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COMM 100W – Writing for Influence The Meaning Of….. Assignment Overview In previous work, your efforts were focused on the use of arrangement, and empirically verifiable fact as your stylistic tools. During those assignments, you had to eliminate all subjective language. This assignment, in contrast, will ask you to focus on subjectivity—to exploit and manipulate it, for the purpose of arguing the meaning of a word that may otherwise be taken for granted. As you may have experienced when composing the Fact Paper, our ability to make an argument is limited when we cannot appeal to values. Contrary to the belief that values diminish the validity of an argument by rendering it mere opinion, values are a necessary part of argument. Indeed, they are the very heart of argument. This is the case in part because evaluative terms are notoriously difficult to define. To establish what is meant by any evaluative word, we must rely on precedent and context. We can refer to authoritative sources such as dictionaries, but we must also take into account common usage and intent. In the case of words like hot, cold, short, or tall, there may be specific temperatures or heights that we can all agree define that term. There is no such widespread agreement for other evaluative terms, especially cultural values and principles. Cultural values are key terms to which we appeal again and again when deciding a course of action. They are values that most people would agree are fundamental to our society, even if we cannot agree on their definition. Examples of cultural values are: freedom, happiness, efficiency, maturity, ingenuity, independence, health, security, life, criminality, responsibility, and sustainability. This assignment is designed to give you practice in another technique of persuasive writing, that of defining a cultural value or other key term in such a way that seems credible to your reader. Your ability to credibly define your terms will help you to contribute to a range of public discourse in influential ways. Instructions Identify a specific instance in a document, broadcast, or conversation in which the meaning an author assigns to a word is debatable. You are not looking for an instance in which someone uses a term incorrectly, such as using the word “antidote” to refer to a short story. Rather, you are looking for an instance in which a person applies a word to an object or situation and you disagree with the person’s evaluation of that object or situation; e.g., the killing of his sister for her sexual indiscretion and indecency was deemed a “mercy” killing. In the aforedescribed example, the author uses the word “mercy” to describe a compassionate act done for the other individual’s sake as a result of the compromise of moral values, and the implications on the family’s character. You may disagree that such an act was done out of “mercy,” and therefore take exception to the use of that word. When you have your example, then answer for yourself the following question: Why is it important to dispute the meaning of that word? Your answer to that question will eventually become the thesis of your paper. Begin your essay (in its body, and using all of the stylistic tools you’ve learned thus far), by: (1) summarizing your example, explaining what meaning the author suggested or connoted when using the word; (2) follow this by arguing why this is incorrect; (3) what the word should really mean (and why); (4) and then “prove” to me that the word really means what you say it means. COMM 100W – Writing for Influence There are several ways to “prove” that the word means what you say it means. Those include: dictionary definitions, common usage, historical usage, trade/technical jargon, socio-economic history of the word, religious attributions, cultural context, and many others. In other words, use law, medicine, philosophy, history, religion, culture, slang, etc. to “prove” your stated meaning of the word. Another strategy for establishing the meaning of a term is to define related terms. For instance, if you are establishing the meaning of maturity, you may also want to define experienced, responsible, and established. After establishing a precedent for your preferred meaning, explain the difference it will make to use that meaning over another. In this section of the paper, you will want to provide specific examples of how the word’s meaning can or will influence decision-making and social action. Conclude your paper with a proper, three part conclusion. Your entire paper should make use of the skills learned (to date) in the course. See Style Tool Checklist. Formatting guidelines You paper should be 5-7 buzzwords in in length, plus a separate cover page, and list of references. You will be graded in conformity to APA standards, the published rubric, and adherence to these instructions. Please include no fewer than seven peer reviewed references; you may have more references that are NOT peer reviewed, but failure to include at least 7 peer reviewed sources will result in scoring penalties. Even when you reference a dictionary available online (not peer reviewed), be sure to provide a complete citation for the text, including the names of editors and publishers. Running head: MEANING OF BAILOUT The Meaning of… Bailouts Are a Good Thing First Last 1 MEANING OF BAILOUT 2 Abstract This essay explains how the meaning of the word “Bailout” has been changed to refer to something as disgraceful or shameful, instead of referring to something in a positive context, such as the benevolent act of helping another in trouble. The subject of “bailouts” is explored against the background of the financial crisis of 2008. Points, counterpoints, and rebuttals serve to examine both of the ways in which “bailout” is used, and proof is provided to reinforce why the term should only be used with a positive connotation. MEANING OF BAILOUT 3 The meaning of the term “Bailout” has been changed into a politically-charged perversion of what is actually