1 Introduction to College Writing Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Recognize the common misconceptions and fears about the writing process. 2. Describe the challenges and rewards of the writing process. 3. Summarize the difference between formal and informal language, and identify the reasons to avoid code switching. James Woodson, Digital Vision/Getty 4. Explain how to utilize useful tools for writers, including style guides, thesauruses, and etymological dictionaries. 5. Apply the use of resources such as online libraries, writing centers, and tutoring services. I love that moment at the end of the day, or the end of the week, or the end of the manuscript, which might be a couple of years, when I am reading it over and thinking, “This is what I meant to do. This is how I wanted it to sound.” –Anna Quindlen con80878_01_c01.indd 1 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born CHAPTER 1 Writing can be an enjoyable and rewarding process, and this class is an opportunity for you to strengthen your writing skills and to learn the methods of college writing. The writing process gives back to you, the writer, what you put into it. Writing helps you discover what you think. Have you ever written down your thoughts about a subject in a journal or notebook? If so, chances are that in doing so you learned something about your own thought process. While much of the writing that you will do for a college course will not be personal, all writing is reflective. In fact, journaling your thoughts on any writing assignment can be a great way to start sorting out what you will write in the essay. One of America’s most famous authors, William Faulkner, once claimed that, “A writer needs three things: experience, observation, and imagination, any two of which, at times any one of which, can supply the lack of the others” (Faulkner, 1968, p. 248). If Faulkner— who wrote and revised tirelessly—had faith that the writing process could be cultivated so easily, then becoming an effective writer is a possibility for most people. This chapter is an introduction to the tasks, requirements, and elements of writing, and to the resources available to help you create well-written college papers. 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born S ome students believe that writing is an inborn talent: You either have it, or you do not—but this is completely untrue. So-called “good” writers commit time to working on their writing, including revising. Since writing is an acquired skill, anyone can become a good writer through a combination of hard work and commitment. Reading formal or informal writing extensively is also an excellent way to work on one’s writing. Through reading and paying attention to various writing structures and techniques, writers build a stronger vocabulary, a sense of how to organize ideas, and an understanding of writing structure. You might be surprised to learn that most of the famous authors you have heard of kept to a daily writing schedule of several hours a day and threw away many drafts before arriving at a “final draft.” Consider Mark Twain’s (1868) description of the writing process: “To get the right word in the right place is a rare achievement. To condense the diffused light of a page of thought into the luminous flash of a single sentence, is worthy to rank as a prize composition just by itself” (para. 3). Good writers practice writing, and the more you write, the more you will see your writing improve. No matter how much or how little natural ability you have, you can develop writing skills and strengthen the skills you currently have. Misconceptions people may have about writing can make them feel disinclined toward the whole subject. Dismissing these misconceptions is perhaps the first step toward becoming a good writer. Common Misconceptions About Writing Many people have ideas about writing that are negative and hinder their ability to write well. They may think that writing is, and always will be, difficult for them, or that it is not an important skill to learn, or that it is simply not fun. These misconceptions affect the way many students feel about writing, but luckily, there are several ways to overcome these ideas and create a more enjoyable writing experience. con80878_01_c01.indd 2 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born CHAPTER 1 Myth #1: I’m Not Good at It Before starting the actual writing process, it is important to first examine your mental attitude about writing. American automobile pioneer Henry Ford is quoted as saying, “Whether you think you can, or you think you can’t—you’re right.” In other words, if you believe you cannot do something, you will probably be unable to do it—not because you do not have the ability, but because you will not devote the time and the energy necessary to develop that skill. Thus, it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. An unknown writer once stated this concept succinctly (see Writing in Action: Watch Your Thoughts). On the other hand, if you believe you can become a good writer through hard work, and you commit yourself to the writing process, you can certainly improve your writing skills. Writing in Action: Watch Your Thoughts Watch your thoughts, for they become words. Watch your words, for they become actions. Watch your actions, for they become habits. Watch your habits, for they become character. Watch your character, for it becomes your destiny. —Unknown (San Antonio Light, 1977) Myth #2: Writing Is Easy for Some People but Difficult for Me Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS On the difficulty of writing, famous American writer Ernest Hemingway said, “We are all apprentices in a craft where no one ever becomes a master.” con80878_01_c01.indd 3 Some people seem to write so beautifully. Their writing flows smoothly and is so easy to read that it seems effortless. However, good writers only make it look easy. Do not be fooled; writing is difficult for everyone. Perhaps at some point you had an opportunity to read one of the many books by the celebrated American novelist and shortstory writer Ernest Hemingway. Hemingway wrote from the 1920s to 1950s and received two of the most prestigious awards a writer can earn, the Pulitzer Prize in 1953 for his novel The Old Man and the Sea and the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954. Hemingway had a distinctive writing style and generally wrote in simple sentences, using clear, direct words. Often, however, he mixed longer and shorter sentences to add variety and to create drama. This variety of sentence structure can be seen in the opening passage from The Old Man and the Sea, shown in Writing in Action: Opening Passage From The Old Man and the Sea. 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born CHAPTER 1 Writing in Action: Opening Passage From The Old Man and the Sea He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish. In the first forty days a boy had been with him. But after forty days without a fish the boy’s parents had told him that the old man was now definitely and finally salao, which is the worst form of unlucky, and the boy had gone at their orders in another boat which caught three good fish the first week . . . . . The old man was thin and gaunt with deep wrinkles in the back of his neck. The brown blotches of the benevolent skin cancer the sun brings from its reflection on the tropic sea were on his cheeks. The blotches ran well down the sides of his face and his hands had the deep-creased scars from handling heavy fish on the cords. But none of these scars were fresh. They were as old as erosions in a fishless desert. Everything about him was old except his eyes and they were the same color as the sea and were cheerful and undefeated. “Santiago,” the boy said to him as they climbed the bank from where the skiff was hauled up. “I could go with you again. We’ve made some money.” The old man had taught the boy to fish and the boy loved him. “No,” the old man said. “You’re with a lucky boat. Stay with them.” “But remember how you went eighty-seven days without fish and then we caught big ones every day for three weeks.” “I remember,” the old man said. “I know you did not leave me because you doubted.” “It was papa made me leave. I am a boy and I must obey him.” “I know,” the old man said. “It is quite normal.” “He hasn’t much faith.” “No,” the old man said. “But we have. Haven’t we?” “Yes,” the boy said. “Can I offer you a beer on the Terrace and then we’ll take the stuff home.” “Why not?” the old man said. “Between fishermen.” The Opening Passage from The Old Man and the Sea (Hemingway, 1952, pp. 9–11) This passage from The Old Man and the Sea is an example of Hemingway’s deceptively simple style of writing. He was able to convey strong emotions and create vivid visual scenes with his skilled use of language. Hemingway was also meticulous in revising his writing to be as good as he could make it, maintaining that he rewrote the ending of his classic World War I novel, A Farewell to Arms, 39 times. Hemingway never described writing as easy. Instead, he said, “We are all apprentices in a craft where no one ever becomes a master.” What is the point of practicing something that even the experts agree is difficult? The answer to that question is that writing can become a powerful tool in daily life because we learn something about ourselves in the process, and because it can be rewarding and fun. con80878_01_c01.indd 4 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born CHAPTER 1 Myth #3: Writing Is Not Fun It is never fun to engage in an activity when you perform poorly, but if you can find an aspect of the prompt or the reading that is interesting to you as your starting point, you will be more interested in the writing process, and will therefore be much more likely to produce good writing. As you become a better writer, you will find that being able to express your thoughts, feelings, ideas, and beliefs clearly and convincingly will give you a sense of enjoyment, accomplishment, and pride. You will also have a tremendous power through which you can share your ideas and influence others. Did you know that becoming a good writer will also help you become a good debater? There have likely been times when you disagreed with someone’s political or philosophical interpretation about something, but maybe you were unsure how to express your argument. Becoming a good writer will also allow you to communicate at a higher level verbally. Myth #4: Writing Is Not Important Some students believe writing is not important or that they will not need to write in their jobs. Fifty years ago, this belief may have been true, but in our complex and technically oriented society, people in almost every occupation need advanced reading and writing skills. At least one expert believes that the reading and writing skills demanded by many entry-level jobs are even greater than those needed to be successful in college (Daggett, 2002). Almost all jobs today require workers to read highly technical manuals; to write instructions and procedures; and to correspond with customers, management, and even government officials via emails and letters. One business advisory committee estimates that most jobs demand 1½ hours of reading-related tasks every day, such as the ability to read and comprehend safety instructions and signs (Hryciuk, 1995). The idea that you can succeed in the workplace today without good reading and writing skills is a myth. Hopefully, your career goals are in line with your interests, and you work in a field that you enjoy. This means that writing will help you attain your larger goals. In all likelihood, you will also have to write something as part of your job application, which will then be used to assess how qualified you are for a job. Writing can also be valuable in one’s personal life apart from simply securing a job position. Whether you are writing a letter, a blog post, or an email, it is helpful in many arenas of life to be able to communicate clearly and effectively. Regardless of where you are starting from, you can significantly improve in any form of writing you wish to. Becoming a Good Writer Writing includes a series of tasks that requires a set of skills. The chances are that you already possess certain