Risk communication project (10 papers)

User Generated

Fcrpvny_qvnzbaq

Business Finance

Description

This is a risk communication project that should include 10 papers without the references paper. According to Coppola & Malony text that I attached below, please think about a topic that you can pick (In a specific population)and do the risk communication project about it, and tell me about before you start doing it. Also I attached a document about what you should include in this projects called (risk communication project revised). The third document can expand your thoughts about communication.


Important Notes:

1- It must be about a specific population.

2- You must include all the communication tools that can be used to reach that specific population. (Like radio, social media, local alerts to cell phones, etc) you should think about it and see what appropriate communication methods for the population. Like in rural areas, they may only use radio to deliver a specific message.

3- Read carefully and comprehensively the documents I attached, especially the Cappola & Malony document to understand exactly how to do the project.

4- Use APA format for citation

5- Please tell me what topic you are going to do before you start doing the project.

6- I also attached a sample for a risk communication project, please take a look to see how to do the project.


Unformatted Attachment Preview

Communicating Emergency Preparedness Strategies for Creating a Disaster Resilient Public © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC OTHER CRC PRESS TITLES Pandemic Influenza: Emergency Planning and Community Preparedness Jeffrey Ryan ISBN: 1-4200-6087-2, Catalog Number: 60872 Medical Disaster Response: A Survival Guide for Hospitals in Mass Casualty Events Robert Bonvino and David Goldschmitt ISBN: 1-4200-6122-4, Catalog Number: 61224 Natural Hazards Analysis: Reducing the Impact of Disasters John Pine ISBN: 1-4200-7038-X, Catalog Number: AU7038 Global Warming, Natural Hazards, and Emergency Management Jane A. Bullock, George D. Haddow and Kim S. Haddow ISBN: 1-4200-8182-9, Catalog Number: AU1829 The Human Side of Disaster Thomas Drabek ISBN: 1-4398-0864-3, Catalog Number: K10428 Social Vulnerability to Disasters Brenda Phillips, et al. ISBN: 1-4200-7856-9, Catalog Number: AU7856 Disaster Recovery Brenda Phillips ISBN: 1-4200-7420-2, Catalog Number: AU7420 Building an Enterprise Business Continuity Program Patricia Okolita ISBN: 1-4200-8864-5, Catalog Number: AU8645 Disaster Management Handbook Jack Pinkowski ISBN: 1-4200- 5862-2, Catalog Number: AU5862 CRC PRESS http://www.crcrpess.com 5P0SEFS$BMMr'BY E-mail: orders@crcpress.com © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Communicating Emergency Preparedness Strategies for Creating a Disaster Resilient Public %BNPO1$PQQPMBt&SJO,.BMPOFZ © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Auerbach Publications is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-6510-7 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Coppola, Damon P. Communicating emergency preparedness : strategies for creating a disaster resilient public / Damon Coppola, Erin K. Maloney. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-6510-7 (hbk. : alk. paper) 1. Emergency management. 2. Risk communication. I. Maloney, Erin K. II. Title. HV551.2.C635 2009 363.34’7--dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the Auerbach Web site at http://www.auerbach-publications.com © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC 2009014256 DEDICATION The authors dedicate this book to Eileen and Paul Coppola, and Nancy and Tim Maloney, from whom countless risk lessons have come. © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CONTENTS Acknowledgments Introduction About the Authors xiii xv xix 1 Public Disaster Preparedness: In Theory and in Practice Introduction Communication Science: A Primer Social Marketing The Public Disaster Preparedness Process: A Systems Approach Phase 1: Early Planning Phase 2: Developing a Campaign Strategy Phase 3: Implementing and Evaluating the Campaign Purpose, Goals, and Objectives Goal 1: Raising Public Awareness of the Hazard Risk Goal 2: Guiding Public Behavior Goal 3: Warning the Public Other Risk Communication Goals Priorities and Goals of Risk Communication Recipients Seeing the Bigger Picture: Communication as One Component of a Larger Solution Requirements of a Public Education Campaign The Dangers of Failed Risk Communication Conclusion References 2 Managing Risk, Emergencies, and Disasters Introduction Fundamental Emergency Management Concepts Risk Hazard Vulnerability Disaster Safe vii © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC 1 5 9 13 15 15 15 16 17 18 19 23 24 29 35 39 40 40 43 43 45 45 46 47 48 51 CONTENTS The Management of Risk The Management of Emergencies and Disasters: Emergency Management Functions Mitigation Preparedness Response Recovery The Management of Emergencies and Disasters: Emergency Management Structures The Fire Department Law Enforcement Emergency Management Emergency Medical Services The Military Other Emergency Management Resources Governmental Preparedness Actions Individual and Business Preparedness Jurisdictional Management and Control: Defining Responsibility What Is Public Emergency Preparedness? The Advantages of a Trained Public Conclusion References 3 The Campaign — Step 1: Early Planning Introduction Define the Problem Identify and Analyze the Hazard Risk Define the Target Population Identify Appropriate Solutions Market Research Existing Program Research and Gap Analysis Determine Project Feasibility Establish Realistic Goals and Objectives Form the Planning Team and Coalition Encouraging Partners to Join the Planning Team The Media as a Partner Drawing Up Partnership Plans Project Management viii © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC 51 53 53 54 55 55 57 57 59 60 60 61 61 62 64 64 66 67 72 72 73 73 75 75 78 93 94 96 97 97 101 108 116 120 120 CONTENTS Conclusion References 122 122 4 Step 2: Develop a Campaign Strategy Introduction Project Kickoff The Campaign Strategy Influential External Variables Selecting Appropriate Settings, Channels, and Methods Settings Channels Methods Selecting Communication Channels and Methods Selecting Communicators Design and Develop Message Content The Extended Parallel Process Model Creating Targeted Materials Social Norms Design Materials Activities and Events Planning Establishing a Project Timetable Creating the Comprehensive Communication Plan Pilot Testing and Adjusting Campaign Materials Conclusion References 125 125 126 127 137 140 140 143 147 153 159 162 164 167 171 173 173 174 175 176 176 177 5 Campaign Implementation and Evaluation 179 Introduction Campaign Launch The Media Evaluation Objectivity in Evaluation The Justification for Evaluation Process Evaluation Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Design True Experimental Designs Conclusion References 179 179 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 196 198 ix © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC CONTENTS 6 Program Support 199 Introduction Types of Program Support Sources of Support Individual Donors Concluding Remarks about Individual Donors Business and Corporate Donors Small Businesses Foundations Community Foundations Public Foundations Family Foundations Private Foundations Finding Appropriate Foundations Local, State, County, and Federal Government Grants Local Government State and County Governments The Federal Government Religious Organizations Civic Organizations and Service Clubs Fee Generation Partnerships Implementing a Fundraising Strategy Fundraising Strategy Factors Asking for Stuff Conclusion References 7 Emergency Management Public Education Case Studies Case: Multi-Cultural Disaster Preparedness Campaign Case: Multi-Cultural Disaster Preparedness Campaign Case: Preparing Children for Emergencies Case: Organized Training for Communities Case: Children’s “Edutainment” Program Case: Disaster Preparedness at Religious Institutions Case: Earthquake Readiness Taught to a Population That Speaks English as a Second Language Case: Citywide Preparedness Effort x © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC 199 203 204 205 206 206 208 210 210 211 211 212 214 215 216 218 219 222 223 223 224 225 226 229 233 233 235 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 CONTENTS Case: Volunteer Emergency Preparedness Program Case: Teaching Emergency Preparedness in Schools Case: Emergency Preparedness in Public Transportation Case: FEMA Prepares Children for Disasters Case: Disaster Preparedness in Schools Case: Emergency Preparedness in Neighborhoods Case: Public Private Partnership for Disaster Preparedness Case: National Public Education Effort Appendix: Web Sites and Downloadable Guides Found on the Internet xi © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC 243 244 245 246 246 247 248 249 251 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Damon Coppola would like to express his profound gratitude to his wife, Mary Gardner Coppola, for her guidance and patience; to Jane Bullock and George Haddow for their friendship and support and for continuing to give freely of their expertise and experience; to Eileen Coppola for her sage editing assistance; and to Jack Harrald, Greg Shaw, J. René van Dorp, and Ollie Davidson for their insight. Erin Maloney would like to thank her former advisors Dr. Dana Mastro and Dr. Leslie Snyder for inspiring her to go into the field; her current doctoral advisor, Dr. Maria Lapinski, for her guidance and support; and Kyle for teaching her the value of home-roasted coffee. The authors would also like to thank Mark Listewnik, Jessica Vakili, and Andrea Demby at Taylor & Francis for the assistance they provided in the development of this book. xiii © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC INTRODUCTION The first eight years of the 21st century were punctuated by a diverse series of mega-disasters, most notably the earthquakes in Gujarat, India, and Kashmir, Pakistan, the September 11 terrorist attacks on the United States, the Indian Ocean tsunami, Hurricane Katrina, Cyclone Nargis in Burma, and the Sichuan earthquake in China. After-action reporting following these events denoted that only a very small percentage of the affected populations had acted to reduce their vulnerability prior to each disaster’s occurrence. In many of these cases and others like them, national and international governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) alike expended tremendous human and financial resources in an effort to promote public disaster preparedness. Clearly, most of these efforts fell far short of their expected outcomes. Coupled with the recognition that natural and technological disasters are increasing both in number and severity, such poor communitywide public disaster preparedness figures obligate the adaptation of a more effective practice. Individual and family preparedness are vital to increasing overall community resilience, especially in light of the limitations typically experienced by the emergency services in the outset of large-scale events. Even in countries whose governments boast the most highly advanced emergency management capacities, leaders have found it necessary to warn average citizens that a minimum of 48 to 72 hours of self-reliance in the aftermath of a major disaster should be anticipated. Individual emergency preparedness is by no means a new concept; however, the recognition of its true lifesaving potential has elevated its prominence among professionals in the field of emergency management. In response to a recent Council for Excellence in Government study, which reported that “most Americans haven’t taken steps to prepare for a natural disaster, terrorist attack, or other emergency” (USA Today, 12/18/2006), former Department of Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff echoed an even wider societal recognition of the dire need for increased public disaster preparedness efforts in stating that, “Everybody should have [disaster preparedness] basics down. I think Katrina shook people up. A lot of messaging and a lot of education, particularly at the local level, is the