Emergency Management in Saudi Arabia:
Past, Present and Future
Yassar A. Alamri1
“He who is secure in his house, healthy in his body and has his
food for the day, has owned the world” - Prophet Mohammed
Introduction
The management of potentially hazardous situations such as religious mass
gatherings has been the duty of the people of Makkah (now part of Saudi Arabia) for
many centuries. Inhabitants of Makkah used to evacuate their houses to accommodate the
incoming pilgrims, and servants of the Holy Mosque used to distribute cold water to
quench pilgrims’ thirst. This concept of serving mass gatherings formed the nucleus of
the first emergency management plans in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Today, Saudi
Arabia covers most of the Arabian Peninsula and has faced many other risks in addition
to those arising from religious mass gatherings.
In order to improve on the existing emergency management policies and plans, it
is of crucial importance to examine the current emergency management system. It is also
pivotal to reflect back on previous disasters and learn lessons from them to avoid
committing the same mistakes again. It is saddening to discover that most emergency
policies implemented are either out-of-date, not fully documented or not easily
obtainable.
This chapter will look at current hazards and vulnerabilities in Saudi Arabia. It
will also provide a list of major disasters in Saudi history, and describe the current
emergency management policies in the country. Finally, lessons learned from these
disasters and areas of improvement will be critically discussed.
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is located in western Asia. It takes up most of the
Arabian Peninsula, with a surface area of 2,149,690 km2 and a population of 27.137
million (Central Department of Statistics and Information, 2010, United Nations:
Statistics Division, 2008). Of this population, 30% are 14 years or younger and only
4.75% are 60 years or older. International migrant stock, such as guest workers, represent
27.8% of the total population (Ministry of Economy and Planning, 2010-2014). Saudi
Arabia’s population living in rural areas makes up 18.6% of the total population. The
geography is varied, from coastal regions in the eastern and western parts, to
mountainous regions in the south-west, and finally to the Rub’ al Khali desert running
along the country’s southern boarders where almost no life exists. The country is divided
into 13 provinces which are further divided into governorates; each of these has a capital
that is headed by a governor. Figure 1 shows a simplified map of Saudi Arabia and its
major cities.
1
Medical student and PhD candidate (MBChB/PhD) at Christchurch School of Medicine, University of
Otago and Van der Veer Research Institute, P.O. Box 4345, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand. E-mail:
yasao@hotmail.com
1
Figure 1. Map of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
(source: United States Central Intelligence Agency)
Hazards in Saudi Arabia
A hazard can be thought of as a potential risk endangering human life or health,
property or the environment. However, if this risk does lead to an incident, it is referred
to as an emergency situation or, if the damage is overwhelming, a disaster. Such events
are often the result of human factors, environmental hazards or natural causes. Although
considerable overlap occurs between these factors, there is usually one factor that
contributes significantly more than the others. This section will review hazards in Saudi
Arabia classified according to the main contributory factor.
1. Human-related risks:
• Terrorist attacks: Up until recent years, terrorist attacks have very rarely, if at all, been
heard of in Saudi Arabia. Citizens and foreigners have co-habitated for decades, even
before the foundation of the current Saudi Arabia. This was especially the case in areas
known for trade, such as Jiddah on the Red Sea, where merchants from Syria, Lebanon,
Jordan, Egypt, Yemen, Oman, and India regularly mingled and traded with local
merchants.
With the rapid modernization that occurred to the country, more and more citizenforeigner interactions were formed. This increased presence and power of foreigners in
the Kingdom is viewed by some extremists as posing a “threat.” Lacking adequate
knowledge of Islamic laws, they took out-of-context quotes from Holy Scriptures to
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justify taking their souls, along with many others’ of their fellow citizens and foreigners.
This has resulted in the unfortunate occurrence of several terrorist attacks in Saudi Arabia
in the past few years (discussed later on in the chapter). Added to the human and
structural losses, these bombings resulted in transient internal instability in the country,
albeit brief, as well as interrupting public and international relations leading to an
unprecedented shift in regional and international political dynamics.
• Motor Vehicle Crashes (MVCs): MVCs are the leading cause of mortality and
morbidity in Saudi Arabia. There have been almost 500,000 MVCs in 2008 alone,
resulting in over 6,000 deaths (Ministry of Interior, 2008). This means that there are
1,350 MVCs, 101 people injured and 18 people killed everyday! This, in part, has been
attributed to the social and economic development in the country, leading to a
considerable increase in the numbers of drivers and vehicles. In turn, this has
overwhelmed traffic services in urban and rural areas. Supporting this theory is the
notable increase in MVCs and deaths seen during the special seasons on the Islamic
calendar (discussed next). For example, the province of Makkah has witnessed more
MVC-related deaths (26.02%) in 2008 than the rest of the 13 provinces of Saudi Arabia.
The vast majority of MVCs result from driver-related offences, as opposed to road- or
vehicle-related causes (Ministry of Interior, 2008). Driver-related offences can be divided
into the following categories: road-code offences, vehicle misuse, driving misjudgments
and other offences. Of these categories, road-code offences have been the most common,
with overspeeding and running red lights having accounted for more than 50% of all
MVAs in 2008. Of note, more than one-third of all MVA-related deaths are seen in the
18-29 years age group (which is most expected to undertake such driving stunts).
Targeting such risk factors, therefore, has the potential of dramatically improving
morbidity and mortality resulting from MVCs in Saudi Arabia.