abilities in some aspects of the writing process, while you may want to strengthen your skills in other areas. Some people have trouble getting started on a writing project; others have no problem generating ideas but have difficulty organizing those ideas. Some writers have storytelling ability, while others seem better at writing informational reports, letters, or instructions. While any sort of natural ability with language is meaningless if an individual does not cultivate that ability, a person who works on cultivating the skills he or she does have can easily exceed the abilities of the so-called “natural born writer.” con80878_01_c01.indd 5 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born CHAPTER 1 Master Writing Tasks One goal of this book is to help you discover your own writing strengths and weaknesses. It is important to consider writing weaknesses so that you can focus on improving in those areas. As you learn the fundamentals of effective writing and sharpen your skills, you will build your writing confidence. You probably will not excel at all writing tasks or at all different types of writing the first time you try them. However, you can make the most of the abilities you have, and you may even discover talents you did not know you possessed. In this course, students may be asked to take diagnostic tests or quizzes. These help assess your writing abilities at the beginning of a term. Your instructors will use these diagnostics to gain insight about the strengths and weaknesses of your writing. Review the list of writing tasks that are components or steps of a writing assignment in Writing in Action: Writing Tasks. Decide which writing tasks you find easiest and which tasks you would like to work on in order to become a stronger writer. Writing in Action: Writing Tasks Review this list and place an “S” next to at least three tasks you see as your strengths and a “W” next to at least three tasks that are weaknesses for you. A “strength” does not necessarily mean that you always perform this task well. It just means that you find this task to be one of the easiest aspects of writing, and it does not usually cause you a great deal of trouble. A “weakness” is a task that almost always causes problems for you. In this course, resolve to improve the weak areas you identified. ___ Getting started on a writing assignment ___ Reading and understanding the assignment ___ Finding a topic ___ Generating ideas for your paper ___ Conducting research on the Internet ___ Conducting research using a physical or online library ___ Writing a personal story ___ Writing a paper that explains an issue or shares information ___ Writing a persuasive paper ___ Writing a research paper ___ Creating in-text and reference list source citations ___ Typing the paper on the computer ___ Staying on topic when you write ___ Finding the right words ___ Organizing your ideas ___ Including details and elaborating on your ideas ___ Revising and editing your draft (continued) con80878_01_c01.indd 6 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.1 Good Writers Are Made, Not Born CHAPTER 1 Writing in Action: Writing Tasks (continued) ___ Using correct English grammar and punctuation ___ Spelling words correctly ___ Proofreading your work ___ Turning your assignment in on time This text will teach you (or review for you) the fundamentals of each major writing task. If you have difficulty with a particular writing task, perhaps you have not learned the elements required to perform that task well. If you already know the fundamentals, perhaps you have trouble because you have avoided writing opportunities and have let your skills become dull through disuse. You can think of your writing ability as a muscle: If you do not exercise it, it can become weak from lack of use. On the other hand, as soon as you start practicing again, you will begin to learn and ultimately, to improve. Practice Writing As you complete your college degree and expose yourself regularly to written words through your reading and writing, you will naturally strengthen your language abilities and your writing skills. Athletes must train and practice regularly to be at their peak performance level; musicians must practice diligently to maintain the height of their skills. Writers, as well, must write continually to express their ideas with clarity. For this reason, many writing experts suggest keeping a personal journal or a diary. Besides being a wonderful way to chronicle your life and to record your experiences, journaling can be a useful tool for both reading comprehension and improving writing skills. Keeping a personal journal gives you an opportunity to think about what you have learned and can help you practice translating your thoughts and feelings into written words. Writing a blog (a public or private web journal, usually on a particular subject) on the Internet serves this same purpose; journals, however, are often kept private while blogs are often, but not always, shared with others. (Tip: Search the Internet using the keywords “journaling” or “blogging” for more information about these topics or to find journal and blog ideas.) Journaling or blogging may be the way you start to build a positive relationship with writing—and one thing all good writers have in common is that they come to enjoy the writing process. If you have any fears about writing, you are not alone. Most writers, including some highly successful authors, feel the same way. American writer Natalie Goldberg believes that when we write, “we have to look at our own inertia, insecurities, self-hate, fear that, in truth, we have nothing valuable to say. . . .” (Goldberg, 2005). You may worry that you are not good enough or that no one will like what you have written. Perhaps you are afraid that you will not be able to finish the paper or that you will not be able to start. Or, you may dread exposing your true feelings, hate the frustration you experience when you write, or be concerned about being criticized. Keep in mind that this is a fear, but it is not the truth. The truth is that we all have valuable insights we can offer on a subject. con80878_01_c01.indd 7 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing CHAPTER 1 However, even with this in mind, it can still be difficult to overcome the fear associated with writing. What is the cure? Self-help guru Susan Jeffers’s answer, and title of one of her best-selling books, is: Feel the Fear . . . And Do It Anyway (2006). In other words, acknowledge the fear or the anxiety. It is natural to be apprehensive or even fearful about putting your ideas on paper, but do not let that fear stop you. As Jeffers explains, doing what we fear builds our confidence in ourselves, and that growing confidence helps make fear disappear. Usually with writing, most of the fear occurs before we have begun to write. Once you can move past that and put your first sentence down on the page, most of the feelings of fear will dissolve. It can be useful to remind yourself that what you first write does not have to be perfect. No one’s writing is perfect on the first draft, not even the material produced by professional writers! You may want to try to write out your thoughts on a particular subject first without worrying too much about grammar, and then later reread what you have written, trying to make sure your sentences are clear, grammatically correct, and logical. It is important to remember that your sentences do not have to be perfect the moment they are first typed; save time to revise your ideas so that you can smooth out your sentences as much as possible. Finally, each person approaches writing in a different way. What is most important is that you find a method that works best for you. You may want to start writing by simply brainstorming ideas on a piece of paper; you may want to begin by writing an outline, or plan, of what you intend to say; or, you may simply feel most comfortable by starting with paragraph one. Whatever your method may be, it is useful to try other methods in order to learn what works best for you. It will also help build confidence in your writing skills to gain a deeper understanding of the basic elements of writing, and these elements will be discussed in the next section. 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing R egardless of the type of document—whether it is a novel, a school paper, a business report, or a speech—all writing is similar in several important ways. The writing situation and its context are always crucial to consider when writing. The Writing Situation and Context Whenever you write, you do so for a purpose. You usually have a goal in mind that you are trying to achieve, and that purpose or goal might fall into one of the following categories: • • • • • • con80878_01_c01.indd 8 To tell a story or to share personal opinions or experiences To inform, explain, explore, analyze, or interpret ideas To convince readers to share your point of view about a subject or to take some action you recommend To honor or commemorate someone or something To acquire knowledge and/or to organize, analyze, and synthesize information To entertain the reader and provide an escape from daily activities 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing CHAPTER 1 For any writing task, ask questions about the audience for whom you are writing. Are you writing for your college instructor, a friend, your boss, or a customer? How you visualize your anticipated audience affects what and how you write. Just as you would use different language when you talk to your friend than you would if you were talking to your instructor, you want to craft your language to suit your audience when you write. The Writing Situation The writing situation includes the occasion, audience, the writer’s persona or voice, and the argument of the writing. The writing situation also determines the genre or the type of writing required. For example, if your instructor asked you to give an oral presentation in class, you would not write and memorize an essay. Instead, you would write a presentation outline that would probably include a thesis statement as well as examples to support your main points. Helena Schaeder Söderberg Developing a unique voice, or style of writing, is what differentiates a writer from others. We must also consider the audience when choosing our voice. You can think of the occasion as the reason why you are writing. For instance, if you are writing a eulogy, a speech celebrating the life of a deceased person, the occasion is the funeral ceremony. In this example, the audience will include many family members and friends who are there to honor and celebrate the life of the deceased. The audience should be kept in mind while you write; the audience members likely would not appreciate negative comments about the deceased. However, they probably would enjoy positive statements about the person’s accomplishments, an overall serious voice, and perhaps even a few respectful jokes about funny things that the deceased did during his or her lifetime. Another aspect of the writing situation is the writer’s or speaker’s persona, or voice, which in the case of a eulogy will likely be somber and express familiarity with the deceased. Finally, part of the writing situation is the argument that you are making. In the case of a eulogy, this would likely be a claim about the deceased’s greatest qualities. Figure 1.1 illustrates the elements of the writing situation and can be a guide for determining what to write and how to write it. con80878_01_c01.indd 9 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing CHAPTER 1 Outside Environment PURPOSE AUDIENCE Figure 1.1: The context for writing Writing Situation Writing Circumstances Characteristics of the Audience WRITER Considering elements of the writing situation such as the audience, the purpose for writing, and the outside environment will help you make writing choices that are appropriate for the occasion. When you are writing for a class, the assignment itself is often the “occasion” for writing. Your “audience” will generally be your instructor or TA. The “persona” or voice in which you write will be your own, but likely with a more formal or academic tone than you would use for writing an email to friend. And