a noble act of lending help to another. In the article “Bailout Baloney” by Justin Quinn (2008), the term “bailout” is used to describe any government monetary assistance program, such as the Recovery Act1, with the negative connotation of rewarding fiscal ineptitude. It is implied that this “reward” is wasteful and inefficient by spending precious government resources on the dysfunctional business model of a failing industry2 at the expense of the American taxpayer population. But the Oxford Dictionary describes a “bailout” as “an act of giving financial assistance to a failing business or economy to save it from collapse” (Bailout, n.d.). Saving our economy from collapse is never a bad thing. A “bailout” is an emergency countermeasure, when a situation is so desperate that this last resort must be used to prevent further harm. The financial assistance or “bailout” that the U.S. Government provided to the banking industry in 2009 was necessary to protect the fragile state of the U.S. economy from a catastrophic economic collapse, something that an over-reliance on free-market principles is unable to do. Government “bailouts” are a way to protect the major players in our vital industries, and even the U.S. economy itself, in times of financial crises. The MerriamWebster dictionary (Protect, n.d.) defines the term “protect” in this context as “to maintain the status or integrity… especially through financial or legal guarantees … as to save from contingent financial loss.” In the past, when national or global factors threatened to harm the status or integrity of the U.S. economy, the government provided 1 The U.S. Recovery Act was a financial reform program implemented in 2009, and provided monetary assistance to lending institutions to restore confidence in America’s economy (Landers, 2011). 2 Fiscal Conservatives and Libertarians alike believe in limited Government, and that Government financial assistance is counterproductive to a successful capitalist society, such as the United States (Fiscal Conservatism, n.d.). MEANING OF BAILOUT 4 financial assistance in order to bolster specific companies or institutions (Smith, 2011). This was done to stimulate short-term liquidity and solvency of those industries because they were interconnected to many other economic sectors. To help these types of companies would be to help the economy as a whole. These “bailouts” did just that, saving the major players in these industries from contingent financial loss, which produced an overall positive economic effect for the country. Fiscal conservatives would argue that we should not invest so much to save failures, and instead invest in winning players. In a Harvard Business Review article, Bill George (2012) stated that “America has repeatedly demonstrated its capacity to develop entrepreneurs who start with revolutionary ideas and create global companies that dominate their markets.” If America’s economic success relies on our innovation and entrepreneurship3, to offer a “bailout” would not be conducive to maintaining our economic standing on the world stage. The $700 billion spent through the TARP4 program was the largest instance of government spending in history (Nankin, 2008). Instead of giving that money to key players in the financial industry, that money may have been better-spent feeding the poor, developing ways to reduce energy dependence on foreign countries, or perhaps investing in education so future generations would be more competitive in a global economy. But the government stepping in to protect the economy is sometimes required when those who work within the system serve only themselves, with a lack of moral responsibility to their country. Randy Martin (2010) argues that no one has been able to 3 In contrast to the sheer manufacturing power of countries like China, or the inexpensive labor of lessdeveloped foreign countries, creativity and ingenuity are cornerstones of America’s competitive advantage in our global economy (Porter, 2009). 4 The Troubled Asset Relief Program, or TARP, was a U.S. Government program to purchase assets and equity from financial institutions to strengthen the financial sector. MEANING OF BAILOUT 5 demonstrate that “private selfishness turns into public altruism.” Even President Ronald Regan, the poster child of conservatism, stated “There is a legitimate need in an orderly society for some government to maintain freedom or we will have tyranny by individuals” (Klausner, 1975). Occasional government intervention is a way to ensure the stability of the economy, and in the above quote, Ronald Regan has equated a “bailout” with the ability to “maintain freedom.” In the absence of personal or moral responsibility, certain measures may be necessary to protect the economy, but critics claim that the economy was not actually in a fragile state, and there was no need for the government to intervene. Cyclical economic swings have occurred throughout history, which would indicate that the economy is not in a fragile state, and the 2008 downturn is an expected behavior which does not need to be regulated. I am not a fiscal conservative, but I acknowledge that the market periodically rises and falls, and some naturally-occurring events should not be meddled with by government intervention. A small-scale example of such an event is the apartment rental market in my home town. When the local universities are in session, rent costs are high, and when each term ends, the rent costs are low. On the national scale, removing restrictive laws would allow the market to more fluidly self-regulate and more truly reflect how investors value companies within our economy. Unfortunately, strictly following this philosophy where markets are not regulated produces a majority of “losers” and minority of “winners.” To elaborate on this point, and taking it to the extreme, suppose America’s airline companies were not regulated by the FAA5 because they considered the regulations to be 5 The Federal Aviation Administration regulates commercial airlines in regards to