MVCs are on the rise internationally, but they are particularly problematic in Saudi
Arabia. In a review of MVCs from all Gulf countries, Saudi Arabia had the highest
incidence of accidents including pedestrians (Al-Tukhi, 1990). Not only has this been
claiming the lives of many people in Saudi Arabia, but it has also been exhausting
national resources that could be better utilized.
• Ramadan and Hajj seasons: Ramadan and Hajj are two special seasons on the Islamic
calendar, for which a massive influx of people from all over the world come to Saudi
Arabia. Ramadan is the ninth month on the Islamic calendar, while Hajj occurs on the
12th month. Given that the Islamic calendar employs a lunar cycle, these events do not
equate to a particular time on the Gregorian solar calendar (which is usually 11-12 days
longer). This also means that these events cycle between seasons (i.e. summer, fall,
winter and spring) every few years.
During the fasting month of Ramadan, it is an Islamic belief that good deeds are
exponentially greater. As a result, many Muslims from around the world make an effort
to visit the Holy Mosques in Makkah and Medina to perform prayers and other rituals.
This leads to a cumulative number of visitors of about 2 million people over a period of
only 30 days. With this number of visitors, simple practicalities, such as when to perform
physical prayers, can result in profound adverse effects that can exhaust available
resources. For example, an observational study from Al-Noor Specialist Hospital in
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Makkah has shown that most emergency department admissions were during the evening
shift (4pm-12am). This was attributed to the fact that most patients were fasting and had
been exposed to the high temperatures of summer while performing prayers during the
day (Dhaffar et al., 2005).
Hajj refers to the major pilgrimage to the Holy Mosque in Makkah, carried out over 5
days on the 12th month of the Islamic calendar. It is obligatory for each adult Muslim,
physically and financially capable, to perform Hajj at least once in their lifetime. During
Hajj season, there is an almost sudden increase in Makkah’s population from 200,000
permanent inhabitants to well over 3 million people. This increase puts major stress on
Makkah’s modest supplies of food and water as well as its health services. In addition,
the limited space in Makkah has raised concerns about pilgrim overcrowding and
trampling, increased MVCs, spread of infectious diseases and other public health
implications.
2. Technological hazards: Technological hazards refer to the partial malfunction or total
breakdown of equipment leading to the early cessation of an operation short of its
intended goal. Technological hazard is increasingly becoming a recognized separate
category of hazards. Depending upon the type of operation ceased, technological hazards
can result in power outages, environmental damage or health risks for the human
workforce. Since Saudi Arabia is one of the leading oil-producing countries, this
paragraph will focus on the risks posed by technological hazards in the oil industry.
Technological hazards in the oil industry can occur at any stage of oil processing:
from extraction to refinement to exportation. Some of the incidents that can occur include
damage to oil wells, leaking pipelines, accidental ballast water discharge from loading
terminals and accidental oil spillages.
All Saudi factories involved in oil-related operations are very active in the
protection and maintenance of the equipment in accordance with SASO (Saudi Standards,
Metrology and Quality Organization) standards. Unfortunately, however, incidents still
occur in spite of all precautionary measures, and there have been about 36 recorded oil
spills in the Arabian Gulf alone as of 2005 (Al-Suwian, 2001). Several field studies from
King Fahad University of Petroleum and Minerals have not shown any significant
pollution of the Arabian Gulf by heavy metals or hydrocarbons (Al-Suwian, 2001).
However, the Arabian Gulf is especially likely to become more polluted since it is
enclosed and receives only a slow rate of water exchange with the open sea. It also has a
high salinity and a rapid rate of water evaporation leading to an even higher salinity. All
of this poses a great threat to living marine species, the ecological structure of the Gulf,
as well as people working in the area.
3. Natural disasters: Saudi Arabia has recently become known for media-attracting
incidents such as terrorist attacks and major MVCs. However, less attention has been
given to natural disasters, even though their incidence has been on the rise. Floods are the
most frequently encountered natural disaster in Saudi Arabia. They have been the cause
of 7 of the 10 most damaging natural disasters in the history of the country between 1900
and 2010 (refer to Table 1).
The reason behind floods being a major threat in Saudi Arabia is multi-faceted.
Rains have been relatively scarce in the area, and this has lead to the under-development
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of a proper drainage system in the country. Compounding this problem is the geography
of some of the most populated cities in Saudi Arabia. Cities, such as Jiddah and Makkah,
are on low ground and are surrounded by mountains. When rains fall on these mountains,
water runs in valleys towards these cities. With poor drainage systems, this continuous
flow of water could easily lead to a flash flood.
Disaster
Date
No. Killed
Flood
24/11/2009
163
Epidemic 11/09/2000
76
03/2000
Epidemic
57
Epidemic 9/02/2001
35
Flood
28/04/2005
34
Flood
24/12/1985
32
Flood
22/01/2005
29
Flood
4/04/1964
20
Flood
8/04/2002
19
12
Flood 11/11/2003
Table 1. Top 10 natural disasters in
Saudi Arabia for the period 1964 to
2010, sorted by the number of people
killed (source: International Disaster
Database)
Vulnerability in Saudi Arabia
Vulnerability in any country can be gauged by how it prepares for and reacts to
emergency situations and hazards. This section will examine vulnerabilities in Saudi
Arabia in terms of emergency preparedness and reaction to emergencies once they occur.