your instructor will often give you an essay prompt from which you will derive an argument. An argument is not a statement of fact; it is an interpretation that can be disagreed with. If a sentence is simply a truth of the text, then it is not yet an argument—add an interpretation about the significance of those details in order to turn the idea into an argument. For example, to say “In The Great Gatsby, Jay Gatsby is extremely wealthy” is probably not a sufficient argument on which to write a paper. However, “In The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald uses the extreme wealth of Jay Gatsby to demonstrate the corrupting power of money” would be a worthwhile argument to write about because it is a statement that someone could argue against. As stated above, usually the writing prompt in itself determines your audience, persona, and the occasion. For an additional example, if the assignment asked you to write a speech to be delivered to your class, then that is the occasion. In this case, the audience would refer to your classmates, an educated group of individuals, and of course your instructor. When writing your speech, you should take into consideration the fact that your audience is knowledgeable about the subject and use appropriate formal language. If the speech requires you to take a position on a current topic, a mixture of enthusiasm and seriousness would create a persona or voice that seems reliable. The argument that you would make would be an answer to the essay assignment—for example, arguing that a character in a novel makes a good choice even though it leads to bad results. con80878_01_c01.indd 10 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing CHAPTER 1 You have your own voice, a characteristic style of writing that will be different from the writing of anyone else. These elements of occasion, audience, argument, and persona create a unique writing situation. Considering Context In addition to the writing situation, the writing circumstances, outside environment, and characteristics of the audience all play a role in writing. Always consider how the written material will be used. For example, the writing might be read aloud, used only for a classroom assignment, or be published somewhere. If the material is intended to be read orally, this circumstance would change the language and sentence structure of what you write. If your manuscript will be published, the publisher might have some specific language requirements. The outside environment should also affect your writing, so you might want to think about what is going on in the reader’s experience that could influence what you say and how you say it. You might have written about terrorism differently, for example, if you wrote before September 11, 2001, or immediately after the 9/11 attacks. You will also want to consider the backgrounds and attitudes of the audience. Some questions you could ask yourself about your readers might be: • • • • • • How is the audience likely to react to what I have to say? Will my readers like or dislike what I have written? How important will this topic be to my readers, and what else might they have read about the topic? What do readers need to know about this subject? How much do they already know? What do I want them to think or to know when they have finished reading? All the factors mentioned above—the occasion, audience, persona, argument, writing circumstances, and outside environment—shape the way in which you will write. Understanding these aspects of the writing situation and context helps you make decisions about such writing issues as the following: • • • • • • What type of paper should I write? Who is the audience for the paper? What point of view should I use—should the writing be in first person (I), second person (you), or third person (they or the researcher)? Should my language be formal or informal? What terms should be defined, and what terms would the audience already know? What information should be included, and what should be left out? Try to keep the elements of the writing situation and context in mind as you write. We will revisit these issues throughout this course and discuss how to apply them to your college writing assignments. In many cases, instructors will supply the necessary information on the writing situation for your assignment. con80878_01_c01.indd 11 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing CHAPTER 1 Rhetoric For writing to be effective, to accomplish its purpose, the language must be appropriate. This means that you must make conscious choices about the words you use and the way you use them. When thinking about the rhetorical context for your writing situation, it is crucial to think about rhetorical devices and how you may be using them. The word rhetoric refers to the skill of using language effectively and persuasively. Rhetoric first arose as a major field of study under the ancient Greeks, and Aristotle defined it as “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion” (Aristotle, 350 BCE). Aristotle described three basic forms of rhetoric or of appealing to the reader. These three forms—pathos, ethos, and logos—will be discussed below. Appeals to the Reader When a writer or speaker makes a special appeal to the audience’s emotions in order to persuade them, the writer is said to be appealing to the readers’ pathos. Appeals to pathos are used in public service announcements, advertising, and politics, to name just a few. Examples of such a kind of appeal are the television commercials from the ASPCA, the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. The commercials make an appeal to pathos by making you feel deeply saddened by the examples of animal cruelty that flash across your screen. And that appeal may in fact prompt you to act and donate money or time toward stopping animal cruelty. An appeal to pathos is not always wrong—clearly, animal abuse is a serious ethical issue. But the creators of the commercials did use appeals to pathos in order to persuade you to act. An appeal to ethos occurs when speakers emphasize their own credibility and authority on a subject. If someone seems to be an expert on a subject, the chances are that you are more likely to believe what that person is saying. But beware—some people may simply claim they are experts on a topic, and may not actually be. On the other hand, if someone refers to his or her credentials, such as having a Ph.D. on a subject, then that person probably truly is an expert in that area of study. Writers and speakers also sometimes make an appeal to logos, or an appeal to the audience’s sense of reason and logic. If a writer makes a step-by-step series of claims that add up to a conclusion, that is an appeal to logos. Table 1.1 breaks down the characteristics of these three types of appeals, and provides examples of each. Table 1.1: Appeals to the reader con80878_01_c01.indd 12 pathos An appeal to the audience’s emotions. Example: How could you live with yourself if you don’t donate to this animal shelter? These poor animals need you. ethos An appeal to one’s credibility or authority on the subject discussed. Example: I have researched this subject for a very long time, so my interpretation is likely correct. logos An appeal to the audience’s reason. Example: Considering these clear statistics, it is only reasonable to conclude that global warming is a real phenomenon. 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing CHAPTER 1 Persuasion It is generally assumed that if one sounds logical and reasonable, then one can persuade others. But sometimes an argument may sound logical when in fact it is not, so read carefully. At other times the argument may really be logical and the evidence used to support the argument may also be reasonable. Yet the evidence must be more than simply reasonable—the evidence must actually prove what the writer is trying to argue in order for it to be a fair appeal to logos. For instance, a writer can give you statistics that are true, but if they are about an unrelated subject, they really do not prove the writer’s argument. If a writer were to give you facts about how the use of toothpaste is clinically proven to reduce cavities, that evidence does not prove that a particular brand of toothpaste is the best one at preventing tooth decay. Almost all writing requires you to think critically about the subject you are writing on; always be sure to question evidence, claims, and conclusions a writer makes and make sure they are reasonable and logical. Formal Versus Informal Language and the Standard College Essay Informal language tends to be used outside of the classroom and is defined as language you would use when speaking or writing to acquaintances or friends. Our communication may include slang, incomplete sentences, improper capitalization (or no capitalization at all), incorrect grammar, contractions such as “can’t” or “don’t,” or informal language such as the terms “ain’t” or “my bad.” The writing you do in your college classes should avoid the informal language used when talking, chatting, texting, or emailing with friends. The use of the first-person “I” is usually considered informal language. For the most part, unless you are writing a reflective paper or personal response, using “I” in your writing is unnecessary because it is already clear that the arguments and thoughts on the page are yours. Formal language is more careful than everyday speech, usually sounds serious, is grammatically correct, and avoids slang or other informal language that you would use with friends. It is the standard and most appropriate language for academic and professional papers, legal documents, and business writing. Editors frequently use such language when writing introductions to novels that give insight about the novel’s main concerns and themes. For example, in the introduction to Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre, Michael Mason uses formal language: “Jane Eyre is a thinking novel, right down to the fine grain of its expression. There is nothing automatic, everything is fresh and considered, to the point where the vocabulary can even teeter on the edge of the outlandish” (Mason, 1996, xiii). Vocabulary, sentence structure, and a tone appropriate for an educated audience are used here. Formal language is not necessarily pompous or stuffy, nor is it wordy or difficult to read. Formal language is written for an educated audience, including your peers and instructors. It attempts to be clear, accurate, and objective. Your college papers should also contain complete sentences that are organized into logical paragraphs, and you must remember to capitalize properly and check your grammar and punctuation before submitting your assignments. (Do not rely on your word processor’s spelling- and grammar-checking programs.) Most forms of college writing require you to write: (1) a thesis statement that is an answer to the essay prompt, (2) body paragraphs with argumentative topic sentences that state what you are going to prove in that paragraph, (3) claims using evidence in your body paragraphs to support your argument, and (4) a conclusion. See the Thesis con80878_01_c01.indd 13 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.2 Common Elements in All Writing CHAPTER 1 Development Tool and sample outline in the Ashford Writing Center for an example of how all of these pieces can fit together in a typical paper outline. Formal and Informal Writing and the Personal Essay The one major exception to the rule about the use of formal language is with the personal essay—such an essay asks you to discuss your thoughts on a subject while using the first-person narrative style, and, in some cases, you might use other elements of informal language, depending on the essay prompt and your instructor’s requirements. Personal writing takes many forms, and may not always have a thesis or argumentative topic sentences. However, in personal essays written in a college setting, a thesis statement and reasoned argument are likely to be required. In “Mother Tongue,” Amy Tan discusses the American stereotype that Chinese Americans cannot excel at the English language: Fortunately, I happen to be rebellious in nature and enjoy the challenge of disproving assumptions made