safety, efficiency, and environmental responsibility (Mission, n.d.). MEANING OF BAILOUT 6 too costly, and ensuring proper airplane maintenance should be left solely to those in the private sector. The airlines would definitely benefit from cost savings resulting from the removal of the protections against airplane failure, but the passengers would be the ones who are most at risk of losing their lives at the hands of the potentially negligent airline companies. Now imagine if this gross negligence would cause the airline companies to face multiple million-dollar lawsuits resulting from hundreds of simultaneous plane crashes. If the airline industry was the backbone of America’s transportation infrastructure, and if the major players in the airline industry were to go into bankruptcy or be unable to operate, then America as a whole would suffer the same crippling financial loss as the industry itself. In this hypothetical scenario, the benefit of government intervention would be necessary to prevent further harm to the country’s economy, to “bail it out” of trouble. Returning this line of reasoning to the real-world scenario of the financial crisis of 2008, the self-serving decisions by multi-national investment firms left the economy in a fragile state, and since finance is so intertwined with every aspect of our economy, a catastrophic economic collapse was imminent. The ultimate goal of the “bailout” given to America’s major investment firms6 was to prevent a domino effect of financial failures, which would have eventually led to a catastrophic economic collapse. Under normal conditions, government intervention is not required, as regulations prevent the decisions and actions of the self-serving from adversely affecting the economy. But the 1999 repeal of the Glass-Steagall7 law, a lack 6 Citigroup, Wells Fargo, JPMorgan Chase, Goldman-Sachs, and Bank of America were just some of the companies which received bailout money (Bailed out banks, 2009). 7 The Banking Act of 1933, also referred to as the Glass-Steagall Act, limited commercial bank securities activities and affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms. This prevented commercial banks from commingling client money with security reserves for trading purposes (Barth, J., Brumbaugh, D., & Wilcox, J., 2000). This deregulation was considered one of the major contributing factors of the 2008 financial crisis. MEANING OF BAILOUT 7 of regulatory oversight, and the over-leveraging of lending institutions were contributing factors to the financial crisis. This removal of safeguards compelled a government “bailout,” which came in the form of a cash injection to banks, just to keep business operating across all industries (Andrews & Landler, 2008). Without operating capital, wages could not have been paid, debt obligations could not have been honored, and business would have grinded to a halt. However, there is a moral hazard to the government assistance. A signal is sent to private companies that no matter how risky their decisions may be, the government will be there to save them in the future. If the U.S. Government dispenses “bailouts” to private companies any time they are in financial trouble, then institutions do not have to worry about economic collapse, and they can continue to behave recklessly, which is not a free-market principle. Critics of bailout programs like the Recovery Act claim that “governments cannot pick winners and losers more effectively than the [free]-market, since governments have imperfect information and insufficient knowledge of the national and global business environment” (Choi, Berger, & Kim, 2009). Ron Paul stated (Paul, n.d.) that letting companies fail would be a better solution than “confiscating money from productive members of the economy and giving it to failing ones.” Joseph Stiglitz asserts that "in a [free-] market economy, there has to be a sense of accountability. You can't come running to the government every time you have a problem” (Herman & Mayerowitz, 2008). On a smaller scale, letting companies fail may be a viable solution, but for industries which are so ingrained into every aspect of our economy, to do so would have dealt a fatal blow to America’s ability to sustain its economic health. AIG8 was the major 8 American International Group, Inc. is a leading international insurance organization serving customers in more than 130 countries (AIG). MEANING OF BAILOUT 8 underwriter for insuring investments, and when the financial crisis left AIG unable pay out for insurance claims, it threatened to stop all credit transactions in America. The “bailout,” which came in the form of an injection of cash to the investment banks, may have been against free-market principles, but was needed to correct the “rules that permitted companies to offshore jobs, reduce real wages, and permit risky financial practices” (Kozy, 2009). Government “bailouts” may be controversial, but there is a need to protect something as important as the economy when it is in a fragile state and on the verge of economic collapse, since the free-market does not care who is a “winner” and who is a “loser.” The need to protect something when it has been left in a fragile state is justified, especially when it is something as vital as the U.S. economy. The health of our economy is not something we can simply experiment on with short-sighted, laissez-faire ideologies, since the failures of large financial institutions “could be contagious” (Boyd, 1994). To allow these institutions to fail would most likely cause the confidence in our fundamental institutions to spiral towards economic collapse. Though our country has historically embraced free-market principles, there are times when we cannot simply allow portions of it to fail, which is why “bailouts” are a valid safety measure against systemic failure. A “bailout” should not be used to describe something in a negative manner, but instead be used to describe a beneficial action meant to save those in need. I can recall some of the general uses of the