Emergency preparedness vulnerabilities
Saudi Arabia has certain vulnerabilities that can hinder the country’s ability to be
better prepared for hazards discussed previously. One of these is the short time available
to prepare for high risk seasons, namely, Hajj and Ramadan season. This line-up of mass
gathering seasons leaves no time for proper emergency preparedness projects. Usually,
preparations of these seasons start at least a month before Ramadan. As people start to
leave after the Ramadan season, more and more people arrive in Makkah in preparation
for Hajj. This takes up the period leading to the actual Hajj season. After Hajj, at least
two to four weeks are spent on cleaning the Holy Mosque and fixing any damage caused
by the season itself rather than initiating new emergency preparedness projects.
The scale and timing of these mass gathering seasons leave no choice for
emergency planners but to operate on full capacity, and surge capacity of human and
physical resources is almost null. Any extra resources are only used for increasing the
operating capacity to handle more visitors rather than to increase the surge capacity.
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Furthermore, with all the crowding during these mass gathering seasons, emergency
preparedness activities take longer to establish and are more expensive to run because of
the logistics and practicalities of establishing a preparedness program in a very crowded
city (i.e. Makkah). Basically, the nature and timing of high risk seasons in Makkah make
the population of Makkah and its visitors more vulnerable to disasters and its impact.
Another, although less significant, factor to exacerbate the vulnerability of Saudi
Arabia to the impact of potential disasters is the recent trend of reluctance from
international experts, including emergency planners, to work in the country especially
after the recent terrorist attacks (Maben et al., 2010). This has affected the progress of a
wide range of collaborative developmental projects including emergency preparedness
projects, for which more expertise and skill than available in the country is required.
Emergency preparedness is based on experience-sharing, and international expertise is
central to any readiness activities and without such expertise the vulnerability to the
effect of disasters is multiplied.
Vulnerabilities in reaction to emergencies
A country’s reaction to emergencies once they strike determines the extent of the
damage. Multiple factors could improve or hinder the reaction to emergencies. Saudi
Arabic has several factors that could hinder recovery efforts and increase the
vulnerability to disasters impact. These are usually social and demographic factors, such
as the high rate of illiteracy and language barriers among vulnerable populations.
Illiteracy and lack of proper education can negatively affect people’s attitudes
towards emergency preparedness. In 2007, illiteracy rates were 23.6% in females and
8.6% of males over 15 years (Ministry of Economy and Planning, 2010-2014). Not being
able to read safety brochures or use the internet and other media resources for public
announcements can have adverse consequences and place the population on higher risk of
being a victim of disasters. For example, during the rainfall that resulted in the flood in
Jiddah in 2009 (discussed in the next section), many people ignored warnings about using
motor vehicles for unnecessary trips simply because illiteracy means less attention to
such messages. Some people under-estimated the risk and decided to take a trip in their
cars to “enjoy” the rain, and these were the cars that were swept away by the flood and
clogged main streets. Moreover, some people have the attitude that “what God wills to
happen, will happen”; however, this contradicts Islamic beliefs. Islamic teachings state
that every person has to do their best in taking precautions, as well as believing in God
and relying on Him. In short, lower education level and illiteracy leads to less effective
risk-communication and under-appreciation of the power of disasters. Many communities
in Saudi Arabia have a higher vulnerability to the impact of disaster because people do
not appreciate risks and ignore official messages.
Another problem is the language barrier among immigrant workers in Saudi
Arabia. Immigrant workers made up 53.1% of the workforce in Saudi Arabia in 2008
(Ministry of Economy and Planning, 2010-2014). In spite of this large number, most
precautionary warnings issued by officials during disasters are still publicized in Arabic!
There has been a call for occupational emergency personnel who can speak languages
most commonly used by foreign workers (e.g. Urdu and Filipino); attempts to date have
been unsuccessful. The media is still largely in Arabic and less of other languages. This
6
miscommunication leads to increased vulnerability of minority groups in Saudi Arabia
who are labor workers living in high risk areas.
In summary, the vulnerability to disasters and their impact is compounded in
Saudi Arabia by multiple factors, such as the nature of the mass gatherings, the high
illiteracy rate and miscommunication of risk to minority groups. These factors all tend to
slow down preparedness activities and make recovery after disasters even slower.
History of disasters in Saudi Arabia
Almost all major disasters in Saudi Arabia can be attributed to one or more of the
hazards and vulnerabilities mentioned in the previous sections. Unfortunately, there is no
official publicly-available database that keeps a record of disasters in the country. Most
official information available comes from newspapers local to the region where the
disaster occurred. The International Disaster Database (IDD) of the WHO provides the
best record of disasters in Saudi Arabia (International Disaster Database, 2010). For this
section, data recorded in the IDD have been compared to information published in the
relevant medical literature as well as in local newspapers around the time of any given
disaster to check for accuracy (2000, Aguilera et al., 2002, Almulla, 2008, Lerner et al.,
2007, Thompson et al., 2004). Table 2 shows a chronological list of major disasters in the
past 50 years in Saudi Arabia. The following is a description of the most significant
disasters in the history of Saudi Arabia:
1964 rains: this is the earliest recorded account of a natural disaster in Saudi Arabia.
Heavy rains poured continuously on parts of the country leading to a flood that killed 20
people and left about 1,000 people either injured or homeless. No further details are
recorded.
Fire incident in Hajj season 1975: during Hajj season in 1975, a fire broke out in one of
the pilgrim’s tents near Makkah and quickly spread to other tents. The fire was caused by
an explosion of a gas cylinder, and led to the death of 200 pilgrims.