about me. I became an English major my first year in college, after being enrolled as pre-med. I started writing nonfiction as a freelancer the week after I was told by my former boss that writing was my worst skill and I should hone my talents toward account management. (Tan, 1990/2007, p. 422). The use of the first person in this excerpt gives the reader a direct account of the narrator’s thoughts and perspective. It is intimate and direct, and gives the reader insight into Tan’s desire to counter assumptions made about her based on race. The first-person style may draw us into the narrative more fully and may also enable us to identify with, or relate to, the narrator. Tan invites us to consider some of the negative effects of stereotyping, in this case stereotypes based on race. Code Switching Written or spoken language can be thought of as a type of code. If people know the code, they can easily communicate. However, if they do not, communication is extremely difficult. Without being conscious of it, people often change their language to fit the situation or to adapt to the audience. Adapting to the audience is known as code switching. Writers should try to gauge their audiences and adapt their language so that the code is something the audience readily understands—otherwise, a writer should not use code at that moment. For example, you may be having a casual conversation with a close friend at work in which you are using slang words such as dude or abbreviations such as BFF (best friends forever). If your supervisor or manager approaches and joins the conversation, you might switch codes, lose the slang and any expletives (swear words), and use more formal speech than you were using with your friend. In certain situations, writers may also use specialized terms, abbreviations, and acronyms at work that people outside one’s organization might not understand. In the military, for example, abbreviations such as DoD (Department of Defense) and BOQ (bachelor officers’ quarters) are clearly understood by other military personnel. As long as everyone knows the jargon, or highly specialized language, it can be very useful as a communication shortcut. However, if an outsider is present and does not understand the terminology, speakers con80878_01_c01.indd 14 8/26/13 12:51 PM CHAPTER 1 Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade must switch codes to communicate effectively with them. Typically, you would want to avoid using this form of code switching in all formal essay writing. One key to writing a good essay is to define all of your terms. Code switching also takes place when people who speak more than one language unintentionally use words from different languages when they speak. For example, if you grew up speaking both Spanish and English, you might occasionally use a sentence that contains words from both languages. To make sure your communication is understood in formal essay writing, you must remain conscious of whether you are speaking to someone in Spanish or in English. If, however, you are writing an informal narrative essay, it might be appropriate to use this form of code switching. In “How to Tame a Wild Tongue,” Gloria Anzaldúa uses code switching between Chicano Spanish and English, and the effect is striking. She writes: “But Chicano Spanish is a border tongue which developed naturally. Change, evolución, enriquecimiento de palabras nuevas por invención o adopción have created variants of Chicano Spanish, un nuevo lenguaje. Un lenguaje que corresponde a un modo de vivir. Chicano Spanish is not incorrect, it is a living language” (Anzaldúa, 1987/2007, p. 33). For Anzaldúa, an ever-changing and evolving language corresponds to a way of living. Because Chicano Spanish is an adaptable language, Anzaldúa shows its adaptability by interweaving it with the English language. She is demonstrating what she means by using code switching. In college writing, remember to consciously switch codes from the language of everyday conversation to the formal language of academic papers and the professional workplace. (See Writing in Action: “Rules” of College Writing.) Writing in Action: “Rules” of College Writing College writing . . . . . . uses formal language. . . . is clear, accurate, and uses an objective tone. . . . avoids jargon, slang, contractions, and the informal language of chatting, texting, or emailing. . . . uses complete sentences. . . . organizes sentences into logical paragraphs. . . . uses proper capitalization, grammar, and punctuation. 1.3 Tools of the Trade L ike any craftsperson, a good writer needs a good set of tools. Some obvious tools for writing in the 21st century are Internet access and a computer with word processing and presentation software. Your school’s technology requirements should have been explained to you before you began this class. If you have any questions about these requirements, be sure to contact your college advisor. con80878_01_c01.indd 15 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade CHAPTER 1 General Writing Resources Ideas for your college writing assignments may come to you when you are not at your computer—when you are traveling, sitting in the dentist’s office, cooking dinner, or lying in bed at night. Capture those ideas with your smartphone, tablet, or pen and paper before you forget them. This text will also be one of the primary tools you will use for this course, along with your course syllabus and, if applicable, a style guide. A style guide is a reference that provides additional information to help you improve your writing and brush up on your grammar and punctuation skills. It also contains the essential information and standards you must follow when you write, such as how to format your papers and how to document any outside sources you use. The American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines are the standard for formatting papers and documenting sources in many academic disciplines, and the Ashford Writing Center contains resources that explain APA style. Most of your Ashford University academic papers will conform to the APA-style information found in the Ashford Writing Center. You will want to refer to these resources in the Ashford Writing Center throughout your degree program as you write your college papers. Other helpful tools for college writers include a current dictionary (preferably one published within the past 10 years) and a thesaurus, which is an index of words and their synonyms. You might also want to bookmark some of these useful reference websites to help you with your writing: • • • www.apastyle.org This American Psychological Association website has a tutorial on the basics of APA style, learning resources, an APA style blog, and frequently asked questions and other resources for help with APA format and citations. www.onelook.com To help you find just the right word, this website allows you to search definitions and synonyms for words in more than 1,000 different dictionaries at the same time. It also contains a reverse dictionary and a “Word of the Day” feature that can help you build your vocabulary. Keep in mind that often synonyms for a word convey a slightly different meaning than the original. Make sure that you understand the word and how to use it before considering using a synonym. www.etymonline.com This online etymology dictionary gives you the history and origin of words and can help you discover other words that are derived from the same root word. Ashford University Writing Resources Ashford University strives to provide a learning environment that assists you in becoming a successful writer and college graduate. To help you achieve these goals, the university has developed an extensive set of research and writing resources. Be sure to take advantage of these resources, available free of charge, in this class and throughout your degree program. As you begin this course, take the time to familiarize yourself with the resources listed in the sections that follow and make it a habit to refer to them often. They will help you immeasurably in succeeding in not only this course but also in all your college courses and in the workplace. con80878_01_c01.indd 16 8/26/13 12:51 PM CHAPTER 1 Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade Ashford University Library The Ashford University Library gives you access, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, to an extensive collection of library and database resources to help with your college research and writing. In addition, Ashford University librarians are available to assist you with finding resources for your assignments. Some of the major resources are listed below, and a more detailed list of resources can be found in the library itself. Most of the Ashford University Library resources have tutorials, advanced search features, tips, and technical support information to help you use them as effectively as possible. Be sure to check these features in each resource. You can access the Ashford University Library from your Student Portal and from all of your Ashford University courses. ProQuest and EBSCOhost, the two largest general journal databases, are usually the best place to start your research. Consult Table 1.2 for more information on the databases available to you. Table 1.2: Research Databases ProQuest ProQuest databases provide access to more than 9,800 full-text journals and newspapers, covering all subject areas. EBSCOhost EBSCOhost databases include full-text articles from more than 13,000 journals, covering all subject areas. JSTOR JSTOR contains academic journals with excellent content in literature, history, and anthropology. ebrary ebrary is a collection of over 78,000 electronic books with titles in all disciplines. CREDO Credo Reference and World Book are both general reference collections with a wide variety of resources, including encyclopedias, dictionaries. The library collection is constantly expanding and changing. For assistance with finding the best resources, please contact the Ashford University librarians at Library@ashford.edu. Ashford Writing Center Writing support from the Ashford Writing Center is another service provided to you at Ashford University. The writing center can be accessed through the “Learning Resources” tab of any of your Ashford University classes. The center provides a wealth of writing resources, some of which are outlined below. If you wish, you can download and print most of these resources to build your own resource library. • con80878_01_c01.indd 17 Thesis Generator: This automated tool can help you develop a clear thesis statement for your academic papers. (We discuss thesis statements in more depth later in this text.) However, you might want to explore this tool now to see how it works. You can use the Thesis Generator as often as you wish to practice developing thesis statements for your academic writing and generating sample outlines. While you should not exclusively rely on the thesis generator, it may be a helpful starting point. If you use the thesis generator, do not simply plug the results into your paper; try to modify the results to make your thesis more complex. 8/26/13 12:51 PM CHAPTER 1 Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade Figure 1.2: Thesis Generator Thesis Statement Guide Development Tool Follow the steps below to formulate a thesis statement. 