THESE QUESTIONS HAVE NO WORD COUNT, JUST ANSWER THEM THOROUGHLY
WITH CREDIBLE REFERENCES
Field Research Example
Using the Internet, search for a journal article that illustrates criminal justice field research. (For
example, the Journal of Criminal Justice offers abstracts for free online; the National Institute of
Justice [NIJ] Journal offers full-text versions of many articles online. For more places to find
articles, search online for “list of criminal justice journals.”) In your discussion post, address the
following:
1.
What role did the researcher assume and why? Do you believe the researcher could have
been successful in another role? Why or why not?
ANSWER:
2.
How was the data gathered and organized? Was the data presented in a clear and concise
manner? If not, what would you have done to make the findings clearer?
ANSWER:
THESE QUESTIONS HAVE NO WORD COUNT, JUST ANSWER THEM THOROUGHLY
WITH CREDIBLE REFERENCES
Field Research Example
3.
We briefly described how Shuryo Fujita sampled street segments and conducted
systematic observations using Google Street View. In a paragraph or so, summarize
another way images from Google Street View can be used as a source of field
observation data. What are some advantages and disadvantages of this data source?
Describe one example of a concept that can be readily measured with Goggle Street View
and one example of a concept that cannot.
ANSWER:
4.
The Center for Urban Pedagogy (CUP) sponsors a variety of activities to educate New
York City students about urban policy and to involve students in field research projects.
One group of students produced a booklet, titled Field Guide to Federalism: Bushwick,
Brooklyn, NY. In describing their research, students wrote: “We started small and began
by looking for signs of federalism in our wallets. Then we took to the streets looking for
some evidence of what federal, state, and city government looks like in Bushwick”
(Center for Urban Pedagogy 2011, 1). Download the booklet at the CUP website. Briefly
describe how the students' research involves techniques of field observation described in
this chapter. By the way, CUP projects address a variety of issues in criminal and
juvenile justice. For example, see the poster by Danica Navgorodoff, “I got arrested!
Now what?” (Navgorodoff 2010) at the following website:
http://www.courtinnovation.org/research/i-got-arrested-now-what.
ANSWER:
THESE QUESTIONS SHOULD BE ½-1 PAGE IN LENGTH ONCE THOROUGHLY
ANSWERED
As you read the supplemental reading (ATTACHED), think about how it can be applied to this
lesson’s textbook reading on qualitative interviewing and field observation. In a new Word
document, please write a 1-page journal entry that addresses the following:
5.
What type of threat is posed by cybercrime? How does cybercrime fit into the criminal
justice categories you have learned about previously?
ANSWER:
6.
What research methods were used in the studies mentioned in the supplemental reading?
ANSWER:
7.
How is cybercrime best studied? How do these data collection methods compare to the
ones you are planning to use in your own research study? Do they change your
perspective on your own research plans in any way? Explain.
ANSWER:
This article is published under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 licence. If
you have any queries about republishing please contact us. Please check individual images for
licensing details.
https://www.opendemocracy.net/opensecurity/philippa-garson/cybercriminals-find-wonderland-indeveloping-countries
Cybercriminals find wonderland in developing countries
Philippa Garson 10 December 2013
With increased Internet access and smartphone use across Latin America, Asia and Africa,
organized crime networks are exploiting vulnerabilities to extend their reach - sometimes with
violent results. What's the impact inside and outside cyberspace?
Traditionally associated with affluent, hi-tech countries, cybercrime remains low on the priority list
for donors and development agencies. But some organized crime policy experts believe this is a
‘head in the sand’ approach, given the rapid spread of Internet connectivity in the developing
world and the increasingly global workings of organized crime.
“Development actors should be looking more seriously at cybercrime and its impact on
development goals. It’s a difficult act to sell though because donors don't see it as having a direct
impact on the poor,” says researcher Camino Kavanagh, from New York University’s Center on
International Cooperation, who has conducted research on cybercrime in Ghana.
Most projected Internet growth is expected to occur in Latin America, Africa and Asia over the
next decade and it is tech-savvy young people – those in the burgeoning ‘youth bulge’
demographic - who will be harnessing it. Currently, 2.7 billion people around the world are online
(two thirds of whom are under the age of 35) and with 4G or wireless connectivity rolling out at a
rapid pace in developing countries, that number will swell to 4.5 billion in five years time. Current
users are already vulnerable to cybercrime but the bulk of newcomers, uneducated on the need
for cybersecurity, will be even more vulnerable.
Furthermore many of them will be unemployed young people, for whom cybercrime offers a
tantalizingly quick, easy and low-risk way to make money. Already, cybercrime in developed
countries is relatively low risk, given that it occurs in virtual space with no physical link between
the criminal and crime. But in those countries where legal frameworks are not yet in place, and
where there is no capacity to enforce them, the possibilility of detection is even lower.
A wide-ranging report on organized crime in developing countries, co-authored by Kavanagh,
shows that there is already a high prevalence of cybercrime and sakawa – Internet-based fraud
combined with traditional Ghanaian practices – in Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon. According to
the report, young Ghanaians from Accra suburbs, including Nima, Maamobi and Kotobaabi, are
earning quick, easy money from Internet scams involving identity fraud, electronic and credit card
fraud and other schemes. The trend is spreading quickly through Ghana and Nigeria: “In recent
years popular media, radio, TV series and cinema both in Ghana and Nigeria have often glorified
these forms of criminal activity, attracting a huge body of unemployed youth,” reads the report.
But research shows that cybercrime is not simply confined to youths acting more or less alone.