key” (Government Executive, 12/20/2006). Furthermore, the University of Colorado Natural Hazards Center, a leader in the advancement of xv © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC INTRODUCTION emergency management throughout the world, stated in its January 2007 Natural Hazards Observer that: (1) there is a positive correlation between public awareness and positive disaster outcomes; (2) opportunities exist to better educate the public, coordinate messages, and initiate social change; (3) recent studies and surveys all indicate that there is an immediate need for better public education before disaster; and most importantly (4) there exists no comprehensive review of practices and resources and identification of components that make up an effective disaster public education program (Natural Hazards Observer, January 2007). Perhaps most significantly, a June 2007 report released by the Emergency Preparedness Institute states, “The current approach to encouraging preparedness is ineffective, and a new method of communicating the importance of developing business and personal preparedness plans is needed.” While other industries, most notably the public health sector, have enjoyed great success in shaping public attitudes and actions about their risk reduction behavior, the emergency management sector has thus far been largely unsuccessful in its endeavors. Despite the high cost and high profile of the penultimate preparedness effort, the Department of Homeland Security Ready.gov preparedness campaign has failed to make use of strongly supported public education methodologies that would have most certainly improved outcomes (Washington Post, 8/10/2006). Clearly, the most formidable obstacle to those preaching disaster preparedness is an industry-wide lack of knowledge about how people learn new behaviors, what influences them to act upon this knowledge, and the best way to create messages catering to those individual factors. All communities are vulnerable to the effects of natural, technological, and intentional hazards. Every day, in every community, these hazard risks result in emergency events of varying size and intensity. Occasionally, they are of such great magnitude that they result in a major disaster. To minimize the consequences posed by known and unknown hazards, or to limit their likelihood of occurrence, communities perform mitigation and preparedness actions and activities. Individual members of the public, together representing the largest and most important community stakeholder, may be equipped with the skills and knowledge to further reduce their own, their family’s, and their community’s vulnerability if given the right kind of training using appropriate communication channels. This public, once prepared, becomes an integral part of the community’s emergency management capacity. Properly trained individuals not only influence their own and their family’s disaster risk, they also use the skills they have learned to rescue their neighbors, relieve shelter staff, retrofit homes xvi © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC INTRODUCTION for earthquakes, and to take countless more actions to extend the reach of their local emergency services. As is true with the emergency manager and first responders in a community, members of the general public need information and training if they are to know what is best to do before, during, and after emergencies occur. The information provided must reflect their true risk and must be tailored to their needs, preferences, and abilities; transmitted in a way they can receive and understand; and tested for effectiveness. Any education provided will be received in conjunction or in competition with a wide range of other sources and messages relating to hazards, each considered “risk communication” regardless of its influence. In addition, while some of this coincident information will be accurate, effective, and useful, much of it is misleading, inaccurate, and ultimately harmful. Individuals are left to their own devices to cull through the daily onslaught of information received for that which will help them and their families prepare. Creating risk messages and conveying them to the public require a dedication of time, planning, and learning. Unfortunately, informing the public about disaster preparedness is not as easy as simply telling them what they should do. The practice of disaster preparedness public education, which includes public awareness, education, and outreach, is an involved one relying on many years of practice and many different disciplines (including psychology, sociology, graphic design, marketing, communication, emergency management, and many others). Risk communication efforts are ongoing, long-term in nature, and must adhere to strategic plans to be effective. They should be coordinated with other providers in the community, and are most successful when they involve partners drawn from throughout the community and even beyond its borders. This resource has been developed to provide practitioners in the United States and throughout the world, at both the local and national levels, with the background and the tools they need to plan, design, and carry out their public disaster preparedness efforts. The book is intended as an academic resource as well as a practical how-to guide. xvii © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC ABOUT THE AUTHORS Damon P. Coppola is the author of several leading emergency management academic and professional texts, including Introduction to Emergency Management, Introduction to Homeland Security, and Introduction to International Emergency Management. Mr. Coppola is also the co-author of several FEMA Emergency Management Institute publications, including Hazards Risk Management, Emergency Management Case Studies, Comparative Emergency Management, and NIMS and Incident Management Systems. As an independent consultant in the emergency management sector, Mr. Coppola has provided planning and technical assistance to emergency management organizations at the local, state, national, and international levels, and in both the nonprofit and private sectors. Mr. Coppola’s clients have included FEMA, The World Bank, Save the Children, The Humane Society, ACORN, The Annie E. Casey Foundation, The Corporation for National and Community Service, Marriott International, and more. Mr. Coppola received his masters in Engineering Management (MEM) in crisis, disaster, and risk management from the George Washington University. Erin K. Maloney holds a masters in communication from the University of Connecticut at Storrs, and is working toward her doctorate of philosophy in communication with a specialization in environmental science and policy at Michigan State University. Ms. Maloney’s practical experience and research focus primarily on health communication, media, and research methods. Her research generally has implications for communication campaign message design and public processing of messages. Ms. Maloney consults on grassroots communication projects, most recently on a campaign that succeeded in passing a millage to preserve farmland and open space in the State of Michigan. Ms. Maloney is also an instructor and a research assistant in the department of communication at Michigan State University. xix © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC 1 Public Disaster Preparedness In Theory and in Practice INTRODUCTION Risk-related public education permeates all facets of modern life. Automobiles chime to remind us we must “Click It or Ticket;” cigarette packaging warns in no uncertain terms of the cancer risk contained within; Styrofoam coffee cup lids proclaim the obvious heat contained within; and medicine bottles are accompanied by pages of warnings and dangers to match a sentence or two of intended benefits. The flood of risk information we receive can be so great, in fact, that we simply stop paying attention to most of it (Figure 1.1). Every moment of our lives entails risk. Moreover, for every hazard that threatens us there exist actions we may take by which our risk is increased or decreased. For many hazards, common sense would seem to dictate what constituted the wisest risk reduction measures: holding a handrail while descending a staircase; wearing a seatbelt while driving or riding in an automobile; avoiding cigarette smoke or quitting smoking. Unfortunately, such sensible advice is not always followed. Each year, in the United States alone, more than 1,600 people die by falling down the stairs; more than 23,000 perish in motor vehicle accidents while neglecting to wear a seatbelt (approximately 55% of all daytime and 66% of nighttime accident deaths); and approximately 440,000 people succumb to 1 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS FIGURE 1.1 Click It or Ticket Campaign — This image was developed by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration for use by the media. (Source: http://www.nhtsa.gov/buckleup/ciot-planner/planner07/index.htm) smoking-related illnesses (National Safety Council [NSC], 2007; National Highway Traffic Safety Administration [NHTSA], 2007; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2003). Experience has demonstrated that, as a species, humans are not risk-averse and they often do not prepare for or even fear the right things. However, practice has also shown that risk-related misperceptions, miscalculations, and misguided behaviors can and have been corrected through the application of effective risk communication. The majority of the risk-related public education we receive is generated by the public health sector. In fact, the most common avoidable or reducible risks we face as individuals fall under the domain of public health. For decades, public health professionals have studied the most common causes of death, discovered appropriate methods for reducing them, and developed effective messages and communication strategies to educate the public with this knowledge. These practitioners have steadily improved upon their public education methodologies, and their success rates in reducing population-wide risk have risen. Through public health education, people are living healthier, more productive, and longer lives. Public health risks, however, form only one of many risk types we face. In fact, there are a great many larger-scale hazard risks that fall 2 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS within the realm of an entirely different group of professionals: the emergency management community. Emergency managers and the various emergency services have been tasked with the heavy burden of preparing for, mitigating, responding to, and recovering from a full and growing list of natural, technological, and intentional hazards that each year affect millions of people worldwide and destroy billions of dollars in property, infrastructure, and personal and national wealth. Emergency managers, like their counterparts in the public health sector, are acutely concerned with public risk. However, rather than addressing commonly occurring hazards that affect individual citizens on a more personal level — like heart disease and HIV infection — their foci have been those disaster-causing hazards that strike entire communities, cities, states, and even whole nations. In addition, unlike the public health sector, emergency management as a recognized profession is relatively new. Few emergency managers have the communication training of public health professionals. Fewer still have the practical experience required to develop and run a public education campaign. Moreover, almost no offices of emergency management have enjoyed means with which to adequately fund or even gauge the effectiveness of the campaigns they run. The emergency management community is not entirely new to the public education arena. Its practitioners have long recognized the benefits of public education in terms of its ability to reduce population-wide risk from major hazards. Almost every American over the age of 40, for instance, possesses an instinctive understanding of the phrase “Duck and cover!” An even greater range of people understands what is meant by the command “Stop, drop, and roll.” These