building. A lockdown is employed when there is a threat
outside the classroom or building. Movement is restricted and
students are often instructed to cover and move away from windows (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Possible reasons
for a lockdown are the presence of an intruder or a school shooting. In the event of a crisis that requires an extreme lockdown,
Black (2004) recommends notifying teachers in a way that does
not alarm students, for example sending an email to teachers
and then making an announcement instructing all teachers to
read their email. Teachers should gather students in one place
and account for all of them. Outside entrances should be locked
and buses cancelled. Parents should be notified and local radio
stations should be informed so they can assist in disseminating
information (Black, 2004).
Shelter in Place
The term shelter in place is used when students and staff must
remain in a school location when it is not safe or there is not
enough time to evacuate, such as in the case of a chemical spill
or natural disaster (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
Helping students with physical and developmental disabilities during a crisis should be a high priority and extensively
planned. In the event of an evacuation, students with physical
disabilities will need assistance exiting the building. In some
cases, safe zones or areas of refuge should be used until students can be assisted by emergency responders and evacuated
(U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Schools should make
sure accommodations are also in place for students with English
language deficiencies (Black, 2007).
As soon as a crisis occurs, faculty should account for all students
and do their best to keep students calm. In some cases, faculty
may need to administer first aid or get students to a safe area.
Parents should be notified as soon as it is safe and appropriate to
do so (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). It is also important
to be flexible, as no crisis response will unfold exactly as practiced (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
Recovery
After a school crisis, once students and faculty are safe, the main
priority of schools is restoring a normal learning environment
(Poland, 2007). The Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools states
EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © 2014 EBSCO Information Services, Inc. • All Rights Reserved
Page 3
Crisis Management
that, "returning to the business of learning" helps most students
move forward after a crisis has occurred (U.S. Department of
Education, 2003). Learning can only take place, however, once
the emotional needs of crisis victims have been met.
Crisis Intervention & Debriefing
Schools should enlist the assistance of a Crisis Intervention
Team (CIT) to help students and staff cope with the crisis they
experienced (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Group Crisis
Intervention (GCI) is a form of school-based intervention that
might be used in schools allows students to share feelings, ask
questions and come to terms with traumatic events (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Another form of group counseling,
known as Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD), may be
used after a crisis (Black, 2004). CISD is also used with adults
who have experienced a traumatic event such as war or a violent attack in order to prevent Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome
(Black, 2004). Mental health professionals also should be on
hand to provide individual counseling as needed.
Once school resumes its normal schedule, teachers should provide students with a place to discuss their feelings about what
happened in order to help reduce stress (U.S. Department of
Education, 2003). Teachers should continue to monitor student behavior for signs of distress after a crisis (Poland, 2007).
Additionally, the CIT should conduct follow-up sessions with
students after some time has passed (Poland, 2007). Schools
should consider honoring anniversaries and creating memorials
and other positive ways to cope with crises (U.S. Department of
Education, 2003).
Managing Crises in Post-Secondary Schools
Statistically, campuses of college and universities are some of
the safest places in the country (Kennedy, 2007). Even so, a thorough examination of security measures and crisis management
policies at post-secondary campuses has followed the recent
massacre at Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
in which a student opened fire on several classrooms killing 33
people (Kennedy, 2007). The U.S. Department of Homeland
Security's Office for Domestic Preparedness has since developed some guidelines for crisis management in post-secondary
institutions. The document entitled "Campus Public Safety:
Weapons of Mass Destruction Terrorism Protective Measures"
suggests colleges connect with a local FBI agent as well as state
and local officials in order to ensure communication procedures
are in place (Taking the Lead, 2007). Every campus also should
have onsite emergency personnel, as the biggest focus for postsecondary schools should be deterrence. This includes assessing
risk, using video cameras to monitor school grounds and providing means to lock and secure buildings (Taking the Lead, 2007).
An important element in preventing such tragedies as the Virginia Tech shooting is making sure schools offer mental health
services to their students (Kennedy, 2007). Depression and suicide are common in the college environment so assistance must
be readily available for emotionally fragile students. Teachers
and students also need better education so that they may recognize warning signs and steer potentially violent individuals to get
the help they need (Kennedy, 2007). The sharing of information
among appropriate persons is crucial to keeping post-secondary
campuses safe (Kennedy, 2007).