Seizure of the Holy Mosque in Makkah: on 20 November 1979 the Holy Mosque in
Makkah was occupied by a group of armed Muslim extremists. The attackers had planned
to seize the Mosque by filling coffins with weapons and smuggled them into the Mosque.
On the morning of the day of seizure, they chained the gates of the Mosque, killed the
two guards on-duty at the time, and held present worshippers hostages. They called on
the people to revoke the current Saudi Monarchy and obey their leader, Abdullah Hamid
Al-Qahtani. After more than two weeks of cross-fire with the Saudi Army, and with the
help of Pakistani and French forces, the siege of the Mosque was ended. At least 250
people were killed and 600 injured, including worshippers, troops and insurgents. The
surviving insurgents were captured by Saudi authorities and later executed.
Ras al-Khafji thunderstorm: in October 1982, a severe thunderstorm hit Ras al-Khafji
city on the east coast of Saudi Arabia. Hail stones were reported to be as big as tennis
balls. This was followed by four hours of heavy rains. The net damage included 11
fatalities.
7
Type of disaster
Heavy rains
Fire during Hajj
Militant occupation of
Holy Mosque in Makkah
Floods in north-western
Saudi
Iranian riots during Hajj
Stampede inside
pedestrian tunnel during
Hajj
Date
April 1964
December 1975
November 1979
No. affected
1,000
NDA
600
No. killed
20
200
250
December 1985
5,000
At least 32
July 1987
July 1990
649
NDA
402
1,426
Fire during Hajj
April 1997
343
Rift Valley Fever
outbreak
Jizan floods
September
2000
April 2004
More than
1,500
500
87
NDA
430
5
Destroyed 2,680
km2 of hoses, lands
and roads
$900,000
Jiddah floods
Effect estimates
NDA
NDA
Help from Pakistani
and French forces
$450,000
NDA
Compounded by
failure of ventilation
system inside the
tunnel
November 2009 More than
163
10,000
Table 2. Top 10 disasters causing major damages in Saudi Arabia between 1960 and
2010 (NDA = No Data Available)
1985 flood: on 24 December 1985, heavy rains poured on north-western regions of Saudi
Arabia, leading to what has been described as the worst flood in the area in 50 years.
Estimates of damage were not recorded, except that there were at least 32 people killed
from the flood.
Iranian riots in Hajj 1987: in July 1987, the Civil Defense forces and Saudi Police had
to open fire against Iranian demonstrators after arguments escalated to fights between the
two parties. This incident claimed the lives of 402 people, and wounded 649. This led to
political tension between the two countries, and Iranian pilgrims were held from entering
Saudi Arabia for Hajj seasons 1988 and 1989.
Stampede in Hajj season 1990: as pilgrims were moving between the sacred sites on the
second day of Hajj season in 1990, a massive stampede occurred in a tunnel south of
Makkah. The stampede occurred after what is thought to be a failure in the ventilation
system inside the tunnel. This led to the suffocation and death of 1,426 pilgrims, most of
whom were from south-east Asia.
Stampede in Hajj season 1994: During one of the rituals of Hajj, a stampede occurred
as pilgrims leaving the site crossed roads with those coming in. This led to a massive
disorder culminating in the death of 270 pilgrims, most of whom were trampled.
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Khobar tower attack: on 25 June 1996, a terrorist truck bomb (estimated to carry
20,000 pounds of TNT equivalents) exploded in Dhahran, eastern Saudi Arabia. The
attack was aimed against troops of US Air Forces, US Army and coalition forces who
billeted in Khobar towers military compounds. The attack resulted in the death of 19
people and the injury of 555 people.
1996 Charkhi Dadri mid-air collision: even though this tragic event occurred outside
the country, it deserves to be mentioned since it is considered the deadliest mid-air
collision in history. On 12 November 1996, Saudi flight 763 was en route to Saudi Arabia
from India when it collided with Kazakhstan Airlines flight 1907. All 349 people onboard both flights were killed.
Yanbu flood: heavy rains poured on western Saudi Arabia in January 1997, mainly
affecting Yanbu and peripheries of Jiddah. The rain lasted for 24 hours, killing 10 people
and causing damage to an area of over 130,000 km2 of land.
Asir flood: Asir is a province in the Southwest of Saudi Arabia. On Monday 25 March
1997, heavy rains poured on the region, leading to floods that resulted in 16 fatalities and
damaged an area of just below 100,000 km2 of land.
Fire incident in Hajj season 1997: in April 1997, a gas stove exploded in one of the
pilgrim’s tents, leading to a massive fire that quickly spread to other nearby tents. It
claimed the lives of 343 pilgrims, and more than 1,500 were wounded. This stimulated
authorities to design the currently used fire-proof tents, as well as banning gas-operated
material.
Meningitis outbreaks in Hajj and Ramadan: outbreaks of N. meningitides serogroup
W135 have been reported from as early as 1987. In the Ramadan of 1992, an epidemic
occurred, but all cases have been confined to residents of Saudi Arabia. However, in Hajj
season 2000, another outbreak of the same infection occurred, only to include pilgrims
from various countries this time. This had led to the spread of the infection to countries
from which those infected pilgrims came. The reported cumulative number of deaths is
57, but is likely to be considerably higher.
The 2000 Rift Valley Fever outbreak: beginning in early September 2000, it had been
noticed that goats and sheep were being found dead in some areas of the far south of
Saudi Arabia. Soon after, reports of hemorrhagic fevers from the same region started to
increase, which had subsequently been identified as Rift Valley Fever. The Saudi
Ministry of Health declared an epidemic (i.e. the first of its kind in Saudi Arabia), and
advised citizens to wear mosquito repellants. Areas where dead animals were found were
quarantined; live stock in endemic areas were checked and exterminated if found ill. At
least 87 people died and more than 500 people were afflicted by this infection.