1. State your topic. regulating children’s television use 2. State your opinion/main idea about this topic. This will form the heart of your thesis. An effective statement will • • • • • express one major idea. name the topic and assert something specific about it. be a more specific statement than the topic statement above. take a stance on an issue about which reasonable people might disagree. state your position on or opinion about the issue. parents should regulate the amount of television their children watch 3. Give the strongest reason or assertion that supports your opinion/main idea. it is not always intellectually stimulating 4. Give another strong reason or assertion that supports your opinion/main idea. it inhibits social interaction 5. Give one more strong reason or assertion that supports your opinion/main idea. it shortens children’s attention spans 6. Include an opposing viewpoint to your opinion/main idea, if applicable. This should be an argument for the opposing view that you admit has some merit, even if you do not agree with the overall viewpoint. television can be educational 7. Provide a possible title for your essay. Touch that Dial! Submit con80878_01_c01.indd 18 Submit 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade • • • CHAPTER 1 Writing resources: °° Writing samples of some types of college assignments that you will be asked to prepare during your degree program °° Writing and grammar tutorials, exercises, and handouts to help you improve your writing skills and avoid plagiarism such as guidelines and tutorials °° eBook resources ® Microsoft Office guides to help you improve your use of Microsoft® °° Word and PowerPoint software Business writing guides: °° Samples of case studies, executive summaries, and papers that you will be asked to write in many business courses °° Grammar handouts °° Information on how to search the Ashford Online Library APA research guides and samples to help you: (1) understand and use APA style and (2) develop research papers. This section of the Ashford Writing Center also contains RefWorks, a Web-based tool that can assist you in creating a reference page for your college papers. Teaching Assistants/Writing Coaches Apart from these writing resources, students should be aware that writing-intensive general education courses, including this one, offer an additional writing resource: an Ashford University teaching assistant (TA), or writing coach. The role of the TA is to provide individualized writing feedback and to help you understand university policies and the mechanics of using your online learning platform for such issues as submitting assignments and viewing assignment feedback. Your course instructors and teaching assistants want to help you succeed. Be sure to contact them as early as possible in the course if you are having any problems completing the course assignments. The Code of Student Conduct: Avoiding Plagiarism Finally, as you begin this course, also take time to familiarize yourself with the Ashford University Academic Catalog and read the sections of the catalog that contain the Code of Student Conduct. An electronic version of the catalog is on your Student Portal. The Student Rights and Responsibilities section of the catalog covers your rights and responsibilities as an Ashford University student and as an ethical writer. The section outlines some of the consequences of academic dishonesty: A student who commits an act of academic dishonesty may face disciplinary action, including but not limited to: failure to receive credit on an academic exercise, course failure, and/or dismissal from the University. Ashford University may also extend its jurisdiction to misconduct that occurs prior to, but not reported until after the graduation of the offending student. (26). con80878_01_c01.indd 19 8/26/13 12:51 PM CHAPTER 1 Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade As we discussed earlier, writing gives us a great power to impact and to influence others. We must always remember to use this power responsibly, which means to be professional when we write, to respect the views of others, to use technology resources in ways that do not violate laws or the rights of others, and to not engage in academic dishonesty. We discuss your responsibilities as an ethical writer in more detail in Chapter 3. Maurizio Gambarini/AP Plagiarism is the use of another person’s or writer’s language, research, or ideas without citing and giving credit to that source of information. Many people may think of plagiarism as simply rewriting someone else’s sentences into one’s own paper; although this is a clear form of plagiarism, it certainly is only one way to plagiarize. Other forms of plagiarism include: In 2013, politician Annette Schavan stepped down from her position as Germany’s Federal Minister of Education and Research when an investigation by the University of Düsseldorf found that she had plagiarized portions of her doctoral dissertation, and her Ph.D. was revoked. • • • • • • • • Copying text from any printed material that is not your own and placing it into your paper without acknowledging the source Altering someone else’s text by changing some of the words and not acknowledging it as a paraphrase Copying and pasting sentence fragments, whole sentences, or even paragraphs from Internet sources or someone else’s writing without citing Using any fragment of another student’s work or ideas is considered an act of collusion. Colluding with another student, even if the student agrees to “share” her writing, is a serious act of academic dishonesty, and is a form of plagiarism. Using materials purchased online or elsewhere Reusing old papers of your own for a writing assignment without the instructor’s permission far in advance of the due date Paraphrasing or summarizing another writer’s work or thoughts without citing Summarizing or using any ideas that are not your own. (In other words, if an idea was not one that you developed on your own and you were introduced to this idea through some other written source, you must acknowledge it by citing the work.) Plagiarism, therefore, is any attempt to include any amount of someone else’s ideas, thoughts, research, language, or even the way the writer has structured his or her ideas without acknowledging the fact that another source is being used. However, if some fact is common knowledge, you do not need to cite it. The year a major event occurred is common knowledge. If, for instance, you say that World War II began in 1939, you do not need to cite that con80878_01_c01.indd 20 8/26/13 12:51 PM Section 1.3 Tools of the Trade CHAPTER 1 information because it is common knowledge. But any interpretation of historical facts, lesser-known information, or original research needs to be cited. As a general rule, if you are in doubt as to whether or not you should cite, then cite. If you are unsure, you should also ask your instructor about the use of sources in your writing. Your writing instructor will be happy to answer these questions since you are trying to be academically honest. To put it in context, consider the different ways students might incorporate a piece of someone else’s writing into their own essay. In Johanna M. Smith’s “‘Cooped Up’: Feminine Domesticity in Frankenstein,” she indicates that “no women in the novel speak directly: everything we hear from and about them is filtered through the three masculine narrators . . . these women seldom venture far from home, while the narrators and most of the other men engage in quests and various public occupations” (Smith, 1992, p. 270). Here are three examples of ways in which students might use the above quote: 1. Student A: In Frankenstein, no women in the novel speak directly: Everything we hear from and about them is filtered through the three masculine narrators. (This paper is plagiarizing the scholar’s article because it uses Smith’s language and does not cite it.) 2. Student B: Women do not get to speak in the novel Frankenstein. This is because men are in control in the story. Male narrators tell us everything about the women in the novel. The women do not really go far from home. The men, on the other hand, engage in public outings. (This paper is also plagiarizing because it paraphrases Smith’s ideas and does not cite the article.) 3. Student C: As Johanna M. Smith notes, women are mostly silenced in the novel Frankenstein because they do not have their own voice. For the most part, male characters tell readers what the women think. Women stay mostly within the private sphere of the home, whereas men frequently act in the public sphere and also engage in travel (Smith, 1992). (This paper uses Smith’s article in a way that is acceptable. This student rephrases Smith’s language in the student’s own words and cites the article.) As an aid toward promoting academic honesty, classes at Ashford University use the online research tool Turnitin (www.turnitin.com). Your paper is uploaded to the website, and then Turnitin compares your paper to all other papers in the system and to all content from the Internet, and picks up matches to other materials in the event of plagiarism. With each assignment, your instructor will check Turnitin to evaluate the possibility of plagiarism. Plagiarism has academic consequences. Ashford University’s policy is that plagiarism may result in receiving no credit on the assignment in question, failing the entire course in which the plagiarism was committed, and/or dismissal from the university. Depending on the case, the university reserves the right to carry out other academic consequences. That said, you have absolutely nothing to worry about if you do not plagiarize. con80878_01_c01.indd 21 8/26/13 12:51 PM CHAPTER 1 Key Terms Chapter Summary This chapter began by discussing some of the concerns and questions many students have about writing. Hopefully the information in this chapter has convinced you that the wide range of resources and tools you have at your school can help you build your writing skills and overcome any anxieties or fear you have about putting your ideas down on paper. As we embark on our studies of college writing, consider adopting the view of writing suggested by Donald M. Murray, who has been dubbed “America’s greatest writing teacher” (Newkirk & Miller, 2009). Rather than think of your academic papers as products you must produce, think of writing them as a process of discovery. In Murray’s words, writing can be an exciting “process of exploration of what we know and what we feel about what we know through language. It is the process of using language to learn about our world, to evaluate what we learn about our world, to communicate what we learn about our world” (cited in Newkirk & Miller, 2009, p. 2). To complete the writing tasks you will face in school and in your career, you must develop a set of skills and continually practice to improve those skills. Understanding the writing situation, the context, and language choices is critically important to writing effectively. For your college papers, considering the context should also remind you to switch codes from the informal language of everyday conversation to the more formal language required in college classes and on the job. The Ashford Online Library, Writing Center, and writing coaches are there to help—but you will only obtain the help you need if you take initiative and ask for it. Students should also keep the plagiarism guidelines in Ashford’s Student Rights and Responsibilities in mind; never hesitate to ask a teaching assistant if you are unsure whether or not a method of writing is plagiarism. Remember, writing is never easy; it is hard work. However, being successful in college and in the workplace requires that you write well. You have all the tools and resources you need to achieve this goal. The rest is up to you. Learning to write well can be one of the most important accomplishments of your life. Key Terms argument The position a writer takes on a subject, or an interpretation he or she makes about a text. An argument is not a statement of fact; it is an interpretation that can be disagreed with. audience The individuals for whom an author is writing or to whom he or she is speaking. blog An online journal space in which a writer frequently records thoughts, either publicly or privately, on a particular topic. con80878_01_c01.indd 22 code switching Alternating languages and/or style according to what one’s audience will understand. Code switching might include the use of informal language, multiple languages, expressions, or acronyms that only certain audiences will understand. ethos A speaker’s or writer’s credibility or authority to speak on a particular subject. 