What is the importance of Longs horizontal power and Gaus People and Place?

User Generated

AvprQnan

Humanities

Description

Please be relevant to the textbook attached and explain it by 6-10 sentences with an example individually.

Unformatted Attachment Preview

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION NINTH EDITION Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Concepts and Cases NINTH EDITION Richard J. Stillman II University of Colorado Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Public Administration: Concepts and Cases, Ninth Edition Richard J. Stillman II Editor in Chief: PJ Boardman Senior Publisher: Suzanne Jeans Executive Acquiring Sponsoring Editor: Carolyn Merrill Acquiring Sponsoring Editor: Edwin Hill © 2010 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying, recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, Web distribution, information networks, or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Development Manager: Jeffrey Greene Assistant Editor: Kate MacLean Editorial Assistant: Matthew GiGangi Senior Media Editor: Laura Hildebrand Associate Development Editor, Media: Caitlin Holroyd Marketing Manager: Amy Whitaker Marketing Coordinator: Josh Hendrick Marketing Communications Manager: Heather Baxley Senior Managing Editor: Kathy Brown Senior Content Project Manager: Aileen Mason Art Director: Linda Helcher Manufacturing Buyer: Miranda Klapper Senior Rights Acquisition Account Manager: Katie Huha Text Researcher: Michael Farmer Production Service: Macmillan Publishing Solutions Senior Photo Manager: Jennifer Meyer Dare Photo Researcher: Stacey Dong For product information and technology assistance, contact us at Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706 For permission to use material from this text or product, submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions. Further permissions questions can be emailed to permissionrequest@cengage.com. Library of Congress Control Number: 2009922313 ISBN 13: 978-0-618-99301-7 ISBN 10: 0-618-99301-0 Wadsworth 20 Channel Center Street Boston, MA 02210 USA Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. For your course and learning solutions, visit www.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.ichapters.com. Cover Designer: Jennifer Roycroft Cover Image: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, photograph by Carol M. Highsmith, LC-DIG-pplot-13824-01817 Compositor: Macmillan Publishing Solutions Printed in Canada 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 13 12 11 10 09 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Contents Topical Contents Preface 1 xi xxi The Search for the Scope and Purpose of Public 1 Administration Reading 1.1: Introduction The Study of Administration Woodrow Wilson 1 6 Reading 1.2: Introduction 16 The Study of Public Administration in the United States Richard J. Stillman II 17 Case Study 1: Introduction 30 The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped John Bartlow Martin 31 PART ONE The Pattern of Public Administration in America: Its Environment, Structure, and People 48 2 The Formal Structure: The Concept of Bureaucracy Reading 2: Introduction Bureaucracy 54 Max Weber Case Study 2: Introduction How Kristin Died 64 George Lardner, Jr. 3 50 50 63 The General Environment: The Concept of Ecology Reading 3: Introduction 78 The Ecology of Public Administration John M. Gaus 78 80 v Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. vi Contents Case Study 3: Introduction 85 William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Terry L. Cooper and Thomas A. Bryer 4 The Political Environment: The Concept 97 of Administrative Power Reading 4: Introduction Power and Administration Norton E. Long 97 99 Case Study 4: Introduction 104 The Columbia Accident 105 Maureen Hogan Casamayou 5 Intergovernmental Relations (IGR): The Concept 117 of Opportunistic Federalism Reading 5: Introduction 117 From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism Tim Conlan 120 Case Study 5: Introduction 136 Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Susan Rosegrant 6 Internal Dynamics: The Concept of the Informal Group Reading 6: Introduction 146 Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company Elton Mayo 149 Case Study 6: Introduction 158 American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center William Langewiesche 7 160 Key Decision Makers Inside Public Administration: The Concept of Competing Bureaucratic Subsystems Reading 7: Introduction Inside Public Bureaucracy Richard J. Stillman II 146 171 171 172 Case Study 7: Introduction 194 The Decision to Go to War with Iraq James P. Pfiffner 195 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Contents vii PART TWO The Multiple Functions of Public Administrators: Their Major Activities, Responsibilities, and Roles 210 8 Decision Making: The Concept of Incremental 212 Choice Reading 8: Introduction 212 The Science of “Muddling Through” Charles E. Lindblom 215 Case Study 8: Introduction 226 How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Michael Grunwald and Susan B. Glasser 9 Administrative Communication: The Concept 239 of Its Professional Centrality Reading 9: Introduction 239 Administrative Communication (Or How to Make All the Rest Work): The Concept of Its Professional Centrality 242 James L. Garnett Case Study 9: Introduction 257 The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response Susan Rosegrant 10 Public Management: The Concept of Collaborative 283 Processes Reading 10: Introduction 283 Collaboration Processes: Inside the Black Box Ann Marie Thomson and James L. Perry 286 Case Study 10: Introduction 301 Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? Abhijit Jain, Munir Mandviwalla, and Rajiv D. Banker 11 259 302 Public Personnel Motivation: The Concept of the Public 318 Service Culture Reading 11: Introduction The Public Service Culture Lois Recascino Wise 318 320 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. viii Contents Case Study 11: Introduction 330 Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? Deborah Sontag 12 331 Public Budgeting: The Concept of Budgeting 343 as Political Choice Reading 12: Introduction 343 The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Irene S. Rubin 360 Case Study 12: Introduction Death of a Spy Satellite Program 361 Philip Taubman 13 Administrative Reorganization: The Concept 372 of the Tides of Reform Reading 13: Introduction 372 The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work Paul C. Light Case Study 13: Introduction Expectations 392 Katherine Boo 375 391 PART THREE Enduring and Unresolved Relationships: Central Value Questions, Issues, and Dilemmas of Contemporary Public Administration 408 14 The Relationship Between Politics and Administration: 410 The Concept of Issue Networks Reading 14: Introduction 410 Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment Hugh Heclo 413 Case Study 14: Introduction 422 Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Laura S. Sims Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Contents 15 ix The Relationship Between Bureaucracy and the Public Interest: The Concept of Administrative 438 Responsibility Reading 15: Introduction 438 Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility 441 Carl J. Friedrich Administrative Responsibility in Democratic Government 447 Herman Finer Case Study 15: Introduction 452 Torture and Public Policy 454 James P. Pfiffner 16 The Relationship Between Ethics and Public Administration: The Concept of Competing 469 Ethical Obligations Reading 16: Introduction 469 Public Administration and Ethics: A Prologue to a Preface Dwight Waldo Case Study 16: Introduction 482 George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA Richard D. White Jr. Name Index Subject Index 472 483 495 501 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Topical Contents Budget and Finance Reading 1.2: The Study of Public Administration in the United States Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? 302 Reading 12: The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Case Study 12: Death of a Spy Satellite Program 361 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 17 Bureaucracy and its Accountability Reading 1.1: The Study of Administration 6 Reading 1.2: The Study of Public Administration in the United States 17 Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped 31 Reading 2: Bureaucracy 54 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Reading 8: The Science of “Muddling Through” 215 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Reading 9: Administrative Communication (Or How to Make All the Rest Work): The Concept of Its Professional Centrality 242 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response Reading 10: Collaboration Processes: Inside the Black Box 286 Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? 302 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Reading 13: The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work 375 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Reading 15.1: Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility 441 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Reading 16: Public Administration and Ethics: A Prologue to a Preface 472 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 259 xi Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. xii Topical Contents Citizens’ Rights and Participation Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped 31 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Reading 6: Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company 149 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Reading 15: Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility 441 Reading 16: Public Administration and Ethics: A Prologue to a Preface 472 Communications in Administration Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped 31 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Reading 6: Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company 149 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Reading 8: The Science of “Muddling Through” 215 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Reading 9: Administrative Communication (Or How to Make All the Rest Work): The Concept of Its Professional Centrality 242 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Reading 10: Collaboration Processes: Inside the Black Box 286 Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? 