Makkah 2002 flood: heavy rains started falling on Makkah area on 8 April 2002 and
lasted for a whole week. This led to flooding of water in some areas, claiming the lives of
19 people; hundreds of Makkah residents were rescued by the GDCD that week.
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Makkah 2003 flood: not quite recovered from previous year’s rain, Makkah experienced
yet another heavy shower described as the worst rains in Makkah in 25 years. Water
levels were reported to have reached 6 meters. Twelve people were killed; however,
estimates of physical damage are not available.
Riyadh 2003 bombings: on 12 May 2003, attacks on three different housing compounds
were conducted by a group of nine radical terrorists. These sites are thought to have been
chosen because they contained a large number of Westerners and non-Muslims. Seven
vehicles, packed with explosives, gained entry into the compounds after attackers killed
the guards. The attackers then detonated their bombs and the vehicles, resulting in a
significant damage to buildings and vehicles and leaving large craters. Thirty-four people
were killed and 194 were injured.
Jizan 2004 floods: less than four months apart, two floods hit the Jizan region, leading to
what has been described as Jizan’s worst floods in 45 years. The floods left over 400
people homeless, killed 13 people and devastated many roads and farms.
Medina 2005 flood: very heavy showers fell on Medina region in January 2005. This
resulted in a flood that caused the Yatamah dam to fail, killing 29 people. Seventeen
people were injured, 50 were left homeless and 43 had to be evacuated.
Riyadh 2005 flood: heavy rains poured on the Riyadh region of Saudi Arabia, as well as
on other areas in neighboring countries (i.e. Oman and the United Arab Emirates). The
resultant flood claimed the lives of seven people; 700 people had to be evacuated via
GDCD helicopters and another 700 were left homeless.
Hostel collapse in Makkah: in Hajj season 2006, a hostel near the Holy Mosque
collapsed after a fire had spread in lower floors of the building. Most pilgrims were out in
the Mosque as it was time for the noon prayer. The collapse killed 76 people, most of
whom were people passing by the building, and another 64 were injured.
Jiddah 2009 flood: at around 6:30 a.m. on Wednesday 25 November 2009, rain started
falling heavily in Jiddah, and continued for around 12 hours. The amount of water in this
relatively brief downpour (around 90 mm3) doubled the average annual rainfall in Jiddah.
With a sound infrastructure and a proper drainage system lacking, this rain turned into the
worst disaster that Jiddah has experienced in 27 years or so. The downpour resulted in the
formation of water tides coming from the hills on the east of the city, heading west
towards the Red Sea and cutting their way through the city.
Several residential houses collapsed, forcing many inhabitants to upper floors and
roofs. Labs and databases at King Abdulaziz University and King Abdulaziz Hospital
were destroyed, wasting valuable resources, specimens and medical records.
Major roads of the city were blocked by meters-high of water waves or by cars
that have been washed out. As a result, thousands of pilgrims had to wait in buses for
hours before getting to Makkah for the first day of Hajj. Furthermore, King Abdullah
10
Bridge on the South of Jiddah had partially collapsed, adding to the chaos and fright to
the situation.
Power and telecommunication services were not spared either. As early as 11
a.m., floods had already resulted in a temporary power outage on the whole western
region of Saudi Arabia (i.e. Makkah, Medina and Jiddah). Many people were not even
able to call for help as communication with emergency services (e.g. civil defense forces,
police or emergency medical services) failed due to the overwhelmed network and power
outage.
Overall, 161 people lost their lives as a result of the floods, either drowning or
from car crashes. This disaster had an estimated cost of around US$900 million to
reconstruct Jiddah and help its victims.
11
Photos of Jiddah 2009 flood (source: personal communication)
Riyadh 2010 flood: on 3 May 2010, Riyadh city experienced a brief 45-minute water
shower, accompanied by light hail and winds gusting up to 24 km/hour. As brief as the
downpour was, however, it resulted in floods and car crashes across the city.
Local newspapers reported that at least two people were killed, and that the floods
caused around 275 car crashes. Even though King Khalid International Airport was not
affected, many people missed their scheduled flights due to poor road conditions. A
survey committee, appointed by the Governor of Riyadh, has started assessing the extent
of and the reasons behind the damage that resulted from the rain.
Development of emergency management plans in Saudi Arabia
The development of emergency management plans in Saudi Arabia started more
than 80 years ago, and has been progressing slowly since then. The first nucleus of an
emergency management body was a fire brigade that was formed in Makkah in 1927
(Ministry of Interior, 2001). Its purpose was to serve pilgrims that came to Makkah every
year. It was the first of its kind in Saudi Arabia, and it was managed by the Makkah
12
Provincial Council. In 1948, the Makkah Fire Brigade joined the later-established Center
of General Security to form the General Security and Fire Services. Over the following
32 years, the General Security and Fire Services grew to include 5 fire brigades in
Makkah alone. Meanwhile, fire brigades formed in a number of other cities including:
Medina, Jiddah, Riyadh, Qasim, and Dammam.
In 1965, a Royal Decree by King Faisal dissolved the General Security and Fire
Services, and instead formed the current General Directorate of Civil Defense (GDCD).
This was following recommendations by the International Association of Fire Fighters.