8/26/13 12:51 PM Key Terms formal language The standard and most appropriate language for academic and professional papers, legal documents, and business writing. Formal language usually sounds serious, is grammatically correct, and avoids language that would otherwise be used in more casual settings. genre The type of writing being used in a given writing situation. informal language The type of language used when speaking or writing to acquaintances or friends. It may include slang, incomplete sentences, improper capitalization (or no capitalization at all), incorrect grammar, and contractions. jargon A specialized language particular to a group of people, usually of a particular profession or group. Specialized language can exclude those who do not belong to the group because they may not understand the language or terms being used. logos An attempt to persuade by using reasoning and logic. This may include using clear examples, facts, or statistics. occasion The reason for writing, or what someone is writing for. pathos An attempt to persuade by making appeals to the audience’s emotions. persona The voice used when writing or speaking; a unique character to one’s own writing. CHAPTER 1 personal journal A place to record ongoing personal experiences. Personal journals can be shared broadly or with no one. It is helpful to keep a personal journal to keep track of ideas for a writing assignment. plagiarism The use of another person’s or writer’s language, research, or ideas without citing and giving credit to that source of information. Any ideas or language that derive from someone else’s writing must be cited, even when paraphrasing. rhetoric The use of language in order to persuade an audience. Someone who is trying to be persuasive should carefully consider what will be persuasive for the particular audience while writing. style guide A reference book that provides information on how to improve writing, grammar, and punctuation. It also contains essential information and standards that must be followed when writing, such as how to format a paper and how to document any outside sources used. voice The character of the writer or speaker that is conveyed through the material. A writer’s voice is synonymous with persona. writing situation The occasion, audience, writer’s voice, and argument of the writing. The writing situation also determines the genre required. personal essay A type of essay that typically uses the first person to convey the thoughts, feelings, experiences, and ideas of the writer. It may or may not take a position at some point in the essay. Most of the topic sentences in a personal essay are not argumentative. con80878_01_c01.indd 23 8/26/13 12:51 PM con80878_01_c01.indd 24 8/26/13 12:51 PM 2 College Reading Learning Objectives After reading this chapter, you should be able to: 1. Contrast active with unfocused reading. 2. Describe the four key steps that are essential to success when beginning a new college course. 3. Identify the key strategies to engage in order to actively read a text, including annotation, a reading journal, and brainstorming. Wavebreak Media/Thinkstock 4. Analyze the components of the SQ3R method, or Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review. 5. Differentiate the different key words and action verbs, and understand their implications. Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body. —Joseph Addison (ThinkExist, 2010a) con80878_02_c02.indd 25 8/26/13 12:56 PM CHAPTER 2 Section 2.1 Reading to Write and Learn Chapter 1 explored attitudes about writing, identified common elements in all types of writing, and outlined the writing tools and resources available to assist you in these efforts. This chapter offers guidance on how to help you meet the requirements for well-written college papers, including a discussion and demonstration of active reading strategies, and step-by-step strategies for reading different types of course materials. Good college writing begins with effective reading, and college courses generally require a great deal of both. Most people have been reading for so long that it is easy take its importance for granted. Cultivating the skills of active reading is the first step in learning to become a good writer; if you can thoughtfully interpret what you are reading, you have a much greater likelihood of writing material that is appropriately engaged with the text and the assignment. 2.1 Reading to Write and Learn W hen you read novels or other fictional writing, you usually do so to escape your daily routine and to relax from other activities. You probably start at the beginning of the book, read every word, and occasionally lose yourself in the story. Because you are reading for escape or for entertainment, it does not matter how quickly or slowly you read. You can read at your own pace and passively follow along with the story. In your college courses, however, you cannot be a passive reader; college reading requires active reading, a method that includes reading with a pen in hand and marking up the terms and phrases that seem significant (or using the highlight tool when reading an ebook). When you are an active reader, you are reading for a purpose. You look for main ideas and let the structure of the reading material, such as the headings and subheadings, help you decide what is most important. Active readers are reading to interpret rather than just gain a basic understanding of the content of the text. Active reading enables you to understand what you are reading and equips you with the skills you need to respond to writing assignments, for exams, or for use on the job or in other aspects of your life. Though some may believe that they will not need the content in this chapter for employment purposes, active reading is an invaluable skill that is needed for most careers that require a college degree. Reading Misconceptions Perhaps the most common reading misconception is the idea that you can read effectively while multitasking. Using email, online shopping, searching the Web, or checking social media outlets while also trying to read is extremely detrimental to the reading process. Avoid technological distractions of all kinds while you read because they move some of the focus away from your assignment and the texts. Students also very commonly turn on the TV in the “background” while studying, but the problem is that what was meant as “background” con80878_02_c02.indd 26 iStockphoto/Thinkstock Effective reading requires your full attention, in an environment without technological distractions. 8/26/13 12:56 PM Section 2.1 Reading to Write and Learn CHAPTER 2 noise moves into the “foreground”—in other words, students ultimately end up focusing on what is on TV and become distracted from their reading. Of course, life puts many demands on us, and it may not always be possible to do your reading in an environment where nothing else is going on. However, when possible, give reading your full attention and avoid multitasking. Reading to Write There are two important links between reading and writing. One of these is that reading is one of the best ways to improve your writing. Most good writers learn how to write well through reading rather than through memorizing grammar rules. In fact, reading provides better examples of how to use the English language than simply practicing grammar exercises would. The truth is that reading any form of writing on a regular basis helps writers gain an increased knowledge of writing structures, grammar, clarity, and organization. It is not necessary to constantly read novels or academic writing to achieve this benefit; reading popular social and political magazines and short articles will help as well, as long as they are well written. Not only will you gain more out of reading what interests you, but you will also become a stronger writer because you will automatically notice correct grammar usage, a variety of writing styles, and a variety of narrative structures as you read. The second fundamental link between reading and writing is that one must read a text very carefully in order to write well about it. Close reading requires you to notice details, repetitions, metaphors, similes, symbolism, and/or themes and to develop an understanding of how they—or any other literary devices—function in a text. A good method of reading may start by taking note of terms, phrases, or short clauses that stand out to the reader or that seem significant. As you read, highlight, circle, or underline the language that seems most important. When you notice a recurring theme, for instance, take note of it each time it appears in the text, and ultimately try to trace how that theme or concept develops over the course of the reading. Because all great writing begins with careful reading, students should read a text a few times. On the second reading, more connections between ideas and concepts will become apparent. For most college papers, direct citation is required in the body paragraphs, and one must develop an argument or interpretation about the evidence of the text, so it is necessary to pay attention to possible evidence one might use in a paper while reading. The evidence should directly guide a writer’s interpretation, not the other way around: One of the biggest mistakes writers sometimes make is coming up with an “answer” to an essay prompt first and then trying desperately to find evidence to support that answer. Writing should work in the reverse—what the text says and what it suggests is the first step in writing a paper, and the text should in turn guide the writer’s interpretation and response to the essay prompt. It is artificial to produce an answer to an essay prompt based on opinion rather than on a careful interpretation of what the text is saying. Reading to Learn Course materials usually consist of the course guide (or syllabus), assigned text(s) and other readings, and, in online courses, your instructor’s guidance, announcements, and the link to your weekly course assignments. A major mistake some students make is that they fail to read some of these materials, often as a result of procrastination. As a result, they miss important information or fail to prepare their written assignments properly, and con80878_02_c02.indd 27 8/26/13 12:56 PM Section 2.1 Reading to Write and Learn CHAPTER 2 their grades suffer. Find a relatively quiet place to read, such as a library’s reading room, a bench in a park, a quiet room in your home free of distractions, or if some background noise is good for you, then a coffee shop. Whatever the case may be, it is important that you are comfortable where you are reading and that you can concentrate. Begin your reading assignments immediately. If you read a little bit of material each day, you will have a much easier time completing the reading assignment—and, you will probably digest the material better because you read carefully and gave yourself time to process what you read. To ensure that you have all the information you need to be successful in your courses, follow the four steps below when you begin a college course. Step 1: Read the course guide or syllabus thoroughly before the course begins. Pay particular attention to any learning outcomes. Learning outcomes or learning objectives reflect knowledge you are expected to gain by the time you complete the course. Keep these learning outcomes or objectives in mind throughout the course. They are clues to the purpose of the reading materials and the course assignments. It is a good idea to read the entire assignment before reading the assigned text. You can read the text with more care if you first know what your writing assignment requires. The writing assignments, then, serve as a guide for how to read and what to look for in a text. Step 2: Each week, check your course calendar if applicable, and read the week’s information in the syllabus, as well as any emails or announcements from your instructor. Begin with the syllabus. The syllabus (or course guide) is likely to explain the goals and topics for the week and provide directions and additional information about the weekly topics and assignments. Announcements will notify the class of any assignment changes and provide other important information and the calendar, if your course has one, is likely to indicate the due dates for all assignments and exams. Step 3: As soon as possible each course week, complete the text reading, breaking it up into parts, and any other assigned reading materials. Use the SQ3R reading strategy, described later in the chapter, for lengthy reading assignments. Step 4: Finally, when you have completed your text and other assigned reading, read your discussion and written assignment prompts again carefully. Make sure you clearly understand the purpose of each