term I learned when I was younger, like to “bail water out a boat” when a vessel is sinking, or to “post bail” for someone who has been arrested. These uses indicate providing aid to someone so they may exit from a bad situation. The term “bailout” should not be viewed in the same light as whatever MEANING OF BAILOUT 9 decisions a troubled party made to get themselves into harm’s way. On the contrary, providing a “bailout” is, at its very core, a compassionate act meant to save others from endangering themselves further. A “bailout” stopped the hemorrhaging and ensured long-term economic stability (Chu, 114). A “bailout” saved the automobile manufacturing industry9. A “bailout” prevented the country from turning on itself in desperation. “Bailouts” are a good thing. I acknowledge that term “Bailout” was improperly affixed to the U.S. Automobile manufacturing industry here, since the financial assistance received was actually a short-term “bridge loan” (Bridge Loan., n.d.) and not a “free government handout.” This particular assistance carried with it the responsibility of repayment, an obligation that the GM Corporation has successfully met. This usage was included here because the same negative connotation for the term “bailout” has been connected to this industry as well in recent popular media. 9 MEANING OF BAILOUT 10 Bibliography AIG’s Story. (n.d.). American International Group, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.aigcorporate.com/aboutaig/index.html Andrews, E., & Landler, M. (2008, October 9). U.S. Considers Cash Injections Into Banks. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/09/business/economy/10fed.html Bailed out banks. (2009). Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/news/specials/storysupplement/bankbailout Bailout. (n.d.). In Oxford dictionaries online. Retrieved from http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/bailout Barth, J., Brumbaugh, D., & Wilcox, J. (2000). The Repeal of Glass-Steagalls and the Advent of Broad Banking. OCC Working Papers 2000-5. Retrieved from http://www.occ.ustreas.gov/publications/publications-by-type/economicsworking-papers/2008-2000/wp2000-5.pdf Peer Reviewed Boyd, J. (1994). The Role of Large Banks in the Recent U.S. Banking Crisis. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Quarterly Review, 18, 1, 2. Peer Reviewed Bridge Loan. (n.d.). In Oxford dictionaries online. Retrieved from http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/american_english/bridge+loan Choi, C.J., Berger, R., & Kim, J.B. (2009). Capitalism’s Global Financial Crisis: The Role of the State. Science Direct, 47, 833. Peer Reviewed Chu, H. (2011). Deposit Insurance and Banking Stability. Cato Journal, 31, 1. 114. Peer Reviewed Fiscal Conservatism. (n.d.). In Wikipedia online. Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_conservatism George, B. (2012). Developing Global Leaders is America’s Competitive Advantage. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from http://blogs.hbr.org/hbsfaculty/2012/03/developing-global-leaders-is-a.html Herman, C., & Mayerowitz, S. (2008). AIG Bailout Means Drastic About-Face for Feds. ABC News. Retrieved from http://abcnews.go.com/Business/MarketTalk/story?id=5821661#.UASeE5GDfd4 MEANING OF BAILOUT 11 Klausner, Manuel. (1975). Inside Ronald Regan. Reason. Retrieved from http://reason.com/archives/1975/07/01/inside-ronald-reagan Kozy, J. (2009). The Economic Crisis: No, this will not be a Normal Cyclical Recovery. Global Research. Retrieved from http://globalresearch.ca/index.php?context=va&aid=13109 Landers, J. (2009). American Recovery and Reinvestment Act Provides Billions for Infrastructure. Civil Engineering, 3, 10-12. Peer Reviewed Martin, R. (2010). The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly; Economies of Parable. Cultural Studies, 24, 3, 419. Peer Reviewed Mission. (n.d.) Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved from http://www.faa.gov/about/mission Nankin, J. (2008). Bailout Aftermaths. Pro Republica. Retrieved from http://www.propublica.org/special/bailout-aftermaths#penncentral Paul, R. (n.d.). The Bailout Surge. Retrieved from http://paul.house.gov/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1689&Ite mid=69 Porter, M. E. (2009). The Competitive Advantage of Nations, States and Regions. Harvard Business School. Retrieved from http://www.isc.hbs.edu/pdf/20090415_AMP.pdf Protect. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster’s dictionary online. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/protect Quinn, J. (2008). Bailout Baloney. About.com. Retrieved from http://usconservatives.about.com/b/2008/12/05/bailout-bull.htm Smith, R. (2011). Dilemma of Bailouts. The Independent Review, 16, 22. Peer Reviewed Running head: THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? The Meaning of: Hero or Not? First Last The definition of a hero is one who sacrifices for the greater good, puts their life on the line to save others, acts courageously in the face of danger, and protects the weak from harm 1 THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? without exacting revenge on evildoers while acting as a positive role model, but in the article under analysis, the author portrays a murderer as a hero because a man commits the act of murder in an attempt to stop another man from molesting his young daughter. In the article, a 23 year old Texan father came to the rescue of his five year old daughter after he heard her screaming. The man’s daughter had gone out to the barn to feed the chickens on their farm when a farmhand began sexually abusing her. Upon arrival at the scene, the father threw the man off of his daughter and proceeded to beat him to death with his bare hands. The man called 911 frantically in an attempt to save the life of his daughter’s attacker after the incident but the ambulance did not make it in time and he was declared dead, killed by blunt trauma to the head. The article states that the father should be hailed as a hero for coming to his little girl’s