302 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Topical Contents xiii Congress, State Legislatures, County Boards, or City Councils Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped 31 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Reading 12: The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Case Study 12: Death of a Spy Satellite Program 361 Reading 13: The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Reading 15.1: Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility 441 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 375 Decision Making Reading 3: The Ecology of Public Administration 80 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Reading 6: Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company 149 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Reading 8: The Science of “Muddling Through” 215 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Reading 9: Administrative Communication (Or How to Make All the Rest Work): The Concept of Its Professional Centrality 242 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Reading 10: Collaboration Processes: Inside the Black Box 286 Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? 302 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Reading 12: The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Case Study 12: Death of a Spy Satellite Program 361 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. xiv Topical Contents Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Reading 16: Public Administration and Ethics: A Prologue to a Preface 472 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 Ethical and Moral Issues of Public Administration Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped 31 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Reading 9: Administrative Communication (Or How to Make All the Rest Work): The Concept of Its Professional Centrality 242 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Reading 16: Public Administration and Ethics: A Prologue to a Preface 472 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 Health and Human Services Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Reading 6: Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company 149 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 31 Implementation Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped Reading 3: The Ecology of Public Administration 80 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 31 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Topical Contents Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Reading 6: Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company 149 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Reading 10: Collaboration Processes: Inside the Black Box 286 Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? 302 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Reading 13: The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 xv 375 Intergovernmental Programs and Policies Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Reading 12: The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 31 National Defense and International Relations Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Case Study 12: Death of a Spy Satellite Program 361 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 Organizational Behavior Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped Reading 2: Bureaucracy 54 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Reading 3: The Ecology of Public Administration 80 31 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. xvi Topical Contents Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Reading 6: Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company 149 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Reading 8: The Science of “Muddling Through” 215 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Reading 9: Administrative Communication (Or How to Make All the Rest Work): The Concept of Its Professional Centrality 242 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Reading 10: Collaboration Processes: Inside the Black Box 286 Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? 302 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Reading 12: The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Case Study 12: Death of a Spy Satellite Program 361 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Reading 16: Public Administration and Ethics: A Prologue to a Preface 472 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 Organization and Management Reading 1.1: The Study of Administration 6 Reading 1.2: The Study of Public Administration in the United States 17 Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped 31 Reading 2: Bureaucracy 54 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Reading 3: The Ecology of Public Administration 80 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Reading 6: Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company 149 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Reading 10: Collaboration Processes: Inside the Black Box 286 Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? 302 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Reading 13: The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work Case Study 13: Expectations 392 375 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Topical Contents Reading 15: Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 xvii 441 Personnel and Civil Service Reading 1.1: The Study of Administration 6 Reading 1.2: The Study of Public Administration in the United States 17 Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped Reading 2: Bureaucracy 54 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Reading 6: Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company 149 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Reading 16: Public Administration and Ethics: A Prologue to a Preface 472 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 31 Planning and Policy Development Reading 3: The Ecology of Public Administration 80 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Reading 8: The Science of “Muddling Through” 215 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Reading 9: Administrative Communication (Or How to Make All the Rest Work): The Concept of Its Professional Centrality 242 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Reading 12: The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Case Study 12: Death of a Spy Satellite Program 361 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Reading 15.1: Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility 441 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. xviii Topical Contents Power and Politics in Administration Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped Reading 2: Bureaucracy 54 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Reading 12: The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Case Study 12: Death of a Spy Satellite Program 361 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA 483 31 The Presidency, Governors, Mayors, or County Commissioners Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped 31 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Case Study 7: The Decision to Go to War with Iraq 195 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Reading 12: The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Reading 13: The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 375 Regulation, Rule Enforcement, and Law Enforcement Reading 1.1: The Study of Administration 6 Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped Reading 2: Bureaucracy 54 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 31 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Topical Contents Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Case Study 12: Death of a Spy Satellite Program 361 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Reading 15.1: Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 xix 441 State and Local Government Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped 31 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Reading 3: The Ecology of Public Administration 80 Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center 160 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Reading 9: Administrative Communication (Or How to Make All the Rest Work): The Concept of Its Professional Centrality 242 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? 302 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Reading 12: The Politics of Public Budgets 345 Reading 13: The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work Case Study 13: Expectations 392 375 The Study of Public Administration as a Discipline Reading 1.1: The Study of Administration 6 Reading 1.2: The Study of Public Administration in the United States 17 Case Study 1: The Blast in Centralia No. 5: A Mine Disaster No One Stopped 31 Reading 2: Bureaucracy 54 Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Reading 3: The Ecology of Public Administration 80 Reading 4: Power and Administration 99 Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism 120 Reading 6: Hawthorne and the Western Electric Company 149 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Reading 10: Collaboration Processes: Inside the Black Box 286 Reading 11: The Public Service Culture 320 Reading 13: The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work Reading 14: Issue Networks and the Executive Establishment 413 Reading 15.1: Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility 441 375 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. xx Topical Contents Third-Party Government Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood 87 Case Study 4: The Columbia Accident 105 Case Study 5: Wichita Confronts Contamination 137 Reading 7: Inside Public Bureaucracy 172 Case Study 9: The Shootings at Columbine High School: The Law Enforcement Response 259 Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? 