Viewpoints
Do Practice Drills Cause More Harm Than Help?
One cause for concern is the results of a study conducted by the
International Association of Chiefs of Police in 1999. The study
determined that crisis drills could provide helpful information
to potential student attackers in terms of revealing evacuation
routes, hiding places and areas of refuge (Black 2003). Another
concern with recent initiatives to prepare students for school
threats is that it enhances the public perception that schools are
unsafe. This view may cause students to feel anxious thus negatively affecting the learning environment (Black, 2004).
The good news is that major crises in U.S. schools are in fact
rare (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). The bad news is
that there is minimal research on best practices for school-based
crisis planning. What little research is available on crisis management is not quantifiable. There is little hard evidence to tell
schools what will work in the event of a crisis (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Roseanne Nyiri, the superintendent
of Springfield Township School in Pennsylvania, is not entirely
sold on the virtues of crisis management training. She does not
believe that extra training and security would have prevented the
incident in her district where a 16-year old student walked into
school with a shotgun and killed himself (cited in Butler, 2007).
However, she is convinced that practice lockdown drills did help
students and staff stay calm throughout the crisis (cited in Butler,
2007).
Platte Canyon High School staff and students had undergone
crisis management training and performed several lockdown
drills in 2006, but that did not prevent an armed gunman from
entering the building, taking six hostages, killing one student and
himself (Butler, 2007). Platte Canyon's superintendent, James
Walpole says that more important than training is forming a
close relationship with local law enforcement so that they are
familiar with the school, its students and overall climate (cited
in Butler, 2007).
The Effectiveness of Post-Crisis Counseling
After a crisis occurs at a school, counselors are summoned to help
school faculty and students deal with the emotional aftermath
in a productive way. Many schools have employed a technique
called Critical Incident Stress Debriefing but the benefit of this
type of counseling has been called into question (Black, 2004).
According to Pauline Pagliocca of the Victims of Violence Programs at Harvard University, no evidence exists to prove that
CISD is effective (cited in Black, 2004). In fact, the U.S. Department of Defense, the Department of Justice, the Department of
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Page 4
Crisis Management
Health and Human Services and the American Red Cross have
recently stopped using CISD on trauma victims (Black, 2004).
Conclusion
All school systems inevitably will have to deal with crises, therefore they should plan accordingly. It may be difficult to grasp
the possibility of being affected by a situation like Columbine,
Hurricane Katrina or 9/11, but in the event, it is better to be ready
than caught unprepared (McGiboney & Fretwell, 2007).
After a crisis, it is equally important to evaluate the crisis
response plan that was used in order to determine what practices
were successful and what practices were unsuccessful. Effective
crisis management is an ongoing process that requires constant
activity. Schools and their surroundings are constantly changing; so too should our responses to them. Research and revision
are integral parts of the process that is crisis management (U.S.
Department of Education, 2003).
Terms & Concepts
Crisis Management: Crisis management refers to the policies
and procedures developed for handling emergency situations in
public schools.
Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD): Critical Incident
Stress Debriefing refers to a type of group counseling that may
be used after a traumatic event, such as war or a violent attack, in
order to prevent Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome (Black, 2004).
Crisis Intervention Team (CIT): A Crisis Intervention Team
consists of a group of trained counselors and mental health professionals hired to help schools recover from a crisis. Intervention
in schools allows students to share feelings, ask questions and
dispel rumors about crisis events (Black, 2004).
Emergency Responders: Emergency responder is a general title
given to individuals including law enforcement agents, firefighters, emergency medical technicians and other individuals trained
to respond to crises.
Evacuation: Evacuation is a term used when students and fac-
ulty are required to leave a building. Evacuation is required in
instances such as a fire or bomb threat.
Lockdown: Lockdown is a term used when there is a threat out-
side of the classroom or school building. Movement is restricted
and individuals are advised to cover windows and move away
from them (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
Pandemic: Pandemic refers to a major outbreak of an infectious
disease such as the flu or smallpox.
Shelter in Place: Shelter in place is a term used in response to a
situation in which it is not safe or timely for individuals to evacuate a building (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
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Essay by Jennifer Bouchard, M.Ed.
Jennifer Bouchard is a high school English teacher and writer living in Connecticut. She received her master's of education in English
from Framingham State College in Massachusetts. She currently is pursuing a master of fine arts in professional writing at Western Connecticut State University.
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