assignment, the intended audience, the rhetorical context, and the specific assignment requirements. Your instructor will help you understand these elements of the writing situation, but you should definitely ask if you have any questions about the assignment. When you read the assignment for a second time, follow the guidelines in Section 2.2: Strategies for Active Reading. In addition to these general reading guidelines a student can apply to any class, it is crucial to understand that different types of reading materials in college classes require different reading strategies. con80878_02_c02.indd 28 8/26/13 12:56 PM Section 2.2 Strategies for Active Reading CHAPTER 2 2.2 Strategies for Active Reading I f you learn how to become an effective active reader, you will be impressed with the results. Learning how to become an active reader does take practice, but each time you practice the skills below you will improve in this crucial skill set. Annotating and Note Taking Annotating means writing a note—in the margin of the document you are reading or on a separate piece of paper—that explains or comments on what you have read. The notes you write on a text to help you keep track of key ideas are called annotations. Be creative and experiment until you find a recording system that works well for you. If you are using an ebook, chances are that you can highlight and annotate electronically. If you have a printed copy of a text including the reading or writing assignment, you should always read with a pen or pencil and highlighters in hand. If you are unsure what a paragraph or sentence suggests, mark it with a question mark. Indicate surprising moments in the text with an exclamation point. Respond to interesting sections of the text by writing down statements, questions, or ideas you have about them. Use different color highlighters for different themes you notice. Perhaps you see that nature and gender are themes in the text—try using one color highlighter for nature and a separate one for gender. This is a method for organizing your annotations. If you are reading a hard copy, you can also use sticky notes to keep track of your main ideas about the text. You do not need to mark everything you read; part of active reading is learning to distinguish between which material is important and which is less important thematically or in terms of content. When you are done reading a text, your annotations act as a series of interactions between yourself and the text you are reading. This dialogue with the text can and should help you organize a paper about that iStockphoto/Thinkstock text. Here is an example of how to effectively annotate a passage from Taking notes directly on your text is called annotating. Sophocles’s Antigone, a statement This practice can help you remember key concepts and made by King Creon: record your reactions to interesting passages. con80878_02_c02.indd 29 8/26/13 12:56 PM Section 2.2 Strategies for Active Reading CHAPTER 2 Sons are more important for kings That’s what a man prays for: to produce good sons—/a household full of them, dutiful and attentive,/so they can pay his enemy back with interest/and match the respect their father shows his friend./But the man who rears a brood of useless children,/what has he brought into the world, I ask you?/Nothing but trouble for himself, and mockery/from his enemies laughing in his face. (Sophocles, 1984, pp. 715–722). Sons should fight the enemy Reflection: According to this passage, the role of sons is very important to fathers, and maybe especially to kings, since King Creon is speaking. Sons are necessary for warfare—they are needed to fight the “enemy.” “Useless children” seem to be those who refuse to fight in warfare, and maybe daughters are also considered part of that category. You may have started the passage by wondering what kind of statement would be made about the value of sons, and you may have been surprised to read that King Creon sees sons as necessary for warfare. By the end of the excerpt, it seems that King Creon is making a clear statement that any son who would not go to war for him would be an embarrassment. It seems, then, that perhaps politics matter more to King Creon than his family. It is crucial that when you are reading a text you are doing your best to create an honest interpretation of the text that is well supported by what the text says. Avoid immediately disagreeing with a text or assuming it is uninteresting because these approaches will make you incapable of understanding the text. You might ask yourself: “Would the author consider this to be a fair interpretation of the text?” If the answer seems to be no, then reread portions of the text where you may have become stuck and try to develop a more accurate reading. As you read, remember to keep the learning outcomes in mind and to continually ask yourself, “Does this information answer the heading question?” and “Is this information I need to know?” If the answers to these questions are yes, read the material carefully and record it in some way. You should always read with a purpose, whether it is to answer questions your instructor has asked you about a text, to answer your own questions about the text, or to organize your thoughts for a paper. Journaling and Reflection If, while you are reading, you identify certain pages that seem important, you might want to write down the page numbers in a reading journal, which is a place where writers record their initial thoughts and impressions of a text, and may later brainstorm ideas and outline possible main points for the draft of an essay. Writers should especially note the elements of a text that are most interesting or that stand out in some way—there are reasons why certain pieces of text stand out. An informal journal will probably help you think about and ask questions in class about the text. The more engagement you have with the text, the stronger your understanding will be. After noting key phrases and terms, writers reflect on those terms to think about their significance. Reflection leads to brainstorming potential ideas that a writer might use in a paper. Brainstorming is a necessary step that allows you to synthesize the material and what you are learning from it. con80878_02_c02.indd 30 8/26/13 12:56 PM Section 2.2 Strategies for Active Reading CHAPTER 2 Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review Ideally, writers use a variety of strategies when approaching texts. Another method of approaching a text is the SQ3R method, (see Writing in Action: SQ3R Method), an abbreviation which stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review (Huber, 2004). SQ3R is a useful strategy for reading books and other lengthy reading materials. This strategy is simple to follow, and it can improve your understanding of what you read. Writing in Action: SQ3R Method SQ3R = 1. Survey (skim headings, subheadings, chapter summary, charts, and tables in text). 2. Question (turn headings and subheadings into questions). 3. Read (read to find the answers to your questions and record the answers by highlighting, underlining, or taking notes). 4. Recite (summarize what you learned by telling someone else or writing it down). 5. Review (go back and read your notes or information that you highlighted or underlined to reinforce learning and to commit the information to memory). Survey The term survey means to preview information. Before reading a chapter, skim or flip through it and read the bold headings that divide the text into different sections. These headings are an outline of the chapter. They will show you how the chapter is organized and give you the main ideas the chapter will cover. As you survey the chapter, also pay attention to any hints, tips, or other material shown in the margins or in hyperlinks. This information is formatted to make it stand out from the rest of the text, and it usually summarizes major points or provides helpful information. If you are doing research, or are simply interested in learning more about a topic, look at the text’s index and bibliography. An index can include a list of authors and concepts referred to in the text. If you want to see how many references a text makes to Darwin, flip to the index and see if there is an entry. If there is no entry, the text likely is not relevant to your studies. Bibliographies are equally useful resources for readers and researchers. If a text is useful to you and you want to read more texts that relate to the subject matter, the bibliography (or reference list) tells you what research the author of the text you are reading relied on. If a text refers to another author whose approach seems particularly interesting, you can turn to the bibliography and then locate these texts. Next, examine all graphs, pictures, diagrams, and tables. They also summarize information in a clear and concise way. (Remember the old saying, “A picture is worth a thousand words.”) Finally, read the introductory and summary paragraphs at the beginning and end of the chapter. These paragraphs point out what to look for in the chapter and recap the most important information. Question After your chapter survey, go back to the beginning of the chapter and start reading. As you come to each of the chapter headings or subheadings, change it to a question (using con80878_02_c02.indd 31 8/26/13 12:56 PM Section 2.2 Strategies for Active Reading CHAPTER 2 the words who, what, where, when, why, or how). Then try to answer the question as you read. For example, this chapter’s heading or title is “College Reading.” Change this heading to a question: “What is college reading?” As you read, try to find information in the chapter that answers that question. Do the same for the chapter headings and subheadings. The first heading is “Reading to Write and Learn.” Change this heading to a question such as “What does reading actually have to do with writing?” As you read this section of the text, look for information that answers your question. The first subheading under “Reading to Write and Learn” is “Reading Misconceptions.” Again, change this heading to a question: “What are reading misconceptions, and why are they important?” Yet another question to consider is: “Do I actually believe in some of these misconceptions?” Looking for answers to these questions means that you are engaging the text, and creating your own dialog with it. There is no right or wrong way to form the question. Just follow this questioning method with each chapter heading and subheading as you come to it in your reading: First form a question and then read the section to answer the question. Challenging yourself in this way will help you maintain interest in what you are reading and improve your understanding of the text. Read Think about what you are reading and what it means. Because you are reading for information that you may need to retrieve later for an exam or a written assignment, develop a system to record important information as you read it. You might want to underline or highlight the information that answers your question or that you think is important. Or, you can use an asterisk (*), an exclamation point (!), or a question mark (?) to mark passages you think are particularly important to remember. You should always feel ready to write notes in the margins about important information as you read. Some students take notes in a notebook and then use different colored marking pens to circle or highlight specific information. If you are reading electronically, then add comments electronically or on a separate sheet of paper. Try to annotate as you read regardless of what you are reading. Recite After you have finished reading a section of the book or other lengthy reading material, make sure you understand what you have read by trying to restate it in some way. Reciting does not necessarily mean you have to say it out loud. You can recite what you learned to yourself aloud (or silently) if you wish, but you might also tell someone else what you learned, discuss it in a written discussion post, or write a short paragraph in a notebook that summarizes what you read. However you choose to “recite,” it is important that you recap what you learned in some way. You might want to go back to the question you formed from each section heading