rescue, but it is questionable as to whether this was truly an act of heroism, or simply an act of just being a caring parent desperate to stop the attack. In this essay, the word “hero” will be defined as I perceive it and it will be tied in with the meaning of a moral role model, and I will prove how this man’s actions had some heroic qualities and how those qualities contributed to his perceived heroism. The importance of context will also be demonstrated by proving how the word was used to shape a positive image in favor of the father in the local media, and I will prove why it is important to define a word properly so as to truthfully depict an accurate image of what really occurred. Being a hero is not just simply about saving the good from the bad, self-sacrifice, being courageous, and taking risk, but it also entails being a moral role model. The relationship between the definition of a hero and being a role model is that the latter is a facet of the first. In order to better understand the argument against the author’s usage of the word, it is important to define the word as I perceive it, and display the most favorable definition of what a hero is, 2 THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? which is defined as, “Very broadly, heroes are different from the ordinary people in the sense that they perform great tasks and actions, they do right things for the right reasons, and possess important virtues such as open mindedness, patriotism, courage, leadership, [and] perseverance. . .” (Yazici & Aslan, 2011). Another definition of the word hero only solidifies the above definition as it restates the concept’s basic ideas, “. . . the most common defining elements of heroism [the act of being heroic and the performance of actions associated with those of a hero] were benefiting others, acting selflessly, and confronting risk . . .” (Rankin & Eagly, 2008). In the argument against the father being a hero, it must be pointed out that the father did not act like a role model, thus, he did not fulfill one of the facets of being a hero. He did not display any leadership in this scenario as he had no one to lead, as well as he did not do the right thing for the right reason when it came to the murder. The father killed the attacker after he was able to cease the assault on his daughter, and although some say that most fathers would have done the same thing, he exacted revenge upon the man by unnecessarily beating him to death, probably in front of his daughter as well, which does not leave a positive, lasting moral impression. In addition to the above evidence, the father also was not in a situation where courage was necessary or even needed, as the attacker was not attacking him. The act of saving one’s life does not always require courage as witnessed in this case, especially if the life of the one performing the act is not in jeopardy, but is more of a matter of instinct as described in a military archive story, “That was the moment when Sgt. 1st Class Michael Kinzie's instincts kicked into action and resulted in saving the life of Virginia Senior Trooper Mike Hamer” (Maxwell, 2012). As indicated in the previous quote, the sergeant was driven by his instincts, and did not react to the fear he would have had to feel and overcome in order to be courageous. The father in this story is not a hero and does not display behaviors of a moral role model, since murder cannot be 3 THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? easily condoned by morality, but some of his actions could be considered to possess heroic qualities. It takes more than being slightly heroic to be a hero, but on the other hand, some of the father’s actions do display heroic qualities. One quality of a hero that the father displayed was protection of the weak. He rushed out to aid his daughter when he heard her scream and knew, being only five years old, that she was too young and too weak to defend herself from this horrible attack. The father also faced a risk of injury. It is unknown, yet not probable, whether or not the father was really in any danger, but it is possible that if the attacker was mentally deranged enough to sexually abuse a five year old girl, that he might be deranged enough to try to attack anyone who might try to prevent him as well. Due to the heroic qualities the father displayed, it can definitely be understood how he could be perceived as a hero. Furthermore, even though the father is not recognized as a hero on the basis of this argument, in addition to some of the heroic qualities of his actions, it is possible that he could be perceived as a hero depending upon the reader’s interpretation. This quote from T. R. Sanchez defines yet a different definition of the word in regards to a hero’s actions, “. . . the hero’s actions exemplify those values that ultimately define a culture’s character” (2008). If the general public or society as a whole values the slaughter of a molester in an attempt to save a young, innocent girl, then his act of murder could be perceived as heroic. Since the majority of society would consider molestation a horrible crime and would praise anyone whom would attempt to put a stop to it, it is clear that the father’s actions to cease the sexual assault would exemplify society’s values. Murder, however, does not exemplify society’s values because society considers human life to be among the greatest and most precious things in the world, and to take a life away from another is like playing God. Although murder may not ever be easily condoned 4 THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? under any circumstances, in some situations it can at least be understood, and this may be one of those situations where it is understood and he could still be perceived as a hero for his actions. Moreover, another reason for his perceived heroism could be that many people can empathize with him because they can relate to having a child, and society as a whole absolutely hates wrongful acts towards children and the innocent. This quote