The scope of the GDCD was wider than previous emergency management bodies because
it was made the official body of civilian defense during peace and in times of instability.
During this time, the GDCD received generous funds to expand its human and material
resources. In addition, the GDCG centers started operating in more and more urban and
rural areas in the Kingdom with the help of the evolving telecommunication networks.
Later on, in 1987, King Fahad ordered a reform of the GDCD’s structure, goals
and responsibilities. As a result, staff from the GDCD administration paid several visits
to neighboring and other friend countries to investigate civil defense advancements and
useful experiences in these countries. After extensive meetings, the current Civil Defense
Law was decreed, which included 36 sections. The following is a translation of two
sections relevant to emergency management:
Section one defines “civil defense” as protocols and operations required to protect
civilians as well as public and private properties from the dangers of fires, natural
disasters, wars and other accidents. It also encompasses rescuing those afflicted by such
catastrophes, ensuring transportation safety, and protecting national resources in times of
peace and emergency.
Article four of section two defines the role of the GDCD in emergencies and wars
as:
1. Organizing and operating the national alarm system in cases of
emergencies or attacks by a foreign army.
2. Managing electrical power, and organizing evacuation and shelter plans.
3. Extinguishing fires and rescuing civilians and providing basic
life-support measures in damaged areas.
4. Marking areas afflicted by nuclear damage, and directing civilians
away from them.
5. Corresponding with other governmental bodies (e.g. Ministry of
Transportation) to ensure safe transportation of civilians.
6. Removing debris from damaged areas, and rehabilitating them for safe
use as soon as possible.
Current structure of the General Directorate of Civil Defense
The current structure of the GDCD is divided into three levels: Board of GDCD,
Executive Committee, and volunteers (Ministry of Interior, 2001). The following is a
description of the members of each level, and the most important roles for which each
level is responsible. Figure 2 shows a schema of the current structure of the GDCD.
1. Board of GDCD:
13
This is made up of the Minister of Interior as Chairman, Assistant Minister of
Interior as Deputy-Chairman and a number of members who represent divisions of the
GDCD or sectors that work closely with the GDCD, such as fire services, police and
emergency medical services. Those members are appointed by a Royal Decree often after
the recommendation of the Chairman or his deputy.
The Board of GDCD is responsible for:
1. Establishing general GDCD policies and planning future projects.
2. Establishing safety and fitness standards that must be met in all
projects to ensure civilian safety and protect public and private
properties.
3. Establishing guidelines for training programs for GDCD personnel.
4. Establishing policies for the recruitment of GDCD volunteers and
defining their roles and rights.
5. Forming divisions of the GDCD, defining their responsibilities
and appointing a manager to each division.
6. Reviewing the suggested budget annually before seeking approval
from the Ministry of Finance.
2. Executive Committee:
This committee consists of members appointed by the Board according to GDCD
policies. A president of the committee ensures that projects are executed in a timely and
efficient manner, and that the workload is divided equally between all members.
The Executive Committee is responsible for:
1. Enacting policies established by the GDCD Board, following up
on current projects.
2. Suggesting new or alternative projects and liaising with Ministries
and other governmental bodies for cooperation.
3. Enacting safety measures in response to emergencies (once
declared by the Board).
4. Providing food, clothes, shelter and first aid for those in need
in times of emergencies.
5. Representing Saudi Arabia in national and international
conferences and courses.
6. Providing the Board with a suggested budget on an annual basis.
3. GDCD volunteers:
These are citizens and residents who are willing to help with the GDCD tasks
during times of increased demand, such as natural disasters. They can apply online
through the GDCD’s website, and receive some training upon acceptance.
14
GDCD
Chairman
GDCD DeputyChairman
Assistant of
GDCD
Chairman
GDCD General
Secretary
GDCD aviation
committee
Public relations
officer
Human resource
manager
Information
technology
committee
Committee of
development and
scrutiny
Safety and
security
committee
Veteran’s affairs
committee
Hajj affairs
committee
Religious affairs
committee
Legal affairs
committee
President of
Executive
Committee
Emergency
Forces
Commander
Strategic and
financial
manager
Technical
manager
Planning and
training manager
Operation
manager
Store
management
Telecommunication
Research center
Fire department
Archive
management
Maintenance and
repair
Planning and
development
Safety
department
Finance
Architectural
affairs
Training center
Property
management
Martial affairs
Figure 2. Schema of current GDCD
(source: adapted from GDCG website)
Food department
15
Leadership
center
Lessons learned and policies implemented
Saudi Arabia’s history is rich in emergencies and disasters that took their toll on
the people and the country’s resources. Saudi Arabia’s extended geography, being the
destination of two important religious mass gatherings, and the unfortunate occurrence of
recent terrorist attacks, have all posed significant challenges to the country’s relatively
new emergency management plans. As different disasters struck, lessons have been
slowly learned and emergency policies implemented. Below is a list of the most
significant and recent lessons. It is critical to note that official policies are not easily
accessible to the public or researchers as it is considered a national security issue.
1. After the recent increase in insurgency attacks in the country,
authorities have become more vigilant in trying to detect any suspected
activities and arresting offenders before tragedies occur. A list of
suspects, which contains background information and/or suspects’
photos, is now published regularly in all major newspapers, as well as
being televised on national TV. A designated emergency hotline, fax
number and email are now available to the public if any person has
information about those suspects, or anything that might threaten
national security. A monetary award is given to individuals who help or
supply information about such offenders.
