32 MOTIVATION m m Fi 20 lai m tw int tio sat ne Frederick Herzberg and his colleagues (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyder- man, 1968) developed the dual-factor theory, illustrated in Figure 2.4, which suggests that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not related—but rather, they are affected by different needs and motives. Herzberg contended that hygiene or preventive factors do not pro- duce motivation, but can prevent motivation from occurring. Preventive factors, such as money, status, security, working conditions, work policies, supervision, and interpersonal relations are sometimes viewed as environ- mental influences. If a manager attends to these items, he or she helps keep employees from being highly dissatisfied. However, job-related motivators such as achievement, challenging work, increased responsibility, recogni- tion, advancement, and personal growth provide true motivation when combined with hygiene factors. Herzberg's theory has not always been supported (Griffin & Moorhead, 1986), so media managers should note the important exceptions and nuances within the satisfaction concept. For example, a major, national, 2002 study (Weaver, Beam, Brown- lee, Voakes, & Wilhoit, 2007) found that journalists differ by medium and by individual characteristics as to how satisfied they were. Journalists at news magazines were below the average, while those at radio stations and news services reported above-average satisfaction; men reported more satisfaction than women, while—in terms of age—those 25 to 34 reported less satisfaction than their older and younger peers. Also, higher job autonomy and perceived newsroom influence were more likely to increase journalists' job satisfaction (Weaver et al., pp. 108–109) Finally, recall from Figure 2.3 that goals also factor; the same survey showed that of the key goals that the journalists perceived important to upper wo 19 effe me per рар and face wo are mal susp. fied viso Motivators (Recognition, Achievement) accu affec whe ingt in cr is de orga confi Dissatisfaction Neutrality Satisfaction roon Hygiene Factors (Salary, Security, Interaction) Two-factor relationship between satisfaction & dissatisfaction Traditional assumption about satisfaction & dissatisfaction of in diffic grape perfo Figure 2.4 The Two-Factor Theory of Motivation MOTIVATION ntive 31 Behavior Performance ction -hich aug- cacy Goal Value of goal Ives, nake Probability behavior will result in performance Probability performance will result in goal attainment Figure 2.3 Expectancy Theory iva- her ably her n. ag- ing her ro- ing cey ney ty. m- ng а raise, or if she's unsure that the extra work will result in the raise, or if she places little or no value on getting a raise. Meanwhile, goal-setting theory says that employees behave the way they do because it helps them reach their goals (Locke, 1968), with goals’ difficulty and specific nature particularly important. For example, plan- ning to win an Emmy Award sufficiently motivates many TV writers to achieve excellence in writing. But if a new writer sets such a goal in her first year of work, the goal can be too difficult and lead to frustration. If the writer modifies and specifies the goal (e.g., winning an Emmy in 5 years or attempting to have a certain number of ideas or scripts produced in one year), then she enhances the chance for honest evaluation of the goal and proper assessment of her writing. It is important for her manager to know what goals she has set and how that affects her behavior. In the case of our new recruit, the recruit needs to know the edi- tor's goals, assess their difficulty, and identify their realistic qualities. This helps the recruit know whether and how to help the editor meet those goals and develop strategies to do so. If the recruit believes the goals are set too high, he or she should discuss them with the editor to help adjust the editor's expectations. Managers, meanwhile, also may look at job-employee interaction through the lens of job satisfaction. For example, most managers assume that a satisfied employee is a productive one. Yet sometimes satisfaction does not cause performance it may be the reverse. An employee who performs his or her job is a satisfied employee (Greene, 1972). So know- ing how employee satisfaction works will help managers more completely understand motivation. Alderfer (1972) stressed the role of frustration in terms of unmet needs. Recognizing the frustration factor implies that a manager can react to the frustrating item and help satisfy the employee. ns a do on at -), t- er у ce positively MOTIVATION 29 With operant conditioning (Skinner, 1971), depicted in Figure 2.2, reinforced behavior is repeated voluntarily and behavior not reinforced is less likely to be repeated. Reinforcement can be positive (as when the news director rewards the anchor for the desired behavior of producing high ratings by giving him or her a raise), negative (as when the news director rewards a quiet producer who keeps legitimate complaints about the newsroom's functioning to himself by increasing his pay), punishing (as when the news director rewards the assignment editor's undesired complaining with the negative consequence of firing him), or extinc- tive (as when the news director eliminates the unwanted complaining by not rewarding it). Regardless of how the news director attempts to condition the employee, or she should be aware of options and their consequences. A modern-day, managerial twist on Skinner's thesis (Haidt, 2006) suggests that-in rapidly changing environments-obtaining the desired behavior on the employee's part also requires a series of steps. Using the metaphor of an elephant and its rider, this concept views the rider as controlling the reins and in control-except when the elephant disagrees! The key to getting somewhere or having the elephant doing what want-or, organizationally speaking, accomplishing a task-is knowing what drives the elephant toward that task. In the case of change-or resistance to it—the rider must understand that the elephant is the one that has the energy and drive to make the change effort succeed. Also, the rider must know which direction in which to point the elephant; so rider and elephant are both key to the attempt to change (Heath & Heath, 2010). So, obviously, motivation often relies on employees' beliefs rather than on what is observable or true. While the previous theories mainly focus on how managers (and other factors) manipulate motives, suggest- ing an element of control, people can influence their own drives via their beliefs of personal efficacy (Bandura, 1997, p. 2): Unless people believe you - Consequences Stimulus Response Positive Consequence = Reinforcement Negative Consequence = Nonreinforcement Fiori 26 MOTIVATION t ( tia or cer weakness, either. How can she motivate others to improve, she wonders, without seeming as if she's trying to manipulate someone into doing what she wants them to do and without a budget that allows raises or travel for training? Also, she doesn't want to be seen as taking advantage of the