from Gibson makes a harsh yet true statement about the reality of perceived heroism, “Every day, many people put their lives on the line to save others or to uphold principles that are dear to them, but they are not always perceived as heroes” (2007). So what makes this man a hero and denies others who do selfless acts the honor of being recognized? It has to do with this man’s actions resembling the passionate morals, beliefs, and values held by the community, paired with their bitter hatred for heinous, immoral acts against children and the weak. Mainly, it is the reflection of morals, beliefs, and values in the father’s actions that the town stands firmly behind and that each town member can identify with. This quote from Campbell illustrates how people we idolize and identify with become heroes to us in our search for heroes, “. . . general explorations of hero identification in contemporary society also tend to assume that humans have a natural inclination to identify with those we admire, and these figures can function as moral beacons, behavioural models and representations of our beliefs and self-conception” (2008). Another quote from Cowen that talks about role models and the behavior they influence only further displays the role of perception, “Role models don’t automatically induce either immoral or moral behavior. Many people have already decided to act a certain way, and they seek out whichever role models will validate that behavior” (2000). The previous quote, when applied to the father’s behavior, shows how he could be portrayed in a positive light, especially if the author knows how the townspeople think, act, and what their ideals, morals, values, and beliefs are. People always 5 THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? admire the protection of children and the defense of the innocent, they see these acts of protection and defense as being positively moral, and they see that those actions resemble and reflect their own beliefs and values, and they regard those who perform those actions as heroes. Even though the very performance of these actions alone do not make one a hero, it does satisfy the average requisite for the general public to perceive one as such. This perception of the readers and the general public that can be influenced without much difficulty by the media plays a huge role in context, as it can take a man who committed a horrible act with some heroic qualities and transform the story to create a positive image in his favor. The role context plays in creating a positive image where it is desired is a major one, and in the next paragraph its importance will be explained. Context can completely change the appearance of a story or a scenario in many ways, and the context of a word can completely change its definition and the way readers will ultimately perceive its meaning. For example, the Merriam-Webster online dictionary defines a hero as, “A mythological or legendary figure often of divine descent endowed with great strength or ability” (Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, 2012). It is quite obvious that the father is merely just a man and that he is not legendary, does not possess superpowers, and he does not come from divine descent. It is possible for an avid believer of mythology to interpret the father to possess those qualities, and it is also possible that the association of this man with the word hero would create a bias in favor of the father, associating him and his actions with those of superheroes in the minds of the readers. On the contrary, opposite of the Merriam-Webster definition, the Dictionary.com definition is as follows, “A man of distinguished courage or ability, admired for his brave deeds and noble qualities” (Dictionary.com, 2012). These definitions themselves further demonstrate the importance of defining words correctly and accurately as one word can have several 6 THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? meanings and show the father positively, whether he is a superhero dad or a mere man with distinguished courage who is admired for his noble deeds and qualities. The context for which the word is used makes the father seem like a hero to the public and diverts the public attention away from the severity of the murder, but really this father was just doing his job as a parent and went overboard and exacted revenge by unnecessarily murdering his daughter’s attacker. A quote from Sullivan helps to point out another important key element in the perceptions of the father, “The findings across these studies extend our understanding of the term hero and suggest that the use of the term is based . . . on the self views of the person identifying the hero” (2010). Sullivan is suggesting that we seem to identify others who undertake a noble task or act selflessly as heroes whose ideals, morals, values, and beliefs match up with our own, even if their actions were not truly heroic. The context of the word hero was used in a way that makes the father appear to be a savior and it gives him a positive image in that the public views him as a hero and they are distracted from the murder in which he committed, which disables them from being able to analyze the scenario truthfully. In order for the public to be able to analyze the story truthfully, the author of a work needs to properly utilize context, unlike in this article where the author used the word in the context that would lighten up the father’s public image and make him appear to be solely defending his daughter, as opposed to a father who defended his daughter and then proceeded to beat the attacker to death out of anger. The use of the word hero injects a set of thoughts, ideas, and emotions into the reader’s mind that creates a positive bias about the subject. Heroes are known for doing great things. They are known for sacrificing for the greater good, putting their lives on the line to save others, acting courageously in the face of danger, and protecting the weak from harm without exacting revenge on evildoers. The