302 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Reading 13: The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy 454 375 Women and Minority Issues Case Study 2: How Kristin Died 64 Case Study 6: American Ground: Unbuilding the World Trade Center Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned 227 Case Study 11: Who Brought Bernadine Healy Down? 331 Case Study 13: Expectations 392 Case Study 14: Reinventing School Lunch: Transforming a Food Policy into a Nutrition Policy 423 160 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Preface The publication of this ninth edition marks thirty-three years since this text’s first appearance in print. When the first edition was published, I hoped that this text would offer an improved way to teach the “basics” of public administration that would be both exciting and challenging for students. Over the intervening three decades, it has succeeded more than I could have imagined. I hope that readers of this ninth edition will find that this edition continues to meet their needs for a different and better way of introducing the field of public administration to both new students and “old hands.” Format and Approach The methodological format and design of the first eight editions remain intact in the ninth edition. The approach seeks to interrelate many of the authoritative conceptual works in public administration with contemporary case studies. By pairing a reading with a case study in each chapter, the text serves four important purposes: 1. The concept-case study method permits students to read firsthand the work of leading administrative theorists who have shaped the modern study of public administration. This method aims at developing in students a critical appreciation of the classic administrative ideas that are the basis of modern public administration. 2. The text encourages a careful examination of practical administrative problems through the presentation of contemporary cases—often involving major national events—that demonstrate the complexity, the centrality, and the challenge of the current administrative processes of public organizations. 3. The book seeks to promote a deeper understanding of the relationship between the theory and practice of public administration by allowing readers to test for themselves the validity of major ideas about public administration in the context of actual situations. 4. Finally, the concept-case method develops a keener appreciation of the eclectic breadth and interdisciplinary dimensions of public administration by presenting articles—both conceptual and case writings—from a wide variety of sources, using many materials not available in the average library. The immense quantity of literature in the field has always made selecting the writings a challenge. My final choice of what to include is based upon affirmative answers to the following four questions: 1. Do the writings focus on the central issues confronting public administrators? 2. Does the material, individually and collectively, give a realistic view of the contemporary practice of public administration? xxi Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. xxii Preface 3. Do the individual conceptual readings and case studies relate logically to one another? 4. Are the writings interesting and long enough to convey the true sense and spirit intended by the authors? The arrangement of the selections follows an order of topics used by many instructors in the field, moving from a definition of public administration to increasingly specific issues and problems. Many subjects (such as headquarters-field relationships, position classification, enforcement, government regulation, productivity, and personnel recruitment), though not treated separately, are discussed within various chapters under other headings (refer to the topic index for additional cross-references). This diagram may help readers to understand the design of the book more clearly. PART THREE litics and Adm tween Po inistr e B atio ship hapter 14 C n n o ti a l Re PART TWO n Making e D cisio Chapter 8 at i d an ics r 16 h t e t E ap n ee Ch tw Intergovernmental Relations Chapter 5 t ing get u d 12 B ic pter bl Pu Cha Political Environment Chapter 4 es ter Internal Dynamics Chapter 6 Pub tration The Scope and Purpose of Public Administration Chapter 1 In trati ve Cha Reo pte r r 1 gan iz 3 General Environment Chapter 3 ic bl Key Decision Makers Chapter 7 tion nica Admin is Formal Structure Chapter 2 Relationship B e t w e en B ure a Cha ucra pte cy r 1 an d 5 t he Exe c u Pu t i ve M Cha ana p g t e r 1 em en 0 t is dmin m in mu om eC r9 tiv apte ra ist Ch lic A Pub Ad PART ONE on rsonnel Motivation lic Pe Chapter 11 Re lat ion sh ip Be At the center of this schematic figure is chapter 1, which discusses “The Scope and Purpose of Public Administration,” perhaps the most difficult, central intellectual problem Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Preface xxiii in public administration today. The first ring outward is Part One, “The Pattern of Public Administration in America.” These six chapters present concepts and cases pertaining to the broad environment surrounding public administration and the work of public administrators. The second ring is Part Two, “The Multiple Functions of Public Administrators.” These six chapters focus on the major activities, roles, and responsibilities of practicing administrators in the public sector. The exterior ring is Part Three; these three chapters discuss “Enduring and Unresolved Relationships” in public administration, ones especially critical during the dawn of the 21st century for the field as a whole. New Material in the Ninth Edition Readings and cases have been carefully selected with an eye to readability and contemporary appeal to ensure that the text stays current and continues to reflect the ideas and events shaping public administration today. In this edition, special attention has been paid to ensuring the accessibility of writings for students: contemporary topics and issues that students want and need to know about are addressed in the new selections. Seven new cases (nearly half of the total case studies) and five new conceptual readings (almost one-third of the conceptual writings) appear in this edition: Case Study 3: William Robertson: Exemplar of Politics and Public Management Rightly Understood (Terry L. Cooper and Thomas A. Bryer) Reading 5: From Cooperative to Opportunistic Federalism (Tim Conlan) Case Study 8: How a City Slowly Drowned (Michael Grunwald and Susan B. Glasser) Reading 10: Collaboration Processes: Inside the Black Box (Ann Marie Thomson and James L. Perry) Case Study 10: Government as Catalyst: Can It Work Again with Wireless Internet Access? (Abhijit Jain, Munir Mandviwalla, and Rajiv D. Banker) Case Study 12: Death of a Spy Satellite Program (Philip Taubman) Reading 13: The Tides of Reform Revisited: Patterns in Making Government Work (Paul C. Light) Case Study 13: Expectations (Katherine Boo) Reading 15.1: Public Policy and the Nature of Administrative Responsibility (Carl J. Friedrich) Reading 15.2: Administrative Responsibility in Democratic Government (Herman Finer) Case Study 15: Torture and Public Policy (James P. Pfiffner) Case Study 16: George Tenet and the Last Great Days of the CIA (Richard D. White, Jr.) Revised introductions, alerting students to the main ideas that follow, open each selection. Also updated are the review questions, key terms, and suggestions for further reading that conclude each chapter, as well as the subject index and topic correlation chart. Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. xxiv Preface The Instructor’s Guide The Instructor’s Guide complements the text by offering insights, practical suggestions, and resources for teaching introductory and graduate students. The guide is organized as a set of memoranda from myself to the instructor. Each memo addresses a separate important topic, such as “How to use case studies in the classroom.” The guide also includes sample quizzes, exams, and course evaluation forms, as well as helpful student handouts such as the Federalist Papers, nos. 10 and 51. Acknowledgments Thanks must also go to my editors at Cengage Learning for their generous support and enthusiastic encouragement throughout this difficult writing and editing assignment, particularly Edwin Hill, Nathan Gamache, and Aileen Mason. Also, I could not have developed this new edition without the invaluable research and editorial assistance of Ms. Elizabeth Couch, as well as Mr. Keith Blue’s suggestion for adding the new case study no. 13. To these and many others, I owe a debt of gratitude for their assistance. R.J.S. II Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. CHAPTER 1 The Search for the Scope and Purpose of Public Administration O ur own politics must be the touchstone for all theories. The principles on which to base a science of administration for America must be principles which have democratic policy very much at heart. Woodrow Wilson READING 1.1 Introduction A definition of the parameters of a field of study, that is, the boundaries, landmarks, and terrain that distinguish it from other scientific and humanistic disciplines, is normally considered a good place to begin any academic subject. Unfortunately, as yet, no one has produced a simple definition of the study of public administration—at least one on which most practitioners and scholars agree. Attempting to define the core values and focus of twenty-first–century public administration provides lively debates and even deep divisions among students of the field. A major difficulty in arriving at a precise and universally acceptable definition arises in part from the rapid growth in the twentieth century of public administration, which today seems to be all-encompassing. Public administrators are engaged in technical, although not necessarily mundane details: they prepare budgets for a city government, classify jobs in a post office, have potholes patched and mail delivered, or evaluate the performance of a city’s 公共管理作 drug treatment centers. At the same time, they are also concerned with the major goals of ⽤用 society and with the development of resources for achieving those goals within the context of a rapidly changing political environment. For instance, if an engineering staff of a state agency proposes to build a highway, this decision appears at first glance to be a purely administrative activity. However, it involves a wide range of social values related to pressing concerns such as community land-use patterns, energy consumption, pollution control, and mass transit planning. Race relations, the general economic well-being of a community, and the allocation of scarce physical and human resources affect even simple administrative decisions about highway construction. Public administration does not operate in a vacuum but is deeply intertwined with the critical dilemmas confronting an entire society. The issue then becomes: How can a theorist reasonably and concisely define a field so interrelated with all of society? 