phrases, developed to address the risk of an air raid in the first case and one’s clothes catching fire in the second, are the products of two very widespread and successful emergency management public education campaigns institutionalized into the American school system (Figure 1.2). Unfortunately, most emergency management public education efforts do not enjoy the widespread success that these two examples have. In fact, studies have shown that the vast majority of people do little or nothing to prepare for disasters and hazards, despite an increasing onslaught of information from local, state, and federal government agencies, the nonprofit sector, and elsewhere. The 21st century has thus far proven to be one marked by frequent and catastrophic hazards in the United States, including terrorist attacks, hurricanes, floods, and tornadoes. Despite extensive media coverage of these events, and what may be one of the 3 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS FIGURE 1.2 Civil defense era poster, Pennsylvania. (Source: Library of Congress, 2000.) most widely touted emergency management public education efforts in decades (the Department of Homeland Security’s Ready.gov Website and related Disaster Preparedness Month), recent research indicates that most individuals and families are still woefully unprepared for the risks they know to be affecting them (Council for Excellence in Government, 2007). The poor success rates of the wider emergency management community are frustrating, but they in no way suggest that the goal of a “culture of disaster preparedness” is unattainable. Organizations like the American Red Cross, in fact, have illustrated through their CPR and first aid training programs that ordinary citizens can and are willing to learn how to help themselves and others in emergencies. The knowledge and experience of this organization that are attributable to its success are not widely enjoyed in the greater emergency management community. The public education work of the Red Cross has bridged the gap between public health and emergency management, and their practitioners have 4 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS successfully incorporated the communication sector’s lessons-learned into their public disaster preparedness education efforts. Risk communication in practice is difficult at best, requiring a detailed understanding of the population targeted, the methods (channels) most suitable for reaching them, and the types of messages most likely to be received and acted upon. There is no such thing as a one-size-fits-all risk communication message, and any attempt to do such is doomed to fail. By learning and applying the effective practices developed over many decades by the public health community and others, emergency managers could enjoy similar levels of success. This chapter introduces public disaster preparedness education and the concepts that guide its successful practice. To begin, a short overview of the experience gleaned in the public health sector, where risk communication efforts have advanced most significantly, is provided. This will help to familiarize readers with the relevant terms and concepts used by risk communication professionals, and the principles and theories that drive public education and preparedness behavior. Finally, the foundational elements of public education — its goals, limitations, and requirements — are presented and explained. COMMUNICATION SCIENCE: A PRIMER Communication science is a field of practice and research that has great potential to advance the efforts of emergency preparedness practitioners. This field is predicated on the fact that the mechanism by which information is conveyed to an individual or group plays an imminent role in the impact the message has on the intended message recipient. Many decades of research by this sector’s experts have led to the discovery of six stages through which individuals process information, namely (McGuire, 1968): 1. Exposure to the message 2. Attention to the message 3. Comprehension of the arguments and conclusions presented in the message 4. Yielding to the message 5. Accepting the message 6. Information integration (which allows for message retention) Thus, once individuals pay attention to and understand a message to which they have been exposed, they will use past experience with the 5 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS issue to evaluate the new information. If after being compared to the old information the new information is accepted, it is integrated into one’s knowledge structure. This integration is said to produce a change in one’s belief system, leading individuals to change their attitude toward the topic. Attitudes are composed of three components: (1) cognitive (one’s opinions or beliefs about the issue), (2) affective (one’s feelings about the issue), and (3) behavioral (one’s behaviors related to the issue). Because these components are so closely intertwined, influencing the cognitive and affective elements of an attitude may bring about behavior change. The act of changing a person’s attitude on an issue for the purpose of creating, reinforcing, or changing responses is called persuasion. Much of communication science and research seeks to uncover different techniques that can be used while delivering a message in order to make it more persuasive. One of the most important factors practitioners should consider when attempting to construct messages to persuade an audience about an issue is the degree to which the members of the audience are involved with the topic being discussed. Involvement in this realm is defined as how much people feel that decisions about the issue will have direct implications for their lives and the things that are important to them; it is how much they care about decisions surrounding the issue. For example, some areas of the medical sector that may be considered high involvement issues are the legality of abortion and whether health insurance will cover the cost of prescribed medications. Some issues that might be considered low involvement issues are the importance of washing one’s hands properly in order to prevent the spread of disease or whether health insurance covers the cost of a medication that you do not use. Those who are highly involved with the topic are thought to scrutinize the message itself very carefully, so the degree to which they are persuaded by the message is based mostly on the strength of the argument presented. Therefore, for example, an individual with a great interest in emergency preparedness who is seeking information specifically on that topic will be likely to pay close attention to information presented in preparedness promotions. He or she will be likely to grasp upon inconsistencies and will question any counter-intuitive facts that are presented. If campaign planners are targeting an audience of highly involved people, it will be crucial for them to present logical, sound arguments. Also, if the communicator knows beforehand that the highly involved audience already holds an unfavorable attitude toward the behavior being presented, then he or she 6 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS should be especially careful not to present any extreme viewpoints that counter the beliefs of the audience. For example, if a school board were already against the implementation of an emergency preparedness course into their students’ regular curriculum because they think it would take away from other studies, it is better to acknowledge their viewpoint and work to find a compromise than to insist that there is no other option than the one being presented. Taking an extreme viewpoint that is counterattitudinal to the audience has been shown to backfire in that the audience ends up spending the entire time counter-arguing (i.e., criticizing every point you make, finding something wrong with each of your points in their own minds, and ending up with a more extreme viewpoint against your message). People who are uninvolved with the topic being promoted have been shown to pay less attention to the message itself. They will not likely be able to pick out inconsistencies in the message or counter-intuitive claims and instead will be influenced by features of the message (such as perceptions of source credibility, message length, and the sheer number of arguments in favor of the issues presented within the message). Therefore, a person who is not highly involved with the issue of emergency preparedness and is not seeking information about the topic is likely to be more influenced by a promotion that contains a list of semi-compelling reasons to engage in the behavior being promoted than a promotion that offers a single highly logical and rational reason. Campaign designers seeking to promote emergency preparedness initiatives are very likely to find themselves dealing with audiences who are uninvolved with the issue. This can be positive in that they will not have strong attitudes that run counter to the promoted behavior, because they do not care as much about the issue. This can also be a drawback, however, in that no matter how logical and sensible it may be for people to engage in the behavior the communicator is promoting, it will likely take more than just a rational argument to get them to assume the inconvenience of a new behavior. Chapter 4 of this book discusses a number of different appeals and communication theories that have been successful in the past in persuading audiences and motivating behavior change. These appeals will be especially important for target audiences that are not involved with the topic of emergency preparedness. See Sidebar 1.1 for more information about the potential and limitations of communication campaigns. 7 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS Sidebar 1.1: The Potential and Limitations of Communication Campaigns Communication campaigns are organized efforts that use communication to bring about a specified goal of informing, reinforcing, or persuading a defined group of people. While communication campaigns can be a very powerful tool of social influence, it is important to distinguish among the things that communication can and cannot do. In order to clarify these capabilities, the National Cancer Institute has offered the following (http://www.cancer.gov/pinkbook/page3): Communication alone can: r Increase the intended audience’s knowledge and awareness of an issue, problem, or solution r Influence perceptions, beliefs, and attitudes that may change social norms r Prompt action r Demonstrate or illustrate skills r Reinforce knowledge, attitudes, or behavior r Show the benefit of behavior change r Advocate a position on an issue or policy r Increase demand or support for social services r Refute myths and misconceptions r Strengthen organizational relationships Communication combined with other strategies can: r Cause sustained change in which an individual adopts and maintains a new behavior or an organization adopts and maintains a new policy direction r Overcome barriers/systemic problems, such as insufficient access to healthcare Communication cannot: r Compensate for inadequate opportunities or services r Produce sustained change in complex behaviors without the support of a larger program for change, including components addressing services, technology, and changes in regulations and policy r Be equally effective in addressing all issues or relaying all messages because the topic or suggested behavior change 8 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS may be complex, because the intended audience may have preconceptions about the topic or message sender, or because the topic may be controversial In addition to these limitations, it is crucial that practitioners recognize that successful communication campaigns are highly audience centered, emphasizing costs and benefits that are likely to produce an effect. Because of this, they generally focus on highly specified target audiences. In addition to narrowing the intended target audience, it is also important to remember that behavior change is quite an ambitious goal. It is not realistic to expect that people will change lifelong habits drastically