2. A new comprehensive digital traffic control system has just been
introduced to try to limit the high number of MVCs and the subsequent
damage. It is now available in eight major cities around the county. The
system has been named Saher, which translates to “watchful and
napless” to imply its coverage of all roads within a city, 24 hours a day.
The new system employs digital camera networks that connect to the
local command and control center in each city. Information is then sent
to the National Information Center of the Ministry of Interior for
statistical purposes, and to issue traffic violation tickets and identify
wanted or stolen vehicles (Saher, 2010).
3. Over the years, projects and developments to make the Hajj process
easier have been slowly implemented, and some have now been
completed. Most tunnels and sacred sites where stampedes happened
now operate on a one-way system. Also, some of the sacred sites have
been re-organized into floors to maximize space efficiency and
facilitate one-way travel. Moreover, fire-proof tents have been built,
and all gas-operated tools have been banned to minimize the chance of
fires. Expansions to the Holy Mosque and nearby sacred sites are still
underway, all in an effort to avoid previous disasters.
4. One of the current developmental projects in Makkah that deserves
special attention is Makkah Metro (Adasah and Hamed, 2010). The
metro is intended to connect the Holy Mosque and other sacred places
which pilgrims have to visit during their Hajj journey. Costing more
than US $1.5 billion, the metro will work on full capacity during Hajj
season 2011. It is projected to decrease the traffic jams that occur every
year when pilgrims move between sacred site on cars and buses. It will
16
also reinforce the one-way system already in use for pedestrians.
Although the project started in February 2009, it will only operate on
35% capacity for Hajj season 2010. Constraints in time between Hajj
seasons have hindered its timely completion, even though the 5,000
workers are said to have taken shifts to work 24 hours a day, seven days
a week. Once fully operational, the metro is expected to transport
72,000 pilgrims per hour (Adasah and Hamed, 2010).
5. As a result of previous infectious outbreaks, the Saudi Ministry of
Health has understandably been vigilant about health measures and
safety before, during and after Ramadan and Hajj seasons. It has issued
preventative measures and recommendations for mass gatheringassociated health risks. General measures before the mass gathering
include routine physical examinations, and advice to the worshippers
to carry a thermometer, a 3-day course of ciprofloxacin, and
loperamide, as well as getting tested for tuberculosis. Furthermore,
specific health measures (i.e. screening and vaccination) for yellow
fever, meningitis W135 and poliomyelitis also apply for people coming
from areas of higher risk. During mass gatherings, worshippers are
advised to continue using their usual medications, maintain hand
hygiene, increase dietary salt intake, perform rituals at night if possible,
seek shade, apply sunscreen, maintain adequate hydration, use
facemasks and initiate self-treatment if needed. After the mass
gathering is over, health measures should include medical follow-up,
seeking early medical help if ill, as well as testing for tuberculosis for
possible exposure.
6. With the increasing numbers of worshippers coming to perform Hajj
every year, there has been an anticipated increase in difficulty in case a
medical evacuation is needed. This led to the recent introduction of a
new system of aero-medical helicopters. The Saudi Red Crescent
Society has just implemented this program, and currently possesses
four helicopters. The goal is to reach a total of 25 helicopters to cover
the whole of the country, and to facilitate better and faster acute care
during busier periods, such as Hajj.
17
The Flying Ambulance (source: personal communication)
7. After the 9/11 attacks in the US and terrorist attacks in Saudi, the rate of
visiting skilled workers and experts, especially from “Western”
countries, has dramatically decreased. Compounded with the high rate
of unemployment in the country, this left many developmental projects
on paper. As a result, there has been a recent movement in the country
to send its students on scholarships for tertiary education. This strategic
plan not only aims to increase opportunities for students beyond
secondary schooling, but also to invest in those students to bring back
experience and skills from outside. This way Saudi Arabia would use
its own skilled workers and experts instead.
8. There has also been a move to “Saudize” available jobs and to recruit
more citizens into the workforce (Maben et al., 2010). This has
decreased the need to employ expatriates and their subsequent needs,
such as accommodating for language differences. With that in place,
however, there has been a move to increase the use of English language
in all official electronic and published materials in an effort to keep the
wider community informed.
Challenges and Future Opportunities
Emergency management in Saudi Arabia has advanced a long way compared to
some of its neighboring countries. Unfortunately, however, it is still struggling to
proactively manage current risks and vulnerabilities, let alone preparing for potential
future disasters. Such potential disasters include effects of climate change and political
instability in the region. Since we still have the time to prepare for such emergencies, it
might be wise to invest the time and money to do so. Otherwise, we would have learned
18
nothing from history, and the cost of this is nothing less than more lost lives and wasted
resources.
MVCs are still on the rise, both in Saudi Arabia and worldwide. With the new
introduction of the Saher system, it is hoped that it will slow down the alarming rate at
which fatalities and damages currently occur. However, nothing comes without
downsides. For example, some people have been complaining that speed limits have not
been set in all streets covered by Saher cameras. This leaves the driver puzzled as to
whether it is a 60 km/hour area or a 40 km/hour area. Other concerns have been that the
Saher system only covers certain vehicles (e.g. cars and trucks), but not motorbikes,
limiting some of its potentials. However, the project is still young and more
developments are likely to occur in the near future if it proves to be beneficial and costeffective.