word hero, used in the exact 7 THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? context in which it was used in this article, transforms a father who killed his daughter’s sexual abuser out of anger into a father who did what he had to do to save his child. The murder of a sexual assaulter was overlooked because of peoples’ hatred for committers of these intolerable acts, and the classification of the father as a hero creates the good versus evil attitude towards this case, where the good guy is a hero and the bad guy is dead and nobody cares. It is difficult to imagine what this incident would be like through the eyes of a young father, and it is just as difficult for one to admit that they would not have done the same, and it is definitely agreeable among most people that no one is going to miss the attacker of this young girl, but even after considering all of the previous statements, it is still not right to allow a crime to be buried by another crime and allow it to go unpunished. The importance of context is clear, it can transform a murderer into a hero and rally the public behind them, and it can blind people from analyzing a scenario truthfully. A real hero is one who sacrifices for the greater good, puts their life on the line to save others, acts courageously in the face of danger, and protects the weak from harm without exacting revenge on evildoers while acting as a positive role model, and the father in this article performed only one out of the four key elements of being a hero, yet the context in the article in which he was proclaimed a hero makes him appear to be a child’s savior as opposed to an angry revenge exactor dealing in death, which proves the importance of context when utilizing a word. Being a hero also means being a moral role model and acting upon those morals as a guideline, as well as possessing heroic qualities, and when one acts upon their own morals, one does not need to be authored about with a positive image as their actions themselves will depict their story truthfully. The Urban dictionary defines being a hero as, “. . . Awaiting salvation" (2012). Remember to use context in a way that reflects honesty and integrity, rather than favoritism or 8 THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? 9 bias, as it will help each individual to be true to themselves and to stick by their morals, beliefs, and values as they await their own salvation. References Campbell, J. 2008 [1949]. The Hero with a Thousand Faces (3rd edn). Novato, CA: New World THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? Library. Cowen, T. (2000). THE NEW HEROES AND ROLE MODELS. Reason, 32(1), 30. Gibson, G. C., Hogan, R., Stahura, J., & Jackson, E. (2007). The Making of Heroes: An Attributional Perspective. Sociological Focus, 40(1), 71-97. Rankin, L. E., & Eagly, A. H. (2008). IS HIS HEROISM HAILED AND HERS HIDDEN? WOMEN, MEN, AND THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF HEROISM. Psychology Of Women Quarterly, 32(4), 414-422. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2008.00455.x Sanchez, T. R. (2010). THE RETURN OF THE AMERICAN HERO. Ohio Social Studies Review, 46(2), 20-28. Sullivan, M. P., & Venter, A. (2010). Defining Heroes Through Deductive and Inductive Investigations. Journal Of Social Psychology, 150(5), 471-484. doi:10.1080/00224540903366602 Yazici, S., & Aslan, M. (2011). Using heroes as role models in values education: A comparison between social studies textbooks and prospective teachers' choice of hero or heroines. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 11(4), 2184. Dictionary.com Online Dictionary copyright © 2012 by Retrieved from: http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/hero Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary copyright © 2012 by Merriam-Webster, Incorporated Retrieved from: http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hero Urban Dictionary©1999-2012, Urban Dictionary Definition by Sebastian Feb 20, 2004 10 THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? 11 Retrieved from: http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=hero Maxwell, Jessie. (2012). Soldier’s Instincts, Fast Actions Help Save Life. Military Stories of Valor Archive. Retrieved from: http://www.army.mil/article/82212/Soldier_s_instincts__fast_actions_help_save_life/ Original Article: Retrieved from: http://www.alaskadispatch.com/article/dad-who-killed-man-caughtmolesting-his-daughter-hero-or-criminal Highlight Color Key THE MEANING OF: HERO OR NOT? 12 Yellow = Buzzwords Purple = Minor Transitions
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Explanation & Answer

Attached.

Running head: COURAGE

1

Courage
Author’s Name
Institutional Affiliation

COURAGE

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Courage is the ability to do something that frightens one or show strength in the face of
pain or grief. It determines the willingness and the choices one makes in case of a situation that
causes pain, danger, uncertainty, intimidation, and when confronting agony. For example, in the
story about a 21-year-Woman who fought and killed militants who attacked her and her family,
the author portrays. The woman was 21 when two armed men came to her parents’ farm. It
happened as one of the militants wanted to marry her, but her parents resisted, and this led them
to being beaten mercilessly. The woman’s name was Raha, she was hiding under the bed with
her younger brother at the time of the act but did not stay there for long. As the author narrates,
the woman thought that she could try the bold act of encountering militants before dying. She
and her brother decided to grab axis, faced the militants and by good luck, Raha managed to grab
one of the men by the hair, smashed his head against the wall, struck him with the ax, and then
grabbed his assault rifle and fatally shot him. She exchanged gunfire with the remaining terrorist
until he retreated. It is important to note that this young woman’s brother was a participant in
these brave acts.