specter of looming, additional budget cuts. At first glance, however, the latest recruit isn't thinking motivation so much as wanting to blend in. And yet peer pressure and success them- selves are motivating forces. The young journalist doesn't realize that motivation involves more than something you want to do. In fact, moti- vation may at times seem to constitute who you are. Media managing (and understanding media managing) requires knowing, comprehending, and appropriately analyzing complex human behavior. Motivation is complicated, and managers must understand it in context (Fink, 1993), if they are to successfully deal with employees. The media workplace with its rapid, cyclical nature of change and production often presents unusual, demanding, and sometimes chaotic circumstances for managing. The media manager needs a strategic framework for view- ing motivation and motivational opportunities. This chapter emphasizes motivation in terms of how a typical edi- tor or news director regards it, with many of the media-specific circum- stances. The chapter examines media employees' motivation from two perspectives: as individuals and as groups, while exploring the applica- tion of various theories. A discussion of common motivational concerns and current trends in the media workplace follows. rep for being 4 emplo a repc there could making ee's nee conside Son tive emp chapter's know wh carrying MOTIVATING INDIVIDUALS Common Needs and Influences Mass media require many tasks of their employees. A TV newsroom requires anchors to write and report, think critically, be skeptical (even cynical), aggressive, curious, know how to manage time, coordinate and collaborate, and develop a sense of community and civic duty . In the online world, the work is faster, requires more with less, and mandates no sacrifice of quality while under endless pressure to publish 24/7. In doing so, employees experience emotions that may range from humor or compassion to outright apathy. Therefore, goals are imposed by the mere fact of being hired. Often managers can simply look at motivation as a basic process needs (in this example, job requirements) producing drives or motivos that then lead to goals being achieved. Abraham Maslow (1954) classified needs into a five-tier hierarchy: (a) physiological (food and water, sleep, values and lack the ti ally try to employees. Motivat previously others (powe (1961) develd usually domir recognize all s employee. For have a need fo on a recruit 'of impact?). A rep her complaints 30 MOTIVATION gaug- efficacy they can produce desired effects by their actions, they have little incentive to produce a desired effect (not to be confused with self-esteem, which involves judgments of self-worth). Managers might use caution in ing such efficacy, however, since editors show higher levels of than their subordinates (Reinardy, 2011b). Reporters can believe in their abilities and still dislike themselves, although reporters usually develop abilities or perform tasks that make them feel good about themselves. Self-efficacy beliefs regulate motiva . tion by determining goals and the results a person expects for his or her efforts. For example, a reporter with fairly high self-efficacy probably would be more willing to try to meet a challenge to improve his or her skills. Such performance concerns will be discussed in the next section. S ti d n a а yo W at ye pr w to he Differences and Job Performance Aside from job requirements and the needs they generate, manag- ers also should note the interaction between job and employee. Doing so will broaden the manager's perspective and thus provide another decision-making tool. First, managers should know the motivation pro- cess. Three theories—equity theory, expectancy theory, and goal-setting theory-address this idea. In equity theory (Adams, 1963), the key assumption is that inequity is a motivator. When employees feel they have been unfairly treated, they will attempt to achieve a sense of equity. If a reporter's unhappiness stems from inequity (let's say she sees com- parable reporters earning more), she could become happier by changing how much she works, attempting to increase her pay (or asking for a raise), reassessing how she compares herself, distorting the comparisons to make herself compare more favorably, or quitting. Expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964) asserts that people will act in a way that will produce the desired outcome if given the freedom to do so. Figure 2.3 depicts how motivation is the product of the interaction among expectancy (a person's belief that working hard will enable vari- ous work goals to be achieved), instrumentality (a person's belief that various work-related outcomes will occur as a result of doing the job), and valence (the value the person assigns to those work-related out tically reduced whenever expectancy, instrumentality, comes). The motivational appeal of a reward (e.g., higher salary) is dras- or alone nears zero. For example , a reporter's motivation to earn a phe raise will be low if she feels she cannot do the work needed to earn the go set the thr tha doc per ing und need or valence together Posi say to the new In the newsroom? How much should the veteran mention the friend that the new recruit replaced? CASE 2.3 MOTIVATING CONVERGENCE I “Convergence” is coming to your newspaper newsroom. You are a city editor and you've been asked to prepare yourself and your staff. These are the issues you face: 1. As part of the convergence process, your newsroom will be partnered with KRUM, a local TV station. You have always felt the station had an objectivity problem, and you've made it no secret among your reporting staff. 2. Another component of convergence will mean integrating the station's online staff with the paper's online crew. Broadcasting's bread and butter is immediacy, breaking news, delivering content as it happens, but you've got to figure how to make the merger work and whether to keep the two staffs in separate buildings. CASE 2.2 OLD KID IN TOWN Put yourself in the shoes of a friend of the person that the new recruit (mentioned at the beginning of this chapter) replaced. Assume you have been in the newsroom for 20 years, working your way up from cop-beat reporter to the same level of job occupied by your now-departed friend. The only difference between you is that you weren't afraid to shoot video and create podcasts. Deona Laurent, the manager who's been eyeing the new recruit from behind the glass wall, has been working in the news- room 5 years. She is the go-between for you and the metro editor. She was a local government reporter prior to her current position, which she has held for 9 months and in which-unfortunately, she often has been argumentative when it comes to the stories you file. Often she'll make you go back and ask additional questions or order you to write a blog item on top of everything else. The metro editor doesn't know any of this. You were an editor at your college paper, so you think you know a little bit of how she feels, but you have your own worries concerning this place.