1 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 2 Chapter 1/ The Search for the Scope and Purpose of Public Administration The rapidly increasing number and scope of activities involving public administration have led theorists to develop a variety of definitions. Consider fifteen offered during the past two decades by leading textbook writers: Public Administration is the production of goods and services designed to serve the needs of citizens-consumers. Marshall Dimock, Gladys Dimock, and Douglas Fox, Public Administration (Fifth Edition, 1983) We suggest a new conceptual framework that emphasizes the perception of public administration as design, with attendant emphasis on participative decision making and learning, purpose and action, innovation, imagination and creativity, and social interaction and “coproduction.” Jong S. Jun, Public Administration (1986) In ordinary usage, public administration is a generic expression for the entire bundle of activities that are involved in the establishment and implementation of public policies. Cole Blease Graham, Jr., and Steven W. Hays, Managing the Public Organization (1986) Public administration: 1. is a cooperative group effort in a public setting. 2. covers all three branches—executive, legislative, and judicial—and their interrelationships. 3. has an important role in the formulation of public policy, and is thus part of the political process. 4. is different in significant ways from private administration. 5. is closely associated with numerous private groups and individuals in providing services to the community. Felix A. Nigro and Lloyd G. Nigro, Modern Public Administration (Seventh Edition, 1989) . . . Public administration is centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programs as well as the behavior of officials (usually nonelected) formally responsible for their conduct. Charles H. Levine, B. Guy Peters, and Frank J. Thompson, Public Administration: Challenges, Choices, Consequences (1990) The practice of public administration involves the dynamic reconciliation of various forces in government’s efforts to manage public policies and programs. Melvin J. Dubnick and Barbara S. Romzek, American Public Administration: Politics and the Management of Expectations (1991) Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Reading 1.1/ Introduction Public administration is concerned with the management of public programs. Robert B. Denhardt, Public Administration: An Action Orientation (1995) Public Administration can be portrayed as a wheel of relationships focused on the implementation of public policy. William C. Johnson, Public Administration: Policy, Politics and Practice (Second Edition, 1995) Public Administration in all modern nations is identified with the executive branch. James W. Fesler and Donald F. Kettl The Politics of the Administrative Process (Second Edition, 1996) Public administration is the use of managerial, political, and legal theories and processes to fulfill legislative, executive, and judicial governmental mandates for the provision of regulatory and service functions for the society as a whole or for some segments of it. David H. Rosenbloom and Deborah D. Goldman, Public Administration: Understanding Management, Politics, and Law in the Public Sector (Fourth Edition, 1997) Public service is service, and as such must always be seen in personal terms. . . . This is what public administration means to me . . . the only path along which personal human development can proceed. O. C. McSuite, Invitation to Public Administration (2002) All administration, including public administration, depends on the cooperative effort of the individuals who make up the administration. Therefore, administration is affected by all the complexities of human nature. N. Joseph Cayer, and Louis Weschler, Public Administration: Social Change and Adaptive Management (Second Edition, 2002) Public administration is not only instrumental—public sector decisions and actions are often complex, involve multiple possibilities, and change with time; and public sector practitioners are involved with determining what government does in addition to how it does it. Richard C. Box, Public Administration and Society (2004) Public administration may be defined as all processes, organizations, and individuals (the latter acting in official positions and roles) associated with carrying out laws and other rules adopted or issued by legislatures, executives, and courts. Michael E. Milakovich, Public Administration in America (Ninth Edition, 2006). Traditionally, public administration is thought of as the accomplishing side of government. It is supposed to comprise all those activities involved in carrying out the policies of Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 3 4 Chapter 1/ The Search for the Scope and Purpose of Public Administration elected officials and some activities associated with the development of those policies. Public administration is . . . all that comes after the last campaign promise and electionnight cheer. Grover Starling, Managing the Public Sector (Eighth Edition, 2007) Generally, these attempts at defining public administration seem to identify it with the following: (1) the executive branch of government (yet it is related in important ways to the legislative and judicial branches); (2) the formulation and implementation of public policies; (3) the involvement in a considerable range of problems concerning human behavior and co- 定义、理解 operative human effort; (4) a field that can be differentiated in several ways from private administration; (5) the production of public goods and services; and (6) rooted in the law as well as concerned with carrying out laws. However, trying to pin down public administration in more specific detail becomes, according to specialists such as Harold Stein, a fruit- 对公共管理 less endeavor. The many variables and complexities of public administration make almost 进⾏行特殊细 节的限制 every administrative situation a unique event, eluding any highly systematic categorization. 失败 As Harold Stein writes: “public administration is a field in which every man is his own codifier and categorizer and the categories adopted must be looked on as relatively evanescent.”1 For some writers like Frederick C. Mosher, the elusiveness of a disciplinary core for public administration gives the subject its strength and fascination, for students must draw upon many fields and disciplines, as well as their own resources, to solve a particular administrative problem. As Mosher writes: “Perhaps it is best that it [public administration] not be defined. It is more an area of interest than a discipline, more a focus than a separate science. . . . It is necessarily cross-disciplinary. The overlapping and vague boundaries should be viewed as a resource, even though they are irritating to some with orderly minds.”2 But for others like Robert S. Parker, the frustrations of dealing with such a disorderly discipline mitigate against its being a mature, rewarding academic field of study. “There is really no such subject as ‘public administration,’” writes Parker. “No science or art can be identified by this title, least of all any single skill or coherent intellectual discipline. The term has no relation to the world of systematic thought. . . . It does not, in itself, offer any promising opportunity to widen or make more precise any single aspect of scientific knowledge.”3 Despite Parker’s pessimistic assessment of the present and future status of public administration, the search for a commonly accepted definition of the field, both in its academic and professional applications, continues by many scholars. Indeed, defining public administration—its boundaries, scope, and purpose—has become, in recent decades, a preoccupation and difficulty confronting public administration theorists. The field’s “identity crisis,” as Dwight Waldo once labeled the dilemma, has now become especially acute because a plethora of models, approaches, and theories now purport to define what public administration is all about. To help us understand public administration today, it is useful to study the rationale for creating this field, as outlined in an essay written in 1887 by Woodrow Wilson, a young political Harold Stein, Public Administration and Policy Development: A Case Book (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1952), xxv. 2 Frederick C. Mosher, “Research in Public Administration,” Public Administration Review, 16 (Summer 1956): 177. 3 Robert S. Parker, “The End of Public Administration,” Public Administration, 34 (June 1965): 99. 1 Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Reading 1.1/ Introduction 5 scientist at the time. Wilson (1856–1924) is better known as the twenty-eighth President of the United States (1913–1921), father of the League of Nations, Commander-in-Chief during World War I, and author of much of the “New Freedom” progressive reform legislation. Wilson is also credited by scholars with writing the first essay on public administration in the United States and therefore is considered by many as its American founder. His short but distinguished essay, “The Study of Administration,” was published a century after the U.S. Constitution’s birth. Wilson had just begun his academic career, teaching political science at Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania, after earning his Ph.D. at Johns Hopkins University. The editor of a new journal (Political Science Quarterly) asked Wilson to contribute an essay on this developing subject. At that time, public administration had been a well-established discipline in Europe but was largely unknown in America. Geographic isolation, agrarian self-sufficiency, the absence of threats to national security, and limited demands for public services, among other things, had allowed the United States to get along reasonably well during its first century of existence without the self-conscious study of public administration. However, many events were forcing Americans to take notice of the need for public administration. By the late nineteenth century, technologic innovations such as the automobile, telephone, and light bulb and growing international involvement in the Spanish-American War, combined with increasing public participation in a democratic government, created urgent needs for expanded, effective administrative services. As a consequence, we also required an established field of administrative study. Wilson wrote his essay at the time when civil service reform had been instituted in the federal government (the Civil Service Act or “the Pendleton Act,” named for its legislative sponsor, had been passed in 1883). Much of Wilson’s centennial essay was, not surprisingly, a plea for recognizing the central importance of administrative machinery, especially a well-trained civil service based on merit, rather than politics, to operate a modern democratic government. Just as the Federalist Papers, authored by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay had a century before advocated the passage of the U.S. Constitution, Wilson