as the result of even the most persuasive campaign. In other words, communication campaigns are effective when they attempt to persuade a specific group of people to change a very specific attitude or behavior; a single campaign cannot target “everyone” to do “everything” that needs to be done to solve a problem. SOCIAL MARKETING While theory is an essential component in developing messages that are most likely to inspire changes in behavior, the content of the message is only part of the persuasion process. Obviously, even perfectly constructed messages will have no impact if the intended audience is not exposed to them. As this text will demonstrate, message designers must have significant insight into the beliefs, attitudes, values, and current behaviors of their intended audience. Before messages are designed, practitioners must spend some time researching and gaining in-depth knowledge about the audience whose behavior they are trying to change. Perhaps the most easily recognizable demonstration of the power of persuasion is the marketing of commercial products. Private companies spend millions of dollars on marketing each year and are generally confident that the capital dedicated to marketing will elicit a many-fold return in profit. In the past three decades, a number of nonprofit and pro-social sectors have begun to use marketing tools and techniques to circulate social change strategies more effectively. These strategies have guided the design and implementation of campaigns and interventions of successful governmental agencies and organizations such as the Centers for Disease Control (CDC), the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the U.S. Coast Guard, and the 9 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS National Traffic Safety Administration (NTSA), as well as nonprofit organizations such as the American Cancer Society, the American Red Cross, the American Heart Association, the American Lung Association, and the American Diabetes Association. Social marketing campaigns employ the elements of the “marketing mix” used by traditional marketing firms. The traditional “four p’s of marketing” include: 1. Product: In social marketing, the “product” is directly related to the end goal of the marketing campaign. The product may be a tangible good (e.g., hurricane straps), a behavior (e.g., clearing wildfire fuel, stockpiling food and water), a service (e.g., a home safety inspection), or an idea (e.g., family preparedness). 2. Price: The price refers to any cost (money, time, energy, embarrassment, etc.) associated with the product being promoted. It is essential to a marketing campaign to establish the perception among members of the target audience that the benefits of the product outweigh the costs associated with it. 3. Place: There are a number of different “places” that need to be considered in the design of a social marketing campaign. First, it must be determined where people may go to consume the product being promoted (e.g., where smoke detectors will be distributed, where response training may be offered, etc.). Practitioners also must decide upon placement of promotions in order to maximize exposure among the target population. This requires that promoters become familiar with the demographic being targeted, common media used among the group, and the ways in which members of this population obtain trusted information. 4. Promotion: Perhaps even more dependent upon practitioners’ understanding of the target audience’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors is the promotion itself. The promotion stage is the effort to communicate the message to the target audience. This stage takes the three previous “p’s” into account in order to reach the target audience effectively with a message that promotes a clear product, emphasizing the benefits over the barriers of adhering to suggestions made by the message source. In her widely employed book Hands-On Social Marketing: A Step-byStep Guide, Nedra Kline Weinreich notes four supplementary “p’s” of social marketing to be considered in addition to those used in the traditional marketing sector: 10 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 5. Publics: Weinreich draws a distinction between “external publics,” which often include primary audiences (those most in need of influence) and secondary audiences (those who can be persuaded to contribute to influencing the primary audience), policymakers, gatekeepers, and “internal publics,” composed of those who are involved with program implementation. Both are crucial to successful campaigns. 5. Partnerships: Issues being promoted by social marketing are often highly complex. Successful campaigns often involve multiple organizations playing different roles in the multifaceted goals of the campaign effort. 7. Policy: Sometimes the most realistic method of bringing about sustained behavior change is to implement policy change. Social marketing campaigns can aid in generating the support needed for such changes. 8. Purse Strings: Social marketing programs are often funded by grants and donations from foundations or the government. Practitioners should consider all funding possibilities before planning their social marketing efforts in order to keep their program plans within a realistic budget. In a review of social marketing in public health, Walsh, Rudd, Moeykens, and Moloney (1993) noted that while the social marketing process differs from place to place, virtually all share in common that they are: 1. Disciplined in setting objectives and using a variety of techniques to achieve them 2. Centered around a target audience 3. Continuously refined throughout the campaign to meet the needs and desires of the intended audience As these commonalities suggest, the necessity of constant research and adjustment according to the information and feedback provided by the target audience does not allow for a single sequential formula that all campaigns may follow to conduct an effective campaign. The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), NIH, and the National Cancer Institute have developed and refined a social marketing strategy known as the Health Communication Program Cycle. This tried and tested process has come to be known as a standard in the field of risk communication because of its comprehensive approach, elements of which have been highly effective in promoting preventive and reactive 11 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS public health behaviors. Many of the elements developed for this process, and many of the associated actions, are easily transferable to the field of emergency management. The Health Communication Program Cycle divides the public health campaign process into four distinct stages: Stage 1 involves planning and strategy development. It is essential that practitioners “do their homework” during this stage in order to better understand the problem and the role that communication can play in moving toward a solution. As noted earlier, there are no one-size-fits-all communication campaigns that inspire everybody to do everything. Therefore, while conducting this initial research, communicators are best served by identifying segments of the population who are in greatest need of an intervention. Based on this research, the communication team must then set realistic and measurable objectives involving a specific target audience, which are to be assessed at a given date. The research team must set goals that can be measured objectively throughout and at the end of the campaign to track progress and assess the effectiveness of the campaign. Stage 2 involves developing and pre-testing concepts, messages, and materials for the campaign. During this stage, practitioners apply the insight gained from their problem (e.g., hazard risk vulnerability) and audience research previously conducted in order to create initial campaign messages and materials. A number of campaign messages and materials may be developed and pre-tested with focus groups, interviews, or surveys to get feedback from members of the intended audience. Pre-testing is used to eliminate all options except those that are best received by the audience they are intended to influence. Stage 3 is the actual implementation of the program. In addition to reaching out to the target audience, communicators will track exposure and reactions to the campaign. These organized evaluations help to ensure that all materials are being distributed properly and to highlight aspects of the campaign that may need to be adjusted on an ongoing basis. Stage 4 involves assessing the effectiveness of the campaign upon its completion and making refinements for possible future use. During this stage, campaign success is assessed by measuring how close communicators came to reaching each targeted goal. Many social scientists argue that campaigns without assessments are not 12 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS worth conducting, as there are many documented examples of campaigns that produced either no effect or unintended negative effects that made the problem even worse. Campaign evaluation is discussed in greater depth in Chapter 5. THE PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS PROCESS: A SYSTEMS APPROACH The systems approach presented in this text is drawn from the successes of the public health sector, where communication efforts have been conducted, studied, and improved upon for decades. This approach was developed to help planners ensure that they consider every important factor, identify every likely obstacle, and capitalize on all available resources, stakeholders, and partners who might support the effort. These methods are scalable to accommodate the scope of any project size, and may be used in whole or in part as the needs of the project dictate. Public disaster preparedness education campaigns are complex endeavors, regardless of their size or scope. While it may be possible to hastily design, produce, and release individual risk information products and messages, these poorly aimed “hip shots” rarely achieve any measurable change in public behavior in the absence of a greater strategy. If what communicators seek is to facilitate actual improvements in community or population disaster resilience, they can only do so by ensuring their efforts are not performed in an ad hoc, disorganized manner or that they are not hastily planned without regard for each of the critical issues involved. To do either would be at best a waste of time and money, and at worst detrimental to the reputation of the organization and the safety of the target population. All forms of risk communication depend upon an intimate understanding of the problems being addressed, the individuals and groups being communicated with, and the methods, partners, and resources available. The single most effective way to ensure that these factors are not only fully understood, but also appropriately utilized, is to follow a step-by-step systems approach. We separate public disaster preparedness education approach into three separate components: (1) early planning, (2) developing a campaign strategy, and (3) implementing and evaluating the campaign. The following (Figure 1.3) is a brief summary of our approach. 13 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC FIGURE 1.3 Emergency management public education process diagram. © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC STEP 3: CAMPAIGN IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION  ' # ( $ ($ )'(  (  %(  (  )'  COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS 14 STEP 1: EARLY PLANNING                      STEP 2: DEVELOP CAMPAIGN STRATEGY "&* + ' %  % $ %(   '$   $     !(  !  PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS Phase 1: Early Planning All projects must be built upon a solid, stable foundation of comprehensive planning. In this initial stage, communicators explicitly define the problem they are hoping to address, and perform an assessment to ensure that their estimations and impressions are as accurate as possible. At the same time, they define and analyze the target population, learning as much they can about their risk perceptions, abilities, wants, cultures, and other characteristics. Once the problem has been defined and a target population has been selected, it is possible to conduct a thorough assessment of population risk. Based upon the outcome of that assessment, planners can begin to establish the goals and objectives of their campaign. They can also begin to form the larger planning team and communication coalition that will carry out the planning, management, and operations of the full campaign and that can identify, contact, and begin securing partners and stakeholders who will make the campaign possible through their assistance and resources. Finally, they begin to identify the various obstacles they may encounter in the course of their work, and predetermine ways in which to overcome them should they arise. Phase 2: Developing a Campaign Strategy The second phase in the process entails the development of a campaign strategy that guides actual operations after kickoff takes place, and the development of the materials and methods that are used to communicate with the target population. Communicators perform market and data research to determine what information already exists that either helps or hinders efforts, and determines how messages can best be transmitted. Using these data together with the analysis of the target population and an assessment of available resources, the communicators select channels, settings, and methods to execute their campaign. Message content and materials are designed and developed, followed by pilot testing to ensure the desired level of efficacy is attainable. Finally, activities and events are planned and staff is trained, all in preparation for the campaign that is about to begin. Phase 3: Implementing and Evaluating the Campaign It is in the third and final phase when communicators begin carrying out the various operational elements of their campaign strategy with the 15 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS target population. During this phase, communicators regularly measure their levels of exposure and assess the success of their efforts. Using their findings, they evaluate and adjust their methods and materials to keep improving their ability to influence individual behavior. Communicators also measure how close they came to meeting or exceeding their goals. Using this information, they will be able to evaluate what actions and methods they chose that worked, and what they did or encountered along the way that hindered their progress. Project outcome evaluation is important for many reasons, as is described in Chapter 5. PURPOSE, GOALS, AND OBJECTIVES All disaster preparedness public education efforts share a common purpose, namely to: reduce individual vulnerability to one or more identified hazard risks as much as possible among as many members of a defined target population as possible. Vulnerability, as will be explained in detail in Chapter 2, is the propensity to incur harm — in this case from the negative consequences of a disaster. There are countless methods by which vulnerability may be reduced and, likewise, resilience bolstered. However, the specific actions by which this is actually achieved — and to what degree of success it is achieved — are highly dependent on the ability of the preparedness campaign planning team to correctly identify the problem (i.e., the reason that vulnerability is high), assess the targeted population, identify the most appropriate methods to address the problem, and select the best mechanisms to communicate. There are three primary goals of all public disaster preparedness education campaigns. While the most comprehensive campaigns might actually manage to accomplish all three of these goals, the majority often address only the first two. These overarching public disaster preparedness education goals include:   1. Raising public awareness of the hazard risk(s) 2. Guiding public behavior, including: r 1SFEJTBTUFSSJTLSFEVDUJPOCFIBWJPS r 1SFEJTBTUFSQSFQBSFEOFTTCFIBWJPS 16 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS   r 1PTUEJTBTUFSSFTQPOTFCFIBWJPS r 1PTUEJTBTUFSSFDPWFSZCFIBWJPS 3. Warning the public Goal 1: Raising Public Awareness of the Hazard Risk The first goal of any public disaster preparedness education campaign is to notify the public about their exposure to a hazard risk and to give them an accurate impression of how that risk affects them personally. Because most people already have a general awareness that a hazard risk exists, this goal is most typically a simple matter of correcting inaccuracies and feelings of apathy toward preparedness for the particular hazard or hazards of concern. Adjusting public sentiment of this kind, which is most often the product of misguided assumptions regarding their need or ability to affect their fate, is likewise accomplished by raising awareness about the particulars of the hazards and risks of concern. While the occurrence of an actual disaster is the most likely and effective means by which people become aware of a particular hazard risk, it is preferable for obvious reasons that the public be enlightened long before a disaster happens. Additionally, the mere experience of surviving a disaster has not been shown to increase future preparedness behavior by any significant degree if a public disaster preparedness education effort does not follow the event (Citizen Corps, 2006). The task of raising awareness involves much more than simply telling citizens what causes a particular risk. They must also be informed of how the risk affects them as individuals, what they are doing that places them at risk, and where and when the hazard will likely strike. They must fully understand the risk as it applies to them personally and to the population as a whole in order to effectively absorb, process, and act upon all subsequent information they receive. Raising public awareness is a difficult task because of the competition communicators face for the attention of their audience. Communicators must always be aware that members of their target population face numerous risks on an individual level — many on a daily basis — that take up much of their limited attention. People already have to worry about their financial problems, crime, illness, problems at work and school, and many other immediate issues, before they even think about what the communicators are about to tell them. Leading risk communications expert M. Granger Morgan stated in a 2002 report on a study of how people receive disaster preparedness information that “the time that most people can 17 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS devote to rare or unusual risks is usually very limited” (Morgan, Fischhoff, Bastrom, and Atman). In order to overcome these formidable social and psychological obstacles, public education aimed at raising hazard risk awareness must be as accurate, trustworthy, and effective as possible. Goal 2: Guiding Public Behavior Once an audience is informed sufficiently and appropriately about a hazard, they are primed to receive and process information that will help them take appropriate action to reduce their vulnerability to one or more hazard risks. This information will guide them in taking one or more of the following categories of risk reduction action (each distinguished by when the action is taken and for what greater purpose): 1. 2. 3. 4. Pre-disaster risk reduction behavior Pre-disaster preparedness behavior Post-disaster response behavior Post-disaster recovery behavior Public education measures that address pre-disaster risk reduction behavior seek to instruct a population that is already aware of the existence of a hazard risk about the range of available options that can help reduce their individual and collective vulnerabilities to that risk. For instance, people living in areas where earthquakes are a problem might be shown how to secure their furniture to walls or floors to avoid the injuries that result when such items are toppled. Once informed about how their actions can affect their risk levels, people are more likely to act in ways that improve their chances of avoiding disaster in the future. Public education aimed at teaching pre-disaster preparedness behavior attempts to inform the public about the kinds of actions they can take before a disaster happens that, while not necessarily reducing the likelihood of an event occurring, allow them to better manage the consequences they face. Actions taught in this category could include the stockpiling of certain materials; the establishment of individual, family, and community action plans, and the designation of appropriate and safe post-disaster meeting places. Education in post-disaster response behavior seeks to teach an informed public how to react in the midst of and the aftermath of a hazard event. For instance, individuals must be instructed in how to recognize disaster indicators and know what they should do in response to them, including the proper way to participate in an evacuation. This category of public 18 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS FIGURE 1.4 Phuket, Thailand. Tsunami evacuation sign installed in a coastal tourist community hard-hit by the 2004 tsunami. education also includes measures that empower the public to provide firstresponse services to their families, friends, neighbors, and themselves, supplementing the community’s overextended emergency management resources (Figure 1.4). Finally, education focused on post-disaster recovery behavior, which tends to be provided only in the aftermath of a disaster, teaches the disaster-affected members of the public how to best rebuild their lives. This can include helping people locate government, nonprofit, or international resources dedicated to relief and recovery, and learn how to provide those services for themselves. Goal 3: Warning the Public The final goal of disaster management public education is warning. Warnings are issued to alert an audience about a change in risk concerning an increased or certain likelihood of occurrence, and to provide them 19 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS with authoritative instruction on appropriate actions they may take in response. Warning messages differ from awareness messages in that they instruct recipients to take immediate action. Like all risk communication efforts, the messages and systems developed to transmit a warning must be designed to reach the full range of possible recipients within the communities, regardless of location or time. Employing multiple systems, in collaboration with a full range of public, private, and non-governmental partners, increases the likelihood of a system reaching its target audience. Examples of the various groups that must be considered in planning for hazard warnings include individuals: r r r r r r r r r At home In school At work In public spaces In their cars Who are disabled Who speak different languages Who are uneducated or have little education Who are poor Warnings must inform people of an impending hazard or disaster and must instruct them on what to do before, during, and after the hazard (see Sidebar 1.2). Warnings may include information on how citizens can get more information, such as a Website, radio or TV station, or phone number. Public warnings are more than just a message. Warnings are built upon complex systems designed for the specifics of each hazard, population, and environment. Comprehensive warning systems seek to do most or all of the following, in order: 1. Detect the presence of a hazard. This step involves collecting data from a number of possible preestablished sensing and detection systems, including weather sensors, water flow sensors, seismicity and ground deformation sensors, air and water monitoring devices, and satellites, for example. 