Most of the world’s press found it less newsworthy that a 19-year-old man would defend
his family and focused on the unexpected prowess of a young woman. The story states that the
woman should be hailed a courageous woman for deciding to show up in the rescue of her
parents despite being ordered by them to remain in hiding. The author wants to use the example
of the story to define the word courage to be just a physical bravery. In the essay, the word
“courage” will be defined to show that it can have some other meaning despite considering it
only as physical bravery. The woman’s actions can be considered to have had some courageous
actions but would use this story to show that courage based on some other more profound
meaning and that everyone should possess as a way of showing some positive attributes.

COURAGE

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Courage is not all about just physical bravery. It should be about something that
everybody wants, an attribute of good character that makes us worthy of respect. Through choice
and willingness, it should take courage to grow up and become who you are. For example, from
the Bible to fairy tales, our culture is rich with exemplary tales of bravery and self-sacrifice for
the greater good. Another good example that we can use to show that courage can determine who
we are and what we want to become in the future is through the colorful tales of social activists
Martin Luther King who chose to speak out against injustice at great personal risk (Uduoje,
2014). Another good definition is considering the word as moral courage used in the face of
shame, scandal, and discouragement. The author only defined the word regarding physical
courage used in the face of physical pain, hardship, and the threat of death. The woman only
displayed the qualities of physical courage but never showed any morality. She decided to shed
and take a human life even though in this case it can be argued that she was trying to defend
herself. By moral courage, instead of deciding to grab the ax, she could have shown the courage
of finding a root way that she could dial and contact the emergency response that could come in
aid of their family. It could have the two men arrested and dealt with according to the law. The
woman despite defending her family by killing the men could later face life imprisonment for
having used firearms to take the life of other human beings. Killing the men in front of her
younger brother who was yet a teenage also does not leave a positive and lasting moral
impression.
Courage should be applied in all situations in our lives and not necessarily when
defending ourselves as the story may be defining the word. Without courage, we cannot practice
any other virtue with consistency. We cannot be kind, true, merciful, generous, or honest.
Courage should be considered as the most important of all the virtues because without courage

COURAGE

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one cannot practice another virtue consistently. It would mean practicing a virtue erratically, but
consistently without courage. The act of saving one’s life does not always require courage as
witnessed in this case but is more of a matter of instinct as described in a military archive story.
“That was the moment Sgt. 1st Class Michael Kinzie’s instincts kicked into action and resulted in
saving the life of Virginia Senior Trooper Mike Hamer” (Maxwell, 2012). The woman in this
story does not show some moral qualities and behaviors of a moral person since morality cannot
readily condone murder, but some of her actions could be considered to possess qualities of
courage which in this case and from another perspective can be considered to be a physical and
destructive courage. Moral courage can turn dreams into reality, and real courage should be one
that has little to do with anger and always lies the most robust suspicion against it. In this case,
the woman did not portray the cool and calmness of a truly courageous person according to my
opinion on the definition of courage.
In my opinion, the woman also never showed any moral courage which involves the
deliberation or careful thought. Courage requires one to do the right thing even at the risk of
inconvenience or ridicule. The woman should have first listened to her inner conscience on
whether she a murderer. Every individual has an inner voice within and ignoring that voice can
lead to feelings of inadequacy, guilt, and diminished personal integrity. The woman may not be a
murderer, but her quick decision towards reacting on the matter can lead her to may be
something she is not or even something she never even thought that she could commit. Despite
having reacted on self-defense, there was a need to have involved some moral courage in the act
which would have required her to make judgments about what action or behavior could have
been supportive and which one could have been destructive. Moral courage could have engaged
her in trying to recognize her responsibilities in such a case and the consequences of the actions

COURAGE

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involved. History is full of many examples towards moral courage through various activists such
as Martin Luther King and Nelson Mandela who said that “courage was not the absence of fear
but the triumph over it.” Showing qualities of courage, a person should not consider
himself/herself as one who does not feel afraid, but who can conquer that fear. It, therefore,
means that the woman had other options to consider in doing something that could have been
considered morally accepted such findings ways that she contacts the authority to using for better
means than causing murder.
I lightly support the fact that the woman considered a courageous person based on this
argument, but according to the reader's interpretation, she can be considered to have the qualities
of physical bravery. If the society at large supports the value of people killing each other in time
of self-defense as in this case, then the act of the woman could be perceived as courageous. The
society tries to condemn the acts of murder and trying as much as possible to ensure that killings
are at the minimal levels. Murder, however, does not exemplify society’s values because society
considers human life to be among the greatest and most precious things in the world, and to take
a life away from another is like playing. The bible has also condemned individuals killing each
and does not support that in the name of self-defense. Even though murder is never Condoned in
whatever circumstances, in some situations such as this story it may be understood as it involves
one taking much courage in deciding to take one’s life.
Marianne Williamson who is an American spiritual teacher, ...


Anonymous
Excellent! Definitely coming back for more study materials.

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