called in 1887 for the necessity of this new field “to run a constitution” during its second century. His essay strived to encourage the development of public administration and to underscore the importance of effective administration for the Constitution’s survival in the future. But how could Americans graft public administration into their Constitution, which had not mentioned this subject? For Wilson—and modern students of the field—this was the critical issue. In developing public administration—both practically and academically—Wilson’s basic difficulty was to reconcile the notions of constitutional democracy with inherent concerns for popular control and participation with theories of efficient, professional administration, and their stress on systematic rules and internal procedures as distinct from democratic oversight and influence. For Wilson, this inevitable conflict could be settled by dividing government into two spheres—“politics,” in which choices regarding what government should do are two parts determined by a majority of elected representatives, and “administration,” which serves to which carry out the dictates of the populace through efficient procedures relatively free from po- are most litical meddling. importan Although modern administrative scholars generally reject the possibility or desirt in ability of drawing any hard-or-fast line between politics and administration, or what most call “the politics-administration dichotomy,” the issues Wilson raised are enduring and Wilson's important. Read the essay for yourself and see how you judge the validity of Wilson’s mind arguments. Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 6 Chapter 1/ The Search for the Scope and Purpose of Public Administration How did Wilson define public administration, and why did he believe it was so critical to the future of the United States? Are his arguments for its basic rationale and value still valid? Why did Wilson distinguish between “politics” and “administration” as important terms for creating public administration? In your opinion, is such a “politics-administration dichotomy” practical and workable? What are the advantages and disadvantages of using such a dichotomy today as a way to advance this field of study? What sources did Wilson believe the United States should draw on in developing this new field? And what sources should Americans avoid in shaping their administrative enterprise? And why? What issues and challenges did Wilson pose for administrative study and practice? Are these still priorities today? The Study of Administration WOODROW WILSON I suppose that no practical science is ever studied where there is no need to know it. The very fact, therefore, that the eminently practical science of administration is finding its way into college courses in this country would prove that this country needs to know more about administration, were such proof of the fact required to make out a case. It need not be said, however, that we do not look into college programmes for proof of this fact. It is a thing almost taken for granted among us, that the present movement called civil service reform must, after the accomplishment of its first purpose, expand into efforts to improve, not the personnel only, but also the organization and methods of our government offices: because it is plain that their organization and methods need improvement only less than their personnel. It is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what gov1ernment can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy. On both these points there is obviously much need of light among us; and only careful study can supply that light. Reprinted with permission from Political Science Quarterly, 2 (June 1887): 197–222. Before entering on that study, however, it is needful: I. To take some account of what others have done in the same line; that is to say, of the history of the study. II. To ascertain just what is its subject-matter. III. To determine just what are the best methods by which to develop it, and the most clarifying political conceptions to carry with us into it. Unless we know and settle these things, we shall set out without chart or compass. I. The science of administration is the latest fruit of that study of the science of politics which was begun some twenty-two hundred years ago. It is a birth of our own century, almost of our own generation. Why was it so late in coming? Why did it wait till this too busy century of ours to demand attention for itself? Administration is the most obvious part of government; it is government in action; it is the executive, the operative, the most visible side of government, and is of course as old as government itself. It is Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Woodrow Wilson / The Study of Administration government in action, and one might very naturally expect to find that government in action had arrested the attention and provoked the scrutiny of writers of politics very early in the history of systematic thought. But such was not the case. No one wrote systematically of administration as a branch of the science of government until the present century had passed its first youth and had begun to put forth its characteristic flower of systematic knowledge. Up to our own day all the political writers whom we now read had thought, argued, dogmatized only about the constitution of government; about the nature of the state, the essence and seat of sovereignty, popular power and kingly prerogative; about the greatest meanings lying at the heart of government, and the high ends set before the purpose of government by man’s nature and man’s aims. The central field of controversy was that great field of theory in which monarchy rode tilt against democracy, in which oligarchy would have built for itself strongholds of privilege, and in which tyranny sought opportunity to make good its claim to receive submission from all competitors. Amidst this high warfare of principles, administration could command no pause for its own consideration. The question was always: Who shall make law, and what shall that law be? The other question, how law should be administered with enlightenment, with equity, with speed, and without friction, was put aside as “practical detail” which clerks could arrange after doctors had agreed upon principles. That political philosophy took this direction was of course no accident, no chance preference or perverse whim of political philosophers. The philosophy of any time is, as Hegel says, “nothing but the spirit of that time expressed in abstract thought”; and political philosophy, like philosophy of every other kind, has only held up the mirror to contemporary affairs. The trouble in early times was almost altogether about the constitution of government; and consequently that was what engrossed men’s thoughts. There was little or no trouble about administration,—at least little that was heeded by administrators. The functions of government were simple, because life itself was simple. Government went about imperatively and compelled men, without 没有⼈人关注pa,只关⼼心政府的宪法 当时政府的职能是单⼀一的 7 thought of consulting their wishes. There was no complex system of public revenues and public debts to puzzle financiers; there were, consequently, no financiers to be puzzled. No one who possessed power was long at a loss how to use it. The great and only question was: Who shall possess it? Populations were of manageable numbers; property was of simple sorts. There were plenty of farms, but no stocks and bonds; more cattle than vested interests. ••• There is scarcely a single duty of government which was once simple which is not now complex; government once had but a few masters; it now has scores of masters. Majorities formerly only underwent government; they now conduct government. Where government once might follow the whims of a court, it must now follow the views of a nation. And those views are steadily widening to new conceptions of state duty; so that, at the same time that the functions of government are every day becoming more complex and difficult, they are also vastly multiplying in number. Administration is everywhere putting its hands to new undertakings. The utility, cheapness, and success of the government’s postal service, for instance, point towards the early establishment of governmental control of the telegraph system. Or, even if our government is not to follow the lead of the governments of Europe in buying or building both telegraph and railroad lines, no one can doubt that in some way it must make it-国家 self master of masterful corporations. The creation铁路 of national commissioners of railroads, in addition部⻓长 的产 to the older state commissions, involves a very im-⽣生预 portant and delicate extension of administrative⽰示着 functions. Whatever hold of authority state or federalpa发 governments are to take upon corporations, there展 must follow cares and responsibilities which will require not a little wisdom, knowledge, and experience. Such things must be studied in order to be well done. And these, as I have said, are only a few of the doors which are being opened to offices of government. The idea of the state and the consequent ideal of its duty are undergoing noteworthy change; and “the idea of the state is the conscience of administration.” Seeing every day new things which the state ought Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 8 Chapter 1/ The Search for the Scope and Purpose of Public Administration to do, the next thing is to see clearly how it ought to franchise, the reason will doubtless be found to be do them. twofold: first, that in Europe, just because governThis is why there should be a science of adminisment was independent of popular assent, there was tration which shall seek to straighten the paths of govmore governing to be done; and, second, that the deernment, to make its business less unbusinesslike; to sire to keep government a monopoly made the mostrengthen and purify its organization, and to crown nopolists interested in discovering the least irritating its duties with dutifulness. This is one reason why means of governing. They were, besides, few enough there is such a science. to adopt means promptly. 