Critical Thinking Brookfield `identifies four components of the critical thinking process. 1 Identifying and challenging assumptions: much of our thinking and behaviour is based on unexamined assumptions which we take for granted and of which we may hardly be aware. One aim of critical thinking is to unearth these hidden assumptions, to check their validity or plausibility, and to modify them if they are found wanting. 2 Creating contextual awareness: this involves becoming aware of how the social, political and historical circumstances of the times in which we live conditions our ideas and assumptions. The way we think and act is not simply a natural and inevitable given but is a product of historical and social circumstances. 3 Identifying alternatives: contextual awareness opens up the possibility of identifying or imagining different contexts in which things are done differently. Alternatives are examined to see if they can be adopted. 4 Developing reflective scepticism: awareness of alternatives encourages a sceptical attitude towards fixed and final beliefs, ultimate explanations and universal truths. Accepted ideas and practices are not regarded as inevitable, necessary or above questioning. Critical thinkers are unwilling to accept that authoritative pronouncements are automatically beyond rational justification and challenge. They believe, as Carr and Kemmis (1986) have put it, that someone who claims to know 'must convince us that their ideas survive critical examination: that they can be justified, that they can survive attempts to show them to be false, and that they are not incredible.' (from Thomas A.B. 1993 p.10) THOMAS, A.B. (1993) Controversies in Management London: Routledge (658 THO) Macro Organizational Behaviour (MGMT2384) Dr Vurain Tabvuma September 11, 2017 Remember… • Ask me questions! • Happy to meet with you! • Ask me questions!!! Today’s Session • • • • • • Announcements Define Groups, Teams Group Development Group Structure Group Cohesiveness Social Loafing Announcements Announcements • Office hours. • Submit in-lecture exercise to next class. • Critical essay due soon. Part 2: Groups and Teamwork Group Group Team How do teams differ from groups? Team Why is group membership important? • Groups exert influence on us. • Groups provide a context in which we are able to exert influence on others. Types of Groups • Formal work groups are groups that are established by organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals. – Typically manager and employees, committees, project teams, organizations have formal interlocked work groups. • Informal groups are groups that emerge naturally in response to the common interests of organizational members. – Seldom sanctioned by organization, can help or hurt organization. Group Development • Groups are complex social devices. • They require a fair amount of negotiation and trial-and-error before individual members begin to function as a true group. • How do groups develop? Stages of group Development Forming • • Group members try to orient themselves by “testing the waters.” The situation is often ambiguous, and members are aware of their dependency on each other. Storming • • • Conflict often emerges at this stage. Confrontation and criticism occur as members determine whether they will go along with the way the group is developing. Sorting out roles and responsibilities is often at issue. Norming • • • • Members resolve the issues that provoked the storming, and they develop social consensus. Compromise is often necessary. Norms are agreed on and the group becomes more cohesive. Information and opinions flow freely. Performing • • The group devotes its energies toward task accomplishment. Achievement, creativity, and mutual assistance are prominent themes at this stage. Adjourning • • Rites and rituals that affirm the group’s previous successful development are common (such as ceremonies and parties). Members often exhibit emotional support for each other. Critique Does this work the same for all groups? Critique Punctuated Equilibrium Model • A model of group development that describes how groups with deadlines are affected by their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions. – Equilibrium means stability. • Stretches of group stability punctuated – Phase 1 - by a critical first meeting, – A midpoint change in group activity, – Phase 2 - and a rush to task completion. Punctuated Equilibrium Model • • Does this sequence of events sound familiar to you? Implications for managing teams? Punctuated Equilibrium Model Implications for managing teams? Group Structure • refers to the characteristics of the stable social organization of a group - the way a group is “put together.” – – – – – – Group size Member diversity Group norms Roles Status Cohesiveness Group Size and Satisfaction • Members of larger groups consistently report less satisfaction with group membership than those in smaller groups. – The chance to work on and develop friendships decrease as size increases. – Larger groups might prompt conflict and dissension. – As size increases, the time available for verbal participation by each member decreases. – Many people are inhibited about participating in larger groups. – In large groups, individual members identify less easily with the success and accomplishments of the group. Group Size and Performance • Do large groups perform tasks better than small groups? Key considerations Process Losses • • • • As groups performing tasks get bigger, they tend to suffer from process losses. Process losses are performance difficulties that stem from the problems of motivating and coordinating larger groups. Problems of communication and decision making increase with size. Actual performance = Potential performance – Process losses Group Size and Performance • Depends on type of task – Additive tasks • Group performance depends on sum of individual performance (e.g., building a house). Potential group performance increases with group size. – Disjunctive tasks • Group performance is depends on best group member performance (e.g., research team). Potential group performance increases with group size, higher probability that the group includes a superior performer. – Conjunctive tasks • Group performance limited by poorest group member’s performance (e.g, assembly line). Potential and actual performance of conjunctive tasks will decrease as group size increases. • As size increases, the probability of including a weak link in the group goes up. Diversity of Group Membership • • • Diverse groups sometimes perform better on certain tasks such as those that require creativity and innovation. In general, any negative effects of “surface diversity” in age, gender, or race seem to wear off over time. “Deep diversity” in attitudes toward work or how to accomplish a goal can badly damage cohesiveness. Group Norms • Social norms are collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behaviour of each other. – codes of conduct that specify the standards against which we evaluate the appropriateness of behaviour, mostly inconscious – Norms provide regularity and predictability to behaviour. – Norms develop to regulate behaviours that are at least marginally important to their supporters. – Less deviation is accepted from norms that concern more important behaviours. Group Norms • Some types of norms that exist in most organizations and affect the behaviour of members include: – Dress norms – Reward allocation norms (equity, equality, reciprocity, social responsibility) – Performance norms Roles • • • Positions in a group that have a set of expected behaviours attached to them. Roles represent “packages” of norms that apply to particular group members. There are two basic kinds of roles in organizations: – Assigned roles • Formally prescribed by an organization as a means of dividing labour and responsibility to facilitate task achievement. – Emergent roles • Roles that develop naturally to meet the social-emotional needs of group members or to assist in formal job accomplishment. Role Ambiguity • • Role ambiguity exists when the goals of one’s job or the methods of performing it are unclear. There are a variety of elements that can lead to role ambiguity: – Organizational factors – The role sender – The focal person • The most frequent outcomes are job stress, dissatisfaction, reduced organizational commitment, lowered performance, and intentions to quit. Role Conflict • • Role conflict exists when an individual is faced with incompatible role expectations. There are four types of role conflict: – Intrasender role conflict – Intersender role conflict – Interrole conflict – Person-role conflict Status • • • • Status in the rank, social position, or prestige accorded to group members. It represents the group’s evaluation of a member. What is evaluated depends on the status system in question. All organizations have both formal and informal status systems. Group Cohesiveness • • • Refers to the degree to which a group is especially attractive to its members. Members want to stay in the group and they describe the group in favourable terms. Cohesiveness is a relative, rather than absolute, property of groups. Factors Influencing Cohesiveness Social Loafing • • The tendency to withhold physical or intellectual effort when performing a group task, motivation problem. Social loafing has two different forms: – The free rider effect – The sucker effect Social Loafing • Same for everyone? Summary • • • • • Define Groups, Teams Group Development Group Structure Group Cohesiveness Social Loafing Thank you!!! Any Further Questions? References • Johns, G., & Saks, A. M. (2017). Organizational behaviour: Understanding and managing life at work. Toronto: Pearson Education.
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