Cybercrime 'dons' who control regional and country-specific teams operating across the West
African region are more organized than initially thought and can “far outpace state operatives in
terms of tech-saviness and capacity to adapt to, and adopt, new technology, software and
malware to further their interests” reads the report. More recently, 419 scams in West Africa
“have spread from national-level operations to regional syndicated interfaces, with foreign
nationals relocating their activities to neighboring countries”.
Ghana, along with many other developing countries, has passed legislation to outlaw cybercrime
and granted police the powers to act against it, but in the face of greater Internet and smartphone
use, limited policing resources and a “corruptible bureaucracy”, the challenges will most likely
mount. “In a sub-region as volatile as West Africa, where several countries are emerging from or
immersed in conflict, and where organized crime, trafficking, money-laundering and terrorism
increasing nurture each other, a lax approach to the prevalence of cybercrime vis a vis other
forms of illicit activity may turn into a bigger problem in the years to come,” concludes the report.
There is a misplaced perception that the cybercriminal is a 'geeky' computer wizard gone
crooked. At a recent conference of the Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime,
McAfee vice president Raj Samani described how easy it is to commit online crimes with little or
no technical expertise, given the vast array of dubious services for hire at relatively low cost.
Cybercrime firms that supply stolen identification, hacking and code-breaking software and
encryption devices brazenly advertise their services and, like legitimate online retailers, provide
hotlines and live chat support. Tutorials on YouTube on how to commit basic fraud are freely
available and criminal gangs are offering webinars on how to evade arrest, said Samani. Even
assassins can be found on Facebook. “We talk about sharing ideas but they are already doing it,”
he said.
Other services for hire, often relatively inexpensive, include language translation services,
spamming, hacking, malware, password cracking services and DDOS attacks (distributed denialof-service attacks) which involve shutting down sites by overwhelming them with information.
There are also 'bulletproof' hosting services that cybercriminals can hide behind.
In the last decade the number of Internet users has increased 10 times in Latin America and 15
times in Central America, according to a report on cybercrime in the region by The SecDev
Foundation and Igarape Institute. “Latin America’s cybercrime problem is a direct consequence of
the exponential growth of cyberspace across the region. Indeed, the Internet and related social
media tools have not just empowered citizens to exercise their rights, but also enabled and
extended the reach of gangs, cartels and organized criminals,” reads the report.
Commented one of its authors, Robert Muggah: “When crime goes online it can generate serious
challenges for poorer populations, many of whom are increasingly online. When fraud and identify
theft occurs, banks inexorably transfer the costs on to customers, including those with modestsized accounts. Meanwhile, cartels and gangs are using digital means to extend their control over
poorer communities, many of whom are avid producers and consumers of social media. They can
intimidate and recruit new members more easily.”
There have been horrific cases of people being targeted and killed in Mexico by the Zetas narco
gang because of their online criticism. Gangsters are also using social media to track down,
threaten and murder their opponents. And they are using the Internet to market and sell
drugs. Silk Road, an online “eBay” for buying and selling drugs whose mastermind Ross Ulbricht
was arrested in San Francisco and has now been accused of six murders-for-hire and denied
bail, is another such site that has facilitated anonymous drug deals using bitcoins, a virtual
currency.
Then Interpol president Khoo Bon Hui said in May last year that most cybercrime is perpetuated
by organized international gangs and that its estimated cost is greater than that of the combined
proceeds of drug trafficking. Some bandy the figure of $1 trillion about but most experts
acknowledge that it is impossible to put a price tag on a vast array of hard-to-define crimes that
occur in virtual space.
While the middle and upper income countries currently bear the brunt of cybercrime, this is true
for developing countries in this category too – Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Columbia, Costa Rica,
Dominican Republic and Mexico in Latin America, for example; or Nigeria and Ghana in West
Africa. Brazil is considered the hub of cybercrime in the region and cybercriminals are now using
the same modus operandi as their counterparts in Eastern European. And the victims of
cybercrime tend to be individuals and small and middle-sized companies, not the banks and large
corporations that have the capacity to invest large resources on securing their online systems.
In countries where detection and controls are lax or non-existent, cybercriminals are finding
havens to operate with impunity. They are “landing in wonderland, with no-one to challenge
them”, says Troels Oerting, head of Europol’s European Cybercrime Center. While the benefits of
large-scale rollouts in developing countries are huge, so too are the risks, he says. “Many more
people will be coming onto the Internet at a time when criminality online has matured.”
The European Union has set aside $60-million for training programs, much of which will be used
to build developing countries’ capacity to resist cybercrime. His unit is witnessing a steep rise in
various forms of cybercrime, including online pornography that often targets the most vulnerable
– women and children. While the general public tends to be blasé about the risks of using
unsecured devices, they are more inclined to mobilize around crimes like child pornography,
Oerting told the Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime conference last month.
In his view, the need for co-operation on a global level is paramount. “We are good at talking on
an international level but not so good at acting,” he says. Political sensitivities between developed
and developing countries aside, there are many other issues that thwart co-operation, not least
the vexed question of whether cybercrime includes all the traditional crimes that have migrated
online as well as an ever-growing list of new crimes conducted in virtual space. According to the
report on Latin America, “The absence of a comprehensive and consensus-based framework for
legislating on cybercrime has resulted in a global patchwork of responses and loopholes open to
exploitation.”
The Budapest Convention, which attempts to harmonize national laws against cybercrime, find
ways to investigate and clamp down on it and promote international co-operation, has been
ratified by 40 countries and signed by a further 11. But the process to get everyone on board has
been slow since it formed in 2001. So far, both Russia and China have stayed away and although
South Africa has signed it, no African country has yet ratified it.
Purchase answer to see full
attachment