2. Assess the threat posed by that hazard. All hazards include some variable component of risk likelihood, which changes through time as more information becomes available. The data collected from the sensing and detection systems allow disaster managers 20 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. to update their assessments of the hazard and then consider how the community or country would be affected. Determine the population facing risk from that hazard. The most effective warnings are those that target populations according to their risk, thereby ensuring that those not at risk avoid taking unnecessary actions, which can get in the way of disaster managers. Targeted warnings also allow responders to focus their assistance on those people with the most pressing needs. Inform the population. One of the most difficult decisions disaster managers make is whether to issue a warning. Many are afraid that the public will panic if they are told about a disaster or that they will accuse the disaster manager of “crying wolf” if the hazard does not materialize. However, researchers have found both these outcomes to be rare in actual practice. Moreover, if the disaster management agency has followed established guidelines on risk assessment, their decision on issuing a warning can only be regarded as responsible. Determine appropriate protective actions that may be taken. Using their updated assessment of the situation, disaster managers must determine which protective actions the public should be instructed to take. For some hazards, such as chemical releases, the public may have been told about multiple, conflicting actions, such as both evacuation and sheltering in place (remaining at their indoor location while sealing off the outside environment as much as possible). Direct the public to take those actions. Through previous education efforts, the public should already be aware of the hazard and knowledgeable about the types of actions that may be required during a warning. Disaster managers must decide on the best course of action and relay that information to the public through previously established mechanisms. A warned public will seek information on what to do next, and it is important that a clear message be given to guide them. Support the actions being taken by the public. Actual response assets (such as police and fire officials, emergency management officials, volunteers, and other established responders) should assist the public in following any broadcasted instructions; for instance, facilitating evacuation efforts. 21 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS Warning systems are much more than the application of technology and last-minute decisions. An effective warning system involves three distinct processes that are crucial so the public will actually take appropriate action. The three processes are: 1. Planning. During this first phase, disaster managers must consider what hazards allow for warnings, how and when the public will be warned, what the public can do in response to those warnings, what terminology will be used, and what authority and equipment are needed to issue the warnings. 2. Public education. The public will not automatically respond to a siren, announcement, or other form of warning just because the warning is given. Studies have shown that even with education about warnings, as few as 40% of recipients will take appropriate action. Without previous instruction on what to do, it can be assumed that even fewer would respond. A full explanation of warnings has to be incorporated into regular public disaster education campaigns, including what they will sound like, what they mean, where more information can be obtained, and the possible actions that will be taken in response to them. 3. Testing and evaluation. Testing and evaluation are necessary to ensure that recipients are not exposed to the warning process for the first time during a disaster. Testing allows citizens to experience the warning in a low-stress environment and to hear the actual sound or wording of a warning when they are neither anxious nor scared. Testing also allows disaster managers to ensure that their assumptions about the system and its processes reflect what will actually take place during a real warning event. Evaluation of the warning system helps to ensure in advance that the system is as effective as it can be. Sidebar 1.2: The Words of Warning Many different words are used to describe the severity of a hazard warning. Confusion about these words may cause recipients to respond with either too much or too little action. Therefore, clarity and consistency are important. In general, the terminology used to describe warnings includes: 22 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS r Warning. The hazardous event is under way or is highly likely to occur soon. Generally, an immediate threat to life and property exists. The public should take immediate protective action. r Advisory. Advisories, like warnings, are given for events that are currently occurring or are about to occur. Advisories apply to events that are less severe than warnings in terms of the expected consequences to life and property. However, action to protect life and property are strongly recommended. r Watch. Watches are issued when the likelihood of a hazardous event has increased significantly, but where and when the event will occur is uncertain. Watches are issued so that recipients may begin taking precautionary measures as far in advance as possible, even though there is a significant chance that the event may not materialize. r Outlook. An outlook is a prediction of a hazardous event in the near future, based upon conditions that are beginning to look favorable for the onset of that event. Outlooks do not usually include action information or recommendations to prepare for the possible event. r Statement. Statements are not warnings themselves, but are used to provide detailed follow-up information to warnings, advisories, or watches. Other Risk Communication Goals Like all other forms of public education, public disaster preparedness education seeks to accomplish several goals simultaneously, often in addition to the three primary goals listed previously. Goals serve to help planners focus their efforts and ultimately determine if their campaign was successful in achieving what it set out to do. Goals should be basic, should be attainable, and should complement one another. They should also suit the communication theory and practice employed in the campaign. Through the actions that are taken to meet these goals, public knowledge and skill are increased and resilience results. Additional goals that address specific needs of an identified and assessed problem, a profiled population, and a developed message (as identified by the CDC [1995] and other sources [Baker, 1990]) are as follows: 23 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Increase or enhance knowledge. Refute myths/misconceptions. Influence attitudes and social norms. Develop skills. Reinforce knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors. Suggest/enable action. Show the benefits of a behavior. Increase support or demand for services. Coalesce organizational relationships. Each of these goals is relevant to the campaign, and therefore important, only if it contributes directly to what the campaign is ultimately seeking to achieve, namely: r Hazard awareness and accuracy of information r Behavior change r Individual and population-wide resilience (i.e., vulnerability reduction) r Sustainability Priorities and Goals of Risk Communication Recipients Risk exists in many forms, as experienced and perceived by individuals. In a study performed by risk communication expert M. Granger Morgan and his colleagues, citizens were asked to make lists of risks that concern them the most. The responses ranged from threats that would result in injury or death, such as accidents, disease, and crime; to economic risks that would result in a financial loss for the individual; to personal concern-related risks, such as love-life problems or problems in school or at work, among others. Only 10% of the risks that were cited related to natural or technological hazards. Morgan and his team found that “whereas professional risk experts devote many hours to considering rare and unusual hazards, most people do not share this preoccupation. With jobs, family, friends, and the other demands of daily living, their lives are filled with more immediate concerns.” The authors summarize this statement in saying, “The time that most people can devote to rare or unusual risks is usually very limited” (Morgan et al., 2002 , p. 2). For some of the risks people must face, such as those associated with health (e.g., smoking) or safety (e.g., driving), there is a certain amount of control that individuals possess to directly minimize their risk. For other 24 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS risks, people can only indirectly minimize their risks, through social processes (i.e., voting for certain risk controls or mitigation measures). However, the authors write that In all cases, [people] need a diverse set of cognitive, social, and emotional skills in order to understand the information that they receive, interpret its relevance for their lives and communities, and articulate their views to others. They can acquire those skills through formal education, selfstudy, and personal experience. However, as diligent as they might be, individuals are helpless without trustworthy, comprehensible information about specific risks. (p. 2) Target populations, like risk communicators, have their own goals that dictate their participation in a public education effort. While there will always be a certain percentage of the target population that pays no attention at all to communicators or their messages, most will recognize the pertinence of the messages to their own life and seek more information upon which they will determine future action. How they go about this and what kind of information they seek will not be uniform across all issues they face. Once they elect to pay attention to the communicator’s message, there are generally three areas that describe their intentions for doing so. 1. Advice and Answers — This group consists of people who want only to be told exactly what to do. They need step-by-step instruction on how to address the problem of which they have just been informed. This group of people would rather be given the product of an analysis process than be given all of the necessary information to draw conclusions themselves. This can be compared to the faith that is held in the advice given by a trusted doctor, lawyer, or other consultant. 2. Numbers — There are certain people who will not take advice at face value. Rather, this group would prefer the option to draw their own conclusions about what they need to do from a body of statistical evidence that is provided to them by communicators. This group would rather be faced with quantitative summaries of expert knowledge than to be fed step-by-step instruction offering little room for individual analysis and perspective. 