and, in your own words, answer the question; even better, write down the answer. The answers to the section questions will help you study for future exams. You may even recite material to yourself while you are getting ready in the morning or cooking dinner. You may not have all of your questions about a text answered while you are sitting in front of it. Likely you will need to reflect afterwards and this will contribute to your larger reading of the text. Think of reciting as a type of self-test to make sure you clearly understand what you read and to reinforce the material in your mind. If you do not clearly understand it, go back and read it again or ask your instructor or other students to help you clarify the meaning. con80878_02_c02.indd 32 8/26/13 12:56 PM Section 2.3 Reading for Academic Success CHAPTER 2 Review Finally, review the most important information by going back and looking over the underlined, marked, or highlighted information or by rereading or typing your handwritten notes. Imagine the sort of quiz questions you might be asked on the material and make sure you have the information to answer those questions. When you are finished reading the assigned text, reread what you have written and try to summarize the main points or ideas you think the text is pointing you toward. Try to summarize in order to gain a sense of what you think is valuable in the text. Reading Visuals Learning how to read visuals is an art form itself. Your readings may also include simple visuals such as tables, illustrations, or graphics to make information more understandable. Whenever students encounter visuals in their reading assignments, they should always pause and take time to consider what the visual is telling them and how it assists them in their understanding of the course material. Images in reading may help you if you are more of a visual learner. Refer back to tables, graphs, and charts that seem to simplify information and clarify ideas that seemed otherwise unclear as you read. 2.3 Reading for Academic Success H ow can you apply reading methods to discussion questions and written assignments for college? The primary methods for understanding assignments consist of learning how to read for key words and action verbs. When taken together, key words and action verbs indicate the concepts the essay must attend to. Reading for Key Words and Action Verbs When you read your assignments, create a list of key words and phrases—important nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs that describe or explain the assignment requirements (see Figure 2.1 and Table 2.1). Refer to these key words and phrases often while you are writing your discussion posts and your written assignments to make sure you do not veer off track. In 1956, a group of researchiStockphoto/Thinkstock ers headed by psychologist Benjamin Paying close attention to action verbs in course Bloom developed a taxonomy, or documents will help you understand assignments and classification system, for educational ensure your final submission is relevant and thorough. objectives. Known as Bloom’s Taxonomy, this classification system uses specific action verbs to help you understand what you are being asked to do in an assignment and how you will be graded (cited in Halawi, Pires, & McCarthy, 2009). con80878_02_c02.indd 33 8/26/13 12:56 PM CHAPTER 2 Section 2.3 Reading for Academic Success Creating Evaluating Analyzing Applying Figure 2.1: Anderson’s revised version of Bloom’s Taxonomy Understanding Remembering Bloom’s Taxonomy posits a hierarchy of learning skills, in which lower-level skills are preconditions for higher-level skills. A student of Bloom’s, Louis Anderson, revised the taxonomy in 2000, using action verbs to emphasize the thinkers’ cognitive processes. Source: Anderson, L. W. and David R. Krathwohl, D. R., et al (Eds..) (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. pp. 67–68. Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Table 2.1: Defining terms from Anderson’s revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy Creating Directly creating a unique interpretation of the text that is a result of the learner’s individual thought processes and selections about which pieces of text are significant and why. Evaluating Evaluating the effect of the selected details by developing the meaning of the language. Analyzing Analyzing these selected details to discuss their significance. Applying Applying your understanding and memory of details by selecting and transferring these details onto a sheet of paper. Understanding Understanding that these concepts may be linked with one another and may suggest significance. Remembering Remembering key details, phrases, and terms that connect with one another. The learning outcomes for your college courses and for your course assignments will likely use specific verbs that explain what the assignment calls for. Refer to Table 2.2 each time you receive an assignment. After you have identified the key words and phrases in the assignment, locate the action verbs in this table, underline them, and then list them. Then read the columns “Objective” and “Assignment Requirements” for that verb to determine what is expected of you. When you read your discussion and written assignments, create a list of all key words and phrases. Assignments require a student’s interpretation of action verbs, objectives, and assignment requirements. Table 2.2 describes what certain verbs mean and what they require of you in an assignment. con80878_02_c02.indd 34 8/26/13 12:56 PM CHAPTER 2 Section 2.3 Reading for Academic Success Table 2.2: Action verbs Action Verbs Objective Assignment Requirements Define Show that you understand. State the meaning of a term. Identify, label, list, memorize, name, order, quote, recall, recognize, repeat, reproduce, select, state, tell Show that you remember what you have learned. Demonstrate your knowledge or recall of information, dates, events, places, or major theories. Associate, categorize, classify, demonstrate, describe, differentiate, discuss, distinguish, estimate, explain, express, extend, group, indicate, interpret, paraphrase, predict, review, show, sort Show that you understand. Interpret facts, restate information in your own words, or demonstrate that you comprehend or grasp the meaning of information or how ideas are connected. Give reasons why or explain how something happened. Apply, calculate, change, complete, discover, experiment, extrapolate, illustrate, manipulate, modify, operate, practice, relate, solve, test, translate, use Apply what you have learned or show how something works. Solve problems or put a theory into practice using information you have learned or show how you can use the information, methods, concepts, or theories in a new situation or a practical manner. Analyze, arrange, connect, deduce, distinguish, divide, examine, infer, interpret, order, organize, select, test Analyze ideas or determine how the parts relate to the whole, how something works, what it means, or why it is important. Break something into parts to show that you can isolate components or important information or recognize patterns, hidden meanings, relationships, or the internal structure of something. Arrange, assemble, build, combine, compose, construct, create, design, develop, devise, formulate, generalize, hypothesize, integrate, invent, modify, plan, predict, prepare, rearrange, report, substitute Synthesize, or put ideas together. Combine parts into a whole, predict or draw conclusions from given facts, blend knowledge from different areas to show how it is related, or combine old ideas and use them in a new way. Assess, choose, compare, conclude, contrast, convince, criticize, decide, defend, define, discriminate, estimate, evaluate, grade, investigate, judge, justify, measure, rank, recommend, support Evaluate, or judge, ideas. Assess or judge the value of something, make logical choices and support those choices, or show how items are similar or different. Summarize Show understanding by concisely retelling facts and ideas. List the main points. Source: Adapted from Bloom, 1956. con80878_02_c02.indd 35 8/26/13 12:56 PM Section 2.3 Reading for Academic Success CHAPTER 2 Understanding Discussion Questions and Written Assignments The SQ3R strategy works well for reading and understanding lengthy articles. However, when you read your discussion assignments and written assignments, you must use a different strategy and read more closely, focusing on recurring concepts, themes, and problems that appear in the text. In fact, it is usually a good idea to reread the text you have been assigned at least once, so that you can trace details, concepts, and themes you may have missed the first time you read. Did you know that your instructors likely reread the text you have been assigned every single time they teach it? This is because active reading makes details clear; a second reading of a text also allows you to make many more connections than you noticed the first time you read. Discussion and writing assignments have specific requirements that also need to be read carefully. Often, students lose points on their discussion posts and college papers because they do not answer all the questions asked in the assignment or they fail to address all the elements the assignment requires. Discussion Questions and Posts If your course requires discussion posts, there are likely specific guidelines that you should familiarize yourself with. If you have questions about these guidelines, please do not hesitate to ask your instructor for clarification. Some possible guidelines may include: • • • • • Read the discussion board requirements and your instructor’s guidance thoroughly to make sure you understand the discussion assignment. Make certain your posting answers all questions and addresses all issues required in the discussion assignment. Your initial post should contribute to the topic. It should demonstrate that you have read, understood, and critically evaluated the topic. Give examples and cite specific sentences or paragraphs from the text or from outside research to support your statements. Relate the topic to your own experiences. Consider using examples from your personal experiences and discuss how they relate to the topic under discussion. Review grammar, punctuation, and spelling and proofread your posts before submitting them. Like your written papers, your discussion posts are likely to be graded in part on the content, completeness, and quality of your writing. Your posts do not have to include a title page, but they do need to be written in complete sentences. Unless otherwise instructed, you must include a reference for all outside sources you use in your posts. Because discussion posts mimic the types of discussions held in college classrooms, they can typically be written in a formal conversational tone. However, the language must be appropriate for formal college writing. In other words, avoid slang expressions, abbreviations, and the informal language of personal emails or text messages, and always check your posts for spelling, grammar, and punctuation before you submit them. Posts should directly respond to questions your instructor is asking or directly engage with the text and contribute something meaningful to the class discussion. Writing brief responses such as “I disagree,” or “I completely agree” are not sufficient responses. If you only discuss your personal opinion and do not give evidence from the text, this will con80878_02_c02.indd 36 8/26/13 12:56 PM Section 2.3 Reading for Academic Success CHAPTER 2 likely result in a poor discussion post, unless your instructor specifically says no citation is necessary. In discussion posts, you must always include reference information for any outside sources that you consulted. All ideas that are not your own must have references. One discussion post assignment asks students to reflect on the conclusion of Joyce Carol Oates’s short story “Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been?” (Oates, 1966). In this short story, Arnold Friend, a virtual stranger to the story’s protagonist, Connie, demands that she gets into his car, or he will harm her family. The reader is left with the uncertainty of knowing what exactly happens to...