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Chemistry 4830 – Fall Semester 2017
Information concerning the final examination:
The final examination for this course is scheduled for the evening of Tuesday Dec. 5;
from 6 to 8 p.m.
The examination will consist of two questions similar to those in the list presented
below. There will be two sections; one on older chemistry and one on more recent
developments. You will have some choice of the essays you write but you will have to
choose one question from each section. The examination will be OPEN NOTES.
PLEASE BRING BLUE BOOKS OR WRITING PAPER, AND WRITING
INSTRUMENTS TO THE EXAMINATION!
1.
Modern atomic theory is generally agreed to have been formulated in a
chemically useful manner by John Dalton (~ 1810). Yet in 1826 the distinguished
French chemist J. B. Dumas wrote:
"What remains of our ambitious incursion into the realm of the atom? Nothing; or
at any rate nothing of importance. All we have gained is the conviction that
chemistry has gone astray as she always has when, abandoning experiment, she has
tried to walk in the dark without a guide. Experiments will take you to ….
Equivalents but you will look in vain for those atoms which our imagination has
conceived. If I had my way, I should expunge the word atom from the vocabulary of
science."
Develop in detail the historical context in which such a statement would appear as a
logical conclusion.
: These wordings by J.B. Dumas are of utter truth. Whether scientists would seek to base
their arguments merely based on theory. It would not lead them to logical conclusions.
Works such as the phlogiston theory and electrochemical dualism (Jacob Berzelius) were
laid to waste because of lack of full concrete evidence. Concrete experimentation on the
other hand produced excellent results and laid foundations for theories utilized today.
Such is the 1858 paper by Cannizzaro that was the starting point to the modern day
periodic table.
2.
Discuss Dalton's Atomic Theory, briefly touching on earlier ideas of atoms
and the important aspects in which Dalton's Theory differed from them.
: Dalton’s theory noted that: atoms cannot be created, destroyed or subdivided; atoms of
a said element are identical in mass and size; (most importantly) all matter is made of
atoms. This theory holds ground till today. The only differing bit is that atoms can be
destroyed, not by chemical reactions, but by nuclear reactions.

3.
What was the "atomic weight problem" in the early 19th century? How it was
ultimately solved.
: Originally, the standard atomic weight was a value of 1 (hydrogen). However, initially,
oxygen had been used as the reference scale with its assigned value of 16. However, it
was the discovery in 1929, that oxygen contained two smaller isotopes that were slightly
heavier than the more abundant one that it fell short. Since the two scales (hydrogen and
oxygen- based) couldn’t be exactly worked with due to the slight variants in isotopic
composition, a new scale was adopted. This was the use of the cabon-12 scale (1961) that
recorded very minimal fluctuations in vales utilized for chemical atomic weights.
4.
Discuss the Theory of Phlogiston, its flaws, and how the oxygen theory
replaced it as a new unifying chemical theory.
: The Phlogiston theory stated that substances (phlogisticated ones) contain the
compounds dephlogisticate and phlogiston. It denoted that a substance that could
combust in air was said to be phlogisticated. Added to the fact that nitrogen was
discovered. It aided to further explain that the residue left after combustion, on of carbon
dioxide and nitrogen was more or less referred to as phlogisticated air.
However, the flaws in this theory was the fact that metals gained mass during burning,
yet they were meant to have lost phlogiston. In the 1780s, Lavoisier demonstrated that in
order for combustion to occur, a gas with mass is required, in this case oxygen, and one
that could be measured when subjected to a closed environment. These new remarks
hence solved the paradox of the additional mass and lay waste to the former theory, while
ushering in the oxygen theory of combustion.
5.
The ancients knew seven metals and two non-metals, alchemy discovered
some three more elements, and the rest were discovered through the interplay of
science and technology.
Discuss briefly how each of the following developments led to the discovery of
elements (It is not ne...