3. Process and Framing — This group is composed of those individuals who prefer to fully analyze as many factors relevant to the problem as possible, assuming full ownership of their actions and any 25 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS likely outcomes that result. Members of this group generally require three primary data points with which to shape future action: i. The costs associated with inaction versus those associated with the actions prescribed by communicators ii. The statistical likelihood of falling victim to a disaster and the probable consequences should victimization occur iii. The actual or expected reduction in risk that would be achieved through each of the actions offered This group is the most motivated and capable of the three, and is interested in learning not only how vulnerabilities are created through their own or their community’s actions, but also how they or their community can control that risk. Using that information, they understand that they will be able to assess their personal circumstances, make individual identifications and assessments of risk, and devise self-tailored solutions. (See Figure 1.5.) Communicators must also be aware that the priorities and goals of their target audience may not closely match their own. Many individuals’ goals may be directly opposed to the communicators’, or even opposed to risk reduction in general. For instance, individuals who seek a waterfront view for their home may elect to place themselves in a location that also provides the most direct exposure to the forces of hurricanes, storm surges, and erosion. While the ultimate reduction in risk would be to remove such an individual from the source of risk (the oceanfront property), such an action would probably be in too great opposition to their wants and needs to bring about behavioral change. By identifying and accommodating the goals of recipients, and developing and communicating strategies that offer multiple solutions, communicators will achieve much greater success overall (even if the prescribed solutions would not have achieved as significant risk reduction under more perfect circumstances). Sidebar 1.3: The Various Publics Public disaster preparedness education can be a powerful tool in helping not only individuals to change, but also groups, communities, and even whole societies. The following list, compiled by the NIH, illustrates the different ways that risk communication can affect different segments of society in an effort to bring about change: 26 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS English ~ Espanol RussianPDF VietnamesePDF HOW TO PREPARE Make a Plan START HERE Build a Kit Get Involved HOUSEHOLD/ FAMILY HOME SAFETY CHILDREN SENIORS & DISABLED PETS UTILITIES FOOD WATER FIRST AID GO BAG PHONE VOLUNTEER TRAINING COMMUNITY WHAT TO DO IF... EARTHQUAKE STORM/ FLOODING TERROR CONTAGIOUS DISEASE TRANSIT SAFETY EVACUATION NO POWER FIRE TSUNAMI SIRENS SHELTER IN PLACE FIGURE 1.5 Screenshot from www.72hours.org, a public emergency preparedness education Website developed and maintained by the city and county of San Francisco, California. r Individuals — The interpersonal level is the most fundamental level of risk-related communication because individual behavior most profoundly affects individual vulnerability. Communication can affect individuals’ awareness, knowledge, attitudes, self-efficacy, skills, and commitment to behavior 27 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS r r r r change. Activities directed at other intended audiences for change may also affect individual change, such as training employees in how to apply at-work preparedness measures to their home life. Groups — The informal groups to which people belong and the community settings they frequent can have a significant impact on their personal vulnerability and propensity to participate in preparedness behavior. The groups include relationships between customers and employees at a salon or restaurant, members of the same gym or social club, students and parents in a school setting, or employees at the same work site. Risk communication is easily passed from a direct recipient to others within his or her informal social networks. In fact, activities that are aimed at informal settings often enjoy much greater success than those relying solely upon direct formal communicator-to-recipient patterns. Organizations — Organizations are groups with defined structures, such as associations, clubs, or civic groups. This category also includes businesses and government agencies. Organizations can carry preparedness messages to their constituents, provide support for preparedness communication programs, and make policy changes that encourage individual change. Communities — Community leaders and policymakers can be effective allies in influencing change in policies, products, and services that can hinder or support people’s actions. By influencing communities, disaster preparedness communication efforts can promote increased awareness of existing hazards, changes in attitudes and beliefs, and group or institutional support for desirable behaviors. In addition, communication can advocate policy or structural changes in the community (e.g., floodplain management and mitigation grant funding) that encourage resilient behavior. Society — Society as a whole influences individual behavior by affecting norms and values, attitudes and opinions, and laws and policies, and by creating physical, economic, cultural, and information environments. Public disaster preparedness education aimed at the societal level can change individual attitudes or behavior and thus change social norms. For instance, greater awareness of the terrorism hazard brought about by 28 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS the September 11th terrorist attacks resulted in public support for much greater funding for local first responders. Source: United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). 2002. Making Health Communications Programs Work. Bethesda, MD: National Institutes of Health. SEEING THE BIGGER PICTURE: COMMUNICATION AS ONE COMPONENT OF A LARGER SOLUTION Public disaster preparedness education campaigns are conducted to address existing hazard vulnerabilities. Like all public education efforts, when properly conducted, they can be highly effective in limiting behavior that fosters vulnerability and promoting behavior that reduces it. Conducted in a vacuum, however, these efforts rarely succeed. This is primarily because vulnerabilities tend to have much deeper social roots that extend far beyond a simple lack of knowledge (Paton and Johnson, 2001). To maximize the effectiveness of the public disaster preparedness education campaign, planners will need to view it as one attack in a battle that is being conducted on several fronts. In the planning process, as is detailed in Chapter 3 and Chapter 4, the roots of the vulnerability must be assessed. These social factors may be financial, cultural, religious, or of other origin. Likewise, as is true with all social problems (e.g., crime, health, unemployment, homelessness), communication programs should be integrated as much as possible into any larger, comprehensive efforts that are currently addressing or that plan to address the same problem from a similar or different perspective. The various available components that are typically incorporated into a comprehensive public disaster preparedness campaign include: r Communication — Communication, as subsequent chapters illustrate, can come in many forms and by many different methods. The target of these communication messages includes not only the vulnerable population, but also the general public, educators, the media, emergency services, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), policymakers, or anyone else who either needs to make a behavioral change or can facilitate one. 29 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS r Facilitation — Facilitation involves helping members of the target population take necessary action to reduce their vulnerability. Oftentimes facilitation is necessary because certain individuals are able to receive and understand the messages communicators are sending them, but are unable to act upon them without outside assistance. Facilitation can also be a way to prompt reluctant individuals who are otherwise able to take action to do so. Facilitation differs from communication in that the facilitators are actually performing or assisting others in performing the tasks required to change vulnerable behavior. r Funding and financial incentives — While not all vulnerability reduction solutions offered by public disaster preparedness education campaigns have an accompanied cost for recipients, most do. By providing a grant or other financial incentive program (like tax breaks or insurance discounts) to the target population, it is often possible to prompt those for whom only money is a restrictive factor into action. In many cases, even for those individuals who can afford the risk reduction measures but choose not to out of ambivalence or some other self-limiting factor, the chance to gain something for free or at a significantly reduced cost is enough to initiate action. r Policy change — Public policy, which includes laws, standards, regulations, or operating procedures, for example, has long been an effective way to create behavioral change. Policy action is best suited in several different types of situations, such as when social barriers prevent individuals who would otherwise prepare for a hazard from doing so (e.g., requiring the posting of evacuation signs in hotels), when a recognized safety standard is known but not yet required in private life or on private property (e.g., building codes, seat-belt laws), or when implementing such laws or requirements would bring greater benefit to the greater good of the public (e.g., obligatory first aid education in public school). r Technology — Technology alone is rarely an answer in the emergency management world, but by harnessing technological advances and devices, emergency managers have been able to significantly increase their ability to reduce death and destruction among the affected population. This also applies to public disaster preparedness efforts, in that technology can help break down existing barriers and improve the effectiveness of other efforts. 30 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS For instance, various monitoring and detection systems have allowed more accurate mapping of hazard risk, which in turn has allowed people living or working within those risk zones to better understand their exposure. Technology research has also helped to develop cheaper and easier-to-use mitigation and preparedness devices that allow the public to reduce risk on a personal level. Widespread use of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) weather radio is a perfect example of how technology has improved preparedness (see Sidebar 1.4). Sidebar 1.4: NOAA Weather Radios NOAA Weather Radio All Hazards (NWR) is a nationwide network of radio stations broadcasting continuous weather information directly from the nearest National Weather Service office. NWR broadcasts official Weather Service warnings, watches, forecasts, and other hazard information 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Working with the Federal Communication Commission’s (FCC) Emergency Alert System, NWR is an “All Hazards” radio network, making it the single source for comprehensive weather and emergency information. In conjunction with federal, state, and local emergency managers and other public officials, NWR also broadcasts warning and post-event information for all types of hazards, including natural (such as earthquakes or avalanches), environmental (such as chemical releases or oil spills), and public safety (such as AMBER alerts or 911 telephone outages). Known as the “Voice of NOAA’s National Weather Service,” NWR is provided as a public service by NOAA, part of the Department of Commerce. NWR includes more than 985 transmitters, covering all 50 states, adjacent coastal waters, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the U.S. Pacific Territories. NWR requires a special radio receiver or scanner capable of picking up the signal. Broadcasts are found on the VHF public service band at seven frequencies between 162.400 and 162.550 MHz. NOAA broadcasts cannot be heard on a simple AM/FM radio receiver. However, many receiver options range from handheld portable units that pick up only NWR to desktop and console models that receive NWR in addition to other broadcasts. The National Weather Service does not manufacture, sell, or endorse any particular make or 31 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS model of receiver. Receivers can be found at many retail outlets, including electronics, department, sporting goods, and boat and marine accessory stores and their catalogs. They can also be purchased via the Internet from online retailers or directly from manufacturers. Many municipal mitigation and preparedness programs have used grant funding to supply residents with receivers free of charge, in conjunction with training in how to operate them. The following are types of NWR receivers: r Standalone: While these receivers might also come with AM/ FM bands, their primary use is to receive NWR broadcasts. Buyers can choose between handheld and desktop models, depending on the portability desired. Prices range from around $20 to over $100. r Multi-band/function: These receivers bundle a number of features, and NWR is just one of possibly many frequency bands included. This includes AM/FM radios, shortwave receivers, CB