公共管理学科存在的意义 But where has this science grown up? Surely not ••• on this side of the sea. Not much impartial scientific method is to be discerned in our administrative pracThe English race . . . has long and successfully tices. The poisonous atmosphere of city government, studied the art of curbing executive power to the the crooked secrets of state administration, the confuconstant neglect of the art of perfecting executive sion, sinecurism, and corruption ever and again dismethods. It has exercised itself much more in concovered in the bureaus at Washington forbid us to trolling than in energizing government. It has been believe that any clear conceptions of what constitutes more concerned to render government just and modgood administration are as yet very widely current in erate than to make it facile, well-ordered, and efthe United States. No; American writers have hitherto fective. English and American political history has taken no very important part in the advancement of this been a history, not of administrative development, science. It has found its doctors in Europe. It is not of but of legislative oversight,—not of progress in govour making; it is a foreign science, speaking very liternmental organization, but of advance in law-maktle of the language of English or American principle. ing and political criticism. Consequently, we have It employs only foreign tongues; it utters none but reached a time when administrative study and crewhat are to our minds alien ideas. Its aims, its examation are imperatively necessary to the well-being ples, its conditions, are almost exclusively grounded of our governments saddled with the habits of a in the histories of foreign races, in the precedents of long period of constitution-making. That period has foreign systems, in the lessons of foreign revolutions. practically closed, so far as the establishment of esIt has been developed by French and German prosential principles is concerned, but we cannot shake fessors, and is consequently in all parts adapted to off its atmosphere. We go on criticizing when we the needs of a compact state, and made to fit highly ought to be creating. We have reached the third of centralized forms of government; whereas, to anthe periods I have mentioned,—the period, namely, swer our purposes, it must be adapted, not to a simwhen the people have to develop administration in ple and compact, but to a complex and multiform accordance with the constitutions they won for themstate, and made to fit highly decentralized forms of selves in a previous period of struggle with absolute government. If we would employ it, we must Amerpower; but we are not prepared for the tasks of the icanize it, and that not formally, in language merely, new period. but radically, in thought, principle, and aim as well. Such an explanation seems to afford the only esIt must learn our constitutions by heart; must get the cape from blank astonishment at the fact that, in bureaucratic fever out of its veins; must inhale much spite of our vast advantages in point of political lib需要彻底将他国⽂文化转变为⾃自⼰己的财富erty, and above all in point of practical political skill free American air. If an explanation be sought why a science manand sagacity, so many nations are ahead of us in adifestly so susceptible of being made useful to all ministrative organization and administrative skill. governments alike should have received attention Why, for instance, have we but just begun purifying first in Europe, where government has long been a a civil service which was rotten full fifty years ago? monopoly, rather than in England or the United To say that slavery diverted us is but to repeat what I States, where government has long been a common have said—that flaws in our Constitution delayed us. Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Woodrow Wilson / The Study of Administration Of course all reasonable preference would declare for this English and American course of politics rather than for that of any European country. We should not like to have had Prussia’s history for the sake of having Prussia’s administrative skill; and Prussia’s particular system of administration would quite suffocate us. It is better to be untrained and free than to be servile and systematic. Still there is no denying that it would be better yet to be both free in spirit and proficient in practice. It is this even more reasonable preference which impels us to discover what there may be to hinder or delay us in naturalizing this muchto-be desired science of administration. What, then, is there to prevent? Well, principally, popular sovereignty. It is harder for democracy to organize administration than for monarchy. The very completeness of our most cherished political successes in the past embarrasses us. We have enthroned public opinion; and it is forbidden us to hope during its reign for any quick schooling of the sovereign in executive expertness or in the conditions of perfect functional balance in government. The very fact that we have realized popular rule in its fullness has made the task of organizing that rule just so much the more difficult. In order to make any advance at all we must instruct and persuade a multitudinous monarch called public opinion,—a much less feasible undertaking than to influence a single monarch called a king. An individual sovereign will adopt a simple plan and carry it out directly; he will have but one opinion, and he will embody that one opinion in one command. But this other sovereign, the people, will have a score of differing opinions. They can agree upon nothing simple: advance must be made through compromise, by a compounding of differences, by a trimming of plans and a suppression of too straightforward principles. There will be a succession of resolves running through a course of years, a dropping fire of commands running through a whole gamut of modifications. In government, as in virtue, the hardest of hard things is to make progress. Formerly the reason for this was that the single person who was sovereign was generally either selfish, ignorant, timid, or a fool,—albeit there was now and again one who was 9 wise. Nowadays the reason is that the many, the people, who are sovereign have no single ear which one can approach, and are selfish, ignorant, timid, stubborn, or foolish with the selfishnesses, the ignorances, the stubbornnesses, the timidities, or the follies of several thousand persons,—albeit there are hundreds who are wise. Once the advantage of the reformer was that the sovereign’s mind had a definite locality, that it was contained in one man’s head, and that consequently it could be gotten at; though it was his disadvantage that that mind learned only reluctantly or only in small quantities, or was under the influence of someone who let it learn only the wrong things. Now, on the contrary, the reformer is bewildered by the fact that the sovereign’s mind has no definite locality, but is contained in a voting majority of several million heads; and embarrassed by the fact that the mind of this sovereign also is under the influence of favorites, who are none the less favorites in a good old-fashioned sense of the word because they are not persons but preconceived opinions; i.e., prejudices which are not to be reasoned with because they are not the children of reason. Wherever regard for public opinion is a first principle of government, practical reform must be slow and all reform must be full of compromises. For wherever public opinion exists it must rule. This is now an axiom half the world over, and will presently come to be believed even in Russia. Whoever would effect a change in a modern constitutional government must first educate his fellow-citizens to want some change. That done, he must persuade them to want the particular change he wants. He must first make public opinion willing to listen and then see to it that it listen to the right things. He must stir it up to search for an opinion, and then manage to put the right opinion in its way. The first step is not less difficult than the second. With opinions, possession is more than nine points of the law. It is next to impossible to dislodge them. Institutions which one generation regards as only a makeshift approximation to the realization of a principle, the next generation honors as the nearest possible approximation to that principle, and the next worships as the principle itself. It takes scarcely three generations for the apotheosis. The grandson accepts Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 10 Chapter 1/ The Search for the Scope and Purpose of Public Administration his grandfather’s hesitating experiment as an integral part of the fixed constitution of nature. Even if we had clear insight into all the political past, and could form out of perfectly instructed heads a few steady, infallible, placidly wise maxims of government into which all sound political doctrine would be ultimately resolvable, would the country act on them? That is the question. The bulk of mankind is rigidly unphilosophical, and nowadays the bulk of mankind votes. A truth must become not only plain but also commonplace before it will be seen by the people who go to their work very early in the morning; and not to act upon it must involve great and pinching inconveniences before these same people will make up their minds to act upon it. And where is this unphilosophical bulk of mankind more multifarious in its composition than in the United States? To know the public mind of this country, one must know the mind, not of Americans of the older stocks only, but also of Irishmen, of Germans, of Negroes. In order to get a footing for new doctrine, one must influence minds cast in every mould of race, minds inheriting every bias of environment, warped by the histories of a score of different nations, warmed or chilled, closed or expanded by almost every climate of the globe. ••• II. The field of administration is a field of business. It is removed from the hurry and strife of politics; it at most points stands apart even from the debatable ground of constitutional study. It is a part of political life only as the methods of the counting-house are a part of the life of society; only as machinery is part of the manufactured product. But it is, at the same time, raised very far above the dull level of mere technical detail by the fact that through its greater principles it is directly connected with the lasting maxims of political wisdom, the permanent truths of political progress. The object of administrative study is to rescue executive methods from the confusion and costliness of empirical experiment and set them upon foundations laid deep in stable principle. It is for this reason that we must regard civil service reform in its present stages as but a prelude to a fuller administrative reform. We are now rectifying methods of appointment; we must go on to adjust executive functions more fitly and to prescribe better methods of executive organization and action. Civil service reform is thus but a moral preparation for what is to follow. It is clearing the moral atmosphere of official life by establishing the sanctity of public office as a public trust, and, by making the service unpartisan, it is opening the way for making it businesslike. By sweetening its motives it is rendering it capable of improving its methods of work. Let me expand a little what I have said of the province of administration. Most important to be observed is the truth already so much and so fortunately insisted upon by our civil service reformers; namely, that administration lies outside the proper sphere of politics. Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices. This is distinction of high authority; eminent German writers insist upon it as of course. Bluntschli, for instance, bids us separate administration alike from politics and from law. Politics, he says, is state activity “in things great and universal,” while “administration, on the other hand,” is “the activity of the state in individual and small things. Politics is thus the special province of the statesman, administration of the technical official.” “Policy does nothing without the aid of administration”; but administration is not therefore politics. But we do not require German authority for this position; this discrimination between administration and politics is now, happily, too obvious to need further discussion. There is another distinction which must be worked into all our conclusions, which, though but another side of that between administration and politics, is not quite so easy to keep sight of; I mean the distinction between constitutional and administrative questions, between those governmental adjustments which are essential to constitutional principle and those which are merely instrumental to the possibly changing purposes of a wisely adapting convenience. Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Woodrow Wilson / The Study of Administration One cannot easily make clear to every one just where administration resides in the various departments of any practicable government without entering upon particulars so numerous as to confuse and distinctions so minute as to distract. No lines of demarcation, setting apart administrative from nonadministrative functions, can be run between this and that department of government without being run up hill and down dale, over dizzy heights of distinction and through dense jungles of statutory enactment, hither and thither around “ifs” and “buts,” “whens” and “howevers,” until they become altogether lost to the common eye not accustomed to this sort of surveying, and consequently not acquainted with the use of the theodolite of logical discernment. A great deal of administration goes about incognito to most of the world, being confounded now with political “management,” and again with constitutional principle. Perhaps this case of confusion may explain such utterances as that of Niebuhr’s: “Liberty,” he says, “depends incomparably more upon administration than upon constitution.” At first sight this appears to be largely true. Apparently facility in the actual exercise of liberty does depend more upon administrative arrangements than upon constitutional guarantees; although constitutional guarantees alone secure the existence of liberty. But—upon second thought—is even so much as this true? Liberty no more consists in easy functional movement than intelligence consists in the ease and vigor with which the limbs of a strong man move. The principles that rule within the man, or the constitution, are the vital springs of liberty or servitude. Because dependence and subjection are without chains, are lightened by every easy-working device of considerate, paternal government, they are not thereby transformed into liberty. Liberty cannot live apart from constitutional principle; and no administration, however perfect and liberal its methods, can give men more than a poor counterfeit of liberty if it rest upon illiberal principles of government. A clear view of the difference between the province of constitutional law and the province of administrative function ought to leave no room for misconception; and it is possible to name some roughly definite criteria upon which such a view can be built. Public administration is detailed and systematic execution of 11 public law. Every particular application of general law is an act of administration. The assessment and raising of taxes, for instance, the hanging of a criminal, the transportation and delivery of the mails, the equipment and recruiting of the army and navy, etc., are all obviously acts of administration; but the general laws which direct these things to be done are as obviously outside of and above administration. The broad plans of governmental action are not administrative; the detailed execution of such plans is administrative. Constitutions, therefore, properly concern themselves only with those instrumentalities of government which are to control general law. Our federal Constitution observes this principle in saying nothing of even the greatest of the purely executive offices, and speaking only of that President of the Union who was to share the legislative and policy-making functions of government, only of those judges of highest jurisdiction who were to interpret and guard its principles, and not of those who were merely to give utterance to them. This is not quite the distinction between Will and answering Deed, because the administrator should have and does have a will of his own in the choice of means for accomplishing his work. He is not and ought not to be a mere passive instrument. The distinction is between general plans and special means. There is, indeed, one point at which administrative studies trench on constitutional ground—or at least upon what seems constitutional ground. The study of administration, philosophically viewed, is closely connected with the study of the proper distribution of constitutional authority. To be efficient it must discover the simplest arrangements by which responsibility can be unmistakably fixed upon officials; the best way of dividing authority without hampering it, and responsibility without obscuring it. And this question of the distribution of authority, when taken into the sphere of the higher, the originating functions of government, is obviously a central constitutional question. If administrative study can discover the best principles upon which to base such distributions, it will have done constitutional study an invaluable service. Montesquieu did not, I am convinced, say the last word on this head. To discover the best principle for the distribution of authority is of greater importance, possibly, under Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 12 Chapter 1/ The Search for the Scope and Purpose of Public Administration a democratic system, where officials serve many matters, than under others where they serve but a few. All sovereigns are suspicious of their servants, and the sovereign people is no exception to the rule; but how is its suspicion to be allayed by knowledge? If that suspicion could but be clarified into wise vigilance, it would be altogether salutary; if that vigilance could be aided by the unmistakable placing of responsibility, it would be altogether beneficent. Suspicion in itself is never healthful either in the private or in the public mind. Trust is strength in all relations of life; and, as it is the office of the constitutional reformer to create conditions of trustfulness, so it is the office of the administrative organizer to fit administration with conditions of clear-cut responsibility which shall insure trustworthiness. And let me say that large powers and unhampered discretion seem to me the indispensable conditions of responsibility. Public attention must be easily directed, in each case of good or bad administration, to just the man deserving of praise or blame. There is no danger in power, if only it be not irresponsible. If it be divided, dealt only in shares to many, it is obscured; and if it be obscured, it is made irresponsible. But if it be centred in heads of the service and in heads of branches of the service, it is easily watched and brought to book. If to keep his office a man must achieve open and honest success, and if at the same time he feels himself entrusted with large freedom of discretion, the greater his power the less likely is he to abuse it, the more is he nerved and sobered and elevated by it. The less his power, the more safely obscure and unnoticed does he feel his position to be, and the more readily does he relapse into remissness. Just here we manifestly emerge upon the field of that still larger question,—the proper relations between public opinion and administration. To whom is official trustworthiness to be disclosed, and by whom is it to be rewarded? Is the official to look to the public for his meed of praise and his push of promotion, or only to his superior in office? Are the people to be called in to settle administrative discipline as they are called in to settle constitutional principles? These questions evidently find their root in what is undoubtedly the fundamental problem of this whole study. That problem is: What part shall public opinion take in the conduct of administration? The right answer seems to be, that public opinion shall play the part of authoritative critic. But the method by which its authority shall be made to tell? Our peculiar American difficulty in organizing administration is not the danger of losing liberty, but the danger of not being able or willing to separate its essentials from its accidents. Our success is made doubtful by that besetting error of ours, the error of trying to do too much by vote. Self-government does not consist in having a hand in everything, any more than housekeeping consists necessarily in cooking dinner with one’s own hands. The cook must be trusted with a large discretion as to the management of the fires and the ovens. In those countries in which public opinion has yet to be instructed in its privileges, yet to be accustomed to having its own way, this question as to the province of public opinion is much more readily soluble than in this country, where public opinion is wide awake and quite intent upon having its own way anyhow. It is pathetic to see a whole book written by a German professor of political science for the purpose of saying to his countrymen, “Please try to have an opinion about national affairs”; but a public which is so modest may at least be expected to be very docile and acquiescent in learning what things it has not a right to think and speak about imperatively. It may be sluggish, but it will not be meddlesome. It will submit to be instructed before it tries to instruct. Its political education will come before its political activity. In trying to instruct our own public opinion, we are dealing with a pupil apt to think itself quite sufficiently instructed beforehand. The problem is to make public opinion efficient without suffering it to be meddlesome. Directly exercised, in the oversight of the daily details and in the choice of the daily means of government, public criticism is of course a clumsy nuisance, a rustic handling delicate machinery. But as super-intending the greater forces of formative policy alike in politics and administration, public criticism is altogether safe and beneficent, altogether indispensable. Let administrative study find the best means for giving public criticism this control and for shutting it out from all other interference. Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Woodrow Wilson / The Study of Administration But is the whole duty of administrative study done when it has taught the people what sort of administration to desire and demand, and how to get what they demand? Ought it not to go on to drill candidates for the public service? There is an admirable movement towards universal political education now afoot in this country. The time will soon come when no college of respectability can afford to do without a well-filled chair of political science. But the education thus imparted will go but a certain length. It will multiply the number of intelligent critics of government, but it will create no competent body of administrators. It will prepare the way for the development of a sure-footed understanding of the general principles of government, but it will not necessarily foster skill in conducting government. It is an education which will equip legislators, perhaps, but not executive officials. If we are to improve public opinion, which is the motive power of government, we must prepare better officials as the apparatus of government. If we are to put in new boilers and to mend the fires which drive our governmental machinery, we must not leave the old wheels and joints and valves and bands to creak and buzz and clatter on as the best they may at bidding of the new force. We must put in new running parts wherever there is the least lack of strength or adjustment. It will be necessary to organize democracy by sending up to the competitive examinations for the civil service men definitely prepared for standing liberal tests as to technical knowledge. A technically schooled civil service will presently have become indispensable. I know that a corps of civil servants prepared by a special schooling and drilled, after appointment, into a perfected organization, with appropriate hierarchy and characteristic discipline, seems to a great many very thoughtful persons to contain elements which might combine to make an offensive official class,— a distinct, semi-corporate body with sympathies divorced from those of a progressive, free-spirited people, and with hearts narrowed to the meanness of a bigoted officialism. Certainly such a class would be altogether hateful and harmful in the United States. Any measures calculated to produce it would for us be measures of reaction and of folly. 13 But to fear the creation of a domineering, illiberal officialism as a result of the studies I am here proposing is to miss altogether the principle upon which I wish most to insist. That principle is, that administration in the United States must be at all points sensitive to public opinion. A body of thoroughly trained officials serving during good behavior we must have in any case: that is a plain business necessity. But the apprehension that such a body will be anything unAmerican clears away the moment it is asked, What is to constitute good behavior? For that question obviously carries its own answer on its face. Steady, hearty allegiance to the policy of the government they serve will constitute good behavior. That policy will have no taint of officialism about it. It will not be the creation of permanent officials, but of statesmen whose responsibility to public opinion will be direct and inevitable. Bureaucracy can exist only where the whole service of the state is removed from the common political life of the people, its chiefs as well as its rank and file. Its motives, its objects, its policy, its standards, must be bureaucratic. It would be difficult to point out any examples of impudent exclusiveness and arbitrariness on the part of officials doing service under a chief of department who really served the people, as all our chiefs of departments must be made to do. ••• The ideal for us is a civil service cultured and selfsufficient enough to act with sense and vigor, and yet so intimately connected with the popular thought, by means of elections and constant public counsel, as to find arbitrariness or class spirit quite out of the question. III. Having thus viewed in some sort the subjectmatter and the objects of this study of administration, what are we to conclude as to the methods best suited to it—the points of view most advantageous for it? Government is so near us, as much a thing of our daily familiar handling, that we can with difficulty see the need of any philosophical study of it, or the exact Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. 14 Chapter 1/ The Search for the Scope and Purpose of Public Administration point of such study, should it be undertaken. We have been on our feet too long to study now the art of walking. We are a practical people, made so apt, so adept in self-government by centuries of experimental drill that we are scarcely any longer capable of perceiving the awkwardness of the particular system we may be using, just because it is so easy for us to use any system. We do not study the art of governing: we govern. But mere unschooled genius for affairs will not save us from sad blunders in administration. Though democrats by long inheritance and repeated choice, we are still rather crude democrats. Old as democracy is, its organization on a basis of modern ideas and conditions is still an unaccomplished work. The democratic state has yet to be equipped for carrying those enormous burdens of administration which the needs of this industrial and trading age are so fast accumulating. Without comparative studies in government we cannot rid ourselves of the misconception that administration stands upon an essentially different basis in a democratic state from that on which it stands in a non-democratic state. After such study we could grant democracy the sufficient honor of ultimately determining by debate all essential questions affecting the public weal, of basing all structures of policy upon the major will; but we would have found but one rule of good administration for all governments alike. So far as administrative functions are concerned, all governments have a strong structural likeness; more than that, if they are to be uniformly useful and efficient, they must have a strong structural likeness. A free man has the same bodily organs, the same executive parts, as the slave, however different may be his motives, his services, his energies. Monarchies and democracies, radically different as they are in other respects, have in reality much the same business to look to. It is abundantly safe nowadays to insist upon this actual likeness of all governments, because these are days when abuses of power are easily exposed and arrested, in countries like our own, by a bold, alert, inquisitive, detective public thought and a sturdy popular self-dependence such as never existed before. We are slow to appreciate this; but it is easy to appreciate it. Try to imagine personal government in the United States. It is like trying to imagine a national worship of Zeus. Our imaginations are too modern for the feat. But, besides being safe, it is necessary to see that for all governments alike the legitimate ends of administration are the same, in order not to be frightened at the idea of looking into foreign systems of administration for instruction and suggestion; in order to get rid of the apprehension that we might perchance blindly borrow something incompatible with our principles. That man is blindly astray who denounces attempts to transplant foreign systems into this country. It is impossible: they simply would not grow here. But why should we not use such parts of foreign contrivances as we want, if they be in any way serviceable? We are in no danger of using them in a foreign way. We borrowed rice, but we do not eat it with chopsticks. We borrowed our whole political language from England, but we leave the words “king” and “lords” out of it. What did we ever originate, except the action of the federal government upon individuals and some of the functions of the federal supreme court? We can borrow the science of administration with safety and profit if only we read all fundamental differences of condition into its essential tenets. We have only to filter it through our constitutions, only to put it over a slow fire of criticism and distill away its foreign gases. ••• Let it be noted that it is the distinction, already drawn, between administration and politics which makes the comparative method so safe in the field of administration. When we study the administrative systems of France and Germany, knowing that we are not in search of political principles, we need not care a peppercorn for the constitutional or political reasons which Frenchmen or Germans give for their practices when explaining them to us. If I see a murderous fellow sharpening a knife cleverly, I can borrow his way of sharpening the knife without borrowing his probable intention to commit murder with it; and so, if I see a monarchist dyed in the wool managing a public bureau well, I can learn his business methods without changing one of my republican spots. He may serve his king; I will continue to serve the people; but I should Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Woodrow Wilson / The Study of Administration like to serve my sovereign as well as he serves his. By keeping this distinction in view,—that is, by studying administration as a means of putting our own politics into convenient practice, as a means of making what is democratically politic towards all administratively possible towards each,—we are on perfectly safe ground, and can learn without error what foreign systems have to teach us. We thus devise an adjusted weight for our comparative method of study. We can thus scrutinize the anatomy of foreign governments without fear of getting any of their diseases into our vein...
User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

This question has not been answered.

Create a free account to get help with this and any other question!

Related Tags