radios, VHF marine radios, scanners, and more. The following are features typical of NWR receivers: r Tone alarm: The National Weather Service will send a 1050-Hz tone alarm before most warning and many watch messages are broadcast. The tone will activate all the receivers that are equipped to receive it, even if the audio is turned off. This is especially useful for warnings that occur during the night when most people are asleep. r SAME technology: SAME, or specific alert message encoding, allows users to specify the particular area for which they wish to receive alerts. Most warnings and watches broadcast over NWR are county based or independent city-based (parish based in Louisiana), although in a few areas of the country the alerts are issued for portions of counties. Since most NWR transmitters are broadcasting for a number of counties, SAME receivers will respond only to alerts issued for the area (or areas) selected. This minimizes the number of “false alarms” for events that might be a few counties away from where users live. r Selectable alerting of events: While SAME allows users to specify a particular area of interest, some receivers allow users to turn off the alarm for certain events that might not be 32 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS important to them. For example, if you live in a coastal county, but not right at the beach, you might not care about coastal flood warnings. r Battery backup: Since power outages often occur during storms, having a receiver with battery backup can be crucial. r External antenna jack: While most receivers come with a whip antenna that can usually be extended out from the unit, depending on location users may need an external antenna to get good reception. Some receivers come with an external antenna jack that allows users to connect to a larger antenna. Source: NOAA, 2008. Unfortunately, a great many public disaster preparedness education campaigns are conducted wholly independent of any other supportive approach that would likely have increased the desired change significantly. Without such support, campaign planners set unrealistic expectations for themselves concerning that which they can ultimately accomplish. In most cases, the non-communication components of a preparedness campaign are already being conducted or are available to recipients; however, the communication campaign planners are simply not aware of them and are therefore unable to link their efforts. Thorough planning in the design phase can help to locate as many of these other options as possible, thereby incorporating them into the messages and actions that are developed and delivered. Consider a campaign to increase the use of household smoke detectors to prevent injuries and deaths from fires (which cause over 4000 fatalities and tens of thousands of injuries each year in the United States alone). Through effective risk communication, residents are informed that they are at risk from house fires, told how that risk applies to them, and given appropriate information about the value the use of a smoke detector could provide in terms of giving them early warning about a fire in their house. Even if translated into all applicable languages and broadcast on all appropriate channels, using all necessary communication campaign components (as described in this text), this communication effort alone is likely to do little more than raise greater awareness of the hazard. Such a limited campaign is unlikely to increase the number of homes that use smoke detectors significantly above rates that were seen prior to the campaign. By understanding why people might not be using the devices, and what else can be done to increase their use through the application of 33 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS a more comprehensive preparedness campaign, it is possible to achieve much greater results. For instance, it is often the case that there exist residents who, for one reason or another, lack the financial means to purchase the devices. Through a simple need-based grant program, communicators can provide additional information about how to acquire free smoke detectors, thereby eliminating the financial burden. Another obstacle might originate from a lack of residents’ ability or time to install smoke detectors in their homes. By promoting or creating a home inspection and smoke detector installation program, especially one that carries no associated cost, another major roadblock will have been eliminated. By advocating or calling attention to local laws that mandate the use of smoke detectors in the home, it may be possible to reach another group — those who are reluctant to install smoke detectors for any number of reasons. Finally, by promoting the many technological advances that have been made in the smoke detector industry, including systems that contact the fire department directly when triggered and others that are able to alert people who are deaf or are sleeping, vulnerability is decreased even further. (See Figure 1.6.) r To see an example of a program that offers smoke detectors free of charge, managed by the James City, Virginia Fire Department, visit: http://www.james-city.va.us/fire/smoke-detector.html r To see an example of a program that offers funding for smoke detectors for hearing impaired citizens, managed by the Ohio State Government, visit: http://olrs.ohio.gov/asp/pub_ SmokeDetectorHandbook.asp r To see an example of legislative action taken to drive the use of smoke detectors, passed in Baltimore City, Maryland, visit: http://www.peoples-law.org/housing/ltenant/legal%20info/ smoke%20detectors.htm The key to ensuring a comprehensive campaign is not necessarily carrying out each of the components discussed previously. Rather, it is contingent upon the communication campaign planners to recognize these other non-communication needs, to identify existing or likely sources to accommodate them, and to incorporate them into the overall preparedness effort. This is described in detail in Chapter 4. 34 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS Fun din g “I am unable to install smoke detectors myself.” “I cannot afford smoke detectors.” O pt ns io n tio it a l i c Fa gy C olo tio n hn nic a Te c C o m mu “I rent, and my landlord didn’t install smoke detectors.” hange “I am deaf, and cannot hear the smoke detector’s alarm.” “Do smoke detectors really save lives?” Po l i c y C h a n g e FIGURE 1.6 A comprehensive smoke detector safety campaign. REQUIREMENTS OF A PUBLIC EDUCATION CAMPAIGN Although there is no single recipe by which all public education campaigns are developed, there do exist essential ingredients without which success will range from difficult to nearly impossible. Perhaps the most obvious requirement is that of trust in the communicator. Recipients of risk information are unlikely to heed any instructions they hear or read if they cannot lend any credibility to the source of those instructions. However, trust only opens the door — a full range of components factor into how well received a message ultimately finds itself among the target population. Consider the characteristics of an effective public education message that are listed in the following, each of which has been identified and verified through years of research and practice in the public health communication field: 35 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC COMMUNICATING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS r Trustworthy — Public disaster preparedness education efforts ask people to alter their behavior. This is a very personal request, and one for which a great deal of trust is involved. If communicators cannot be believed, few will follow their instructions. One of the most effective means of establishing trust is to indicate a connection with an organization or institution that is highly regarded within the community or by members of the population, or by having popular community representatives (especially from within the target population) perceived as being involved in the communication effort. r Authoritative — Individuals are free to choose to whom they listen. Even if trust has been established, people need to believe that a communicator is an authoritative source of information, or else they are likely to hold the views of another source (which may be opposing or conflicting) more favorably. Recipients of the message must have confidence that the communicator is qualified and sufficiently informed to tell them what to do. r Free of personal gain — In a capitalist society, people receive a barrage of advertising and consumerist information on products and services. There is an inherent skepticism among the public that nearly everyone is out for personal gain. Communicators must be able to convince the public that their message is conveyed only to serve the public good, not to gain anything in return. This can be difficult to do, especially in instances where preparedness requires recipients to purchase something or otherwise spend their money. r Accurate — Communicators must always assume that the recipient public is going to verify any information that is communicated to them prior to acting on that information. For this very reason, it is vital that any statistical or factual information be highly accurate and as current as possible. For specific statistical information, it is often wise to cite a credible reference to back up whatever claim is being made. r Consistent — Public education campaigns are rarely just a onetime broadcast of a message. Rather, the campaign will seek to repeat the message to ensure that it is received over a wide enough segment of the target population and that it becomes memorable to those who hear it. If the message that is transmitted is not the same over time, the benefit of repetitiveness will be lost. This is especially true if a catch phrase is used (e.g., “Stop, drop, 36 © 2009 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC PUBLIC DISASTER PREPAREDNESS r r r r and roll”). If the main point or argument of the message changes, it will seem less credible to the recipient audience. This same requirement extends to the use of multiple channels. For instance, a message that is transmitted over the radio should match messages in print, on the Internet, and elsewhere, or else recipients who make contact with multiple channels will likely become confused. Finally, if different speakers present the message, each must be consistent with the others, even if they are speaking to multiple distinct target populations. Repetitive — As the previous requirement suggests, recipients must face repetitive exposure to a message before they are able to learn from it. As is true with product marketing, the more exposure to a message that a person has, the more memorable that message becomes. Easily understood — Naturally, message recipients must be able to understand a message if they are to receive it. There are many components to this requirement. First, it must be in a language they speak fluently or well enough to understand correctly what is being said. Second, it must match their level of education if it is to be fully understood (which includes writing using more technical language for more educated populations as well). It should be relevant to situations and scenarios that are understandable to the audience as a gender, culture, age, geographic grouping, and other demographic measures. Rational — In addition to a message being understood, it must make sense in a rational and logical sense. Arguments have to be as simple as possible for the audience targeted, and defensible justifications must be presented to support the measures advocated. They should also contain concrete information on the addressed hazards, including mortality rates, affected area, hazard time frame, population affected, and others. Accessible — All people receive their information in a unique manner, based upon their preferences, access, social networks, and other...
Purchase answer to see full attachment
User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

Explanation & Answer

Tha...


Anonymous
Goes above and beyond expectations!

Studypool
4.7
Trustpilot
4.5
Sitejabber
4.4

Related Tags