Management of religious mass gatherings (i.e. Ramadan and Hajj) has
substantially improved compared to the situation as little as 10 years ago. Recent
developments, such as Makkah metro and the flying ambulance, are projected to help and
ease the trip of Hajj to the millions of pilgrims every year. On the other hand, significant
improvements still need to take place before such facilities can be safely used on such a
large scale. For example, helicopter bases, where patients can be received and flown,
have not been established yet. This can prove difficult, especially with the already limited
space available around the crowded sacred sites. Some critics have argued that the
establishment of a metro that runs for only five days per year is a waste of money and
resources. They have suggested that the project should be expanded to serve during other
busier times, such as Ramadan, and serve potentially larger areas, such as between
Makkah and Medina.
As far as managing natural disasters is concerned (especially floods), there has
been frustratingly very little done. This might be because natural disasters are still viewed
as rare and “low-impact” types of emergency. Also, trying to establish drainage systems
in an already heavily-populated city, such as Jiddah, has proven difficult. Many roads
will have to be closed down for extended periods; there is also little coordination between
different parties providing infrastructural services, such as power cables, telephone cables
and draining pipes. All of these factors have contributed to the delay in finding a solution
to such a significant threat. However, Jiddah 2009 floods have shocked policy-makers
and encouraged them to initiate new developmental projects and to hasten already
existing ones. All of this is in the hopes of finding a practical solution to prevent similar
tragedies in the future.
Finally, illiteracy and the subsequent lack of professional and skilled national
workforce have taken their toll on the country. With under 50% of the current workforce
being Saudi, it is estimated that as much as US$60 billion are sent out of the country as
remittances by foreign workers (Maben et al., 2010). Not only has this been draining the
country’s money and resources, but it has also increased dependence on such immigrant
workers in a country whose more than 30% of its youth is unemployed! This,
unfortunately, has not been limited to professional and skilled jobs only, but also includes
other more laborious jobs. Occupations such as plumbing, carpentry and nursing are
perceived by many to be demeaning or degrading for Saudis. This perception might have
arisen from the fact that this class of society has long been mistreated and underpaid.
However, this has recently been changing as more and more people are struggling to find
19
“clean” jobs to support their families. It is hoped that the increase in the Saudi workforce
will strengthen the country’s economy and keep the money within the country where it
can be directed into such projects as better education, infrastructure, and disaster
management plans.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter has shed some light on the current hazards and
vulnerabilities in Saudi Arabia. A list of almost all major disasters recorded to date has
been provided, and the chapter also described how policy-makers and emergency
planners have reacted when they occurred. Even though not much progress has been done
in terms of natural disasters (namely floods), the Jiddah 2009 flood has certainly served
as a wake-up call, and the pace on emergency management has started to pick up.
Saudi Arabia is often highly looked upon in the region. This, among other factors,
ought to encourage policy-makers and planners to intensify their efforts to make the
Saudi emergence management program a model to be followed by other countries in the
region. It is hoped that this chapter will serve as a first step in the path of documenting
current policies and provide a rich resource to build up upon.
References
Center for Disease Control. (2000) From the Centers for Disease Control. Update:
outbreak of Rift Valley fever--Saudi Arabia, August-November 2000. JAMA, 284,
2989-90.
Adasah, J. & Hamed, M. (2010) Installation of train carriages on metro tracks. Al-Riyadh
Newspaper.
Aguilera, J. F., Perrocheau, A., Meffre, C., Hahne, S. & Group, W. W. (2002) Outbreak
of serogroup W135 meningococcal disease after the Hajj pilgrimage, Europe,
2000. Emerg Infect Dis, 8, 761-7.
Al-suwian, A. (2001) Potential petrochemical hazards in Saudi Arabia. General
Directorate of Civil Defense: Division of Planning and Training.
Al-tukhi, M. (1990) Road traffic accidents: statistics and data comparing the Gulf
countries and the Ruyadh area. Saudi Med J, 11, 1-3.
Almulla, A. (2008) Major Hajj catastrophies over the past decades. Alwaqt Newspaper.
Central Department of Statistics and Information (2010) Key Indicators of the 2010
Census.
Dhaffar, K., Sindy, A., Gazzaz, Z., Shabaz, J. & Saudi Red Crescent Society (2005)
Evaluation of an emergency service attempted by the Saudi Red Crescent Society.
. Saudi Medical Journal, 26, 357-9.
International Disaster Database (2010) Saudi Arabia profile: natural disasters. Center for
Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters.
Lerner, E. B., O'Connor, R. E., Schwartz, R., Brinsfield, K., Ashkenazi, I., Degutis, L. C.,
Dionne, J. P., Hines, S., Hunter, S., O'Reilly, G. & Sattin, R. W. (2007) Blastrelated injuries from terrorism: an international perspective. Prehosp Emerg Care,
11, 137-53.
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Maben, J., Al-thowini, K., West, E. & Rafferty, A. M. (2010) Uneven development:
comparing the indigenous health care workforce in Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and
Oman. Int J Nurs Stud, 47, 392-6.
Ministry of Economy and Planning (2010-2014) Ninth Development Plan.
Ministry of Interior (2001) Concepts and structural organization of Civil Defense. In
General Directorate of Civil Defense (Ed.).
Ministry of Interior (2008) Traffic statistics: statistical publication of 2008. In Ministry of
Interior General Traffic Department (Ed.).
Saher (2010). Ministry of Interior.
Thompson, D., Brown, S., Mallonee, S. & Sunshine, D. (2004) Fatal and non-fatal
injuries among U.S. Air Force personnel resulting from the terrorist bombing of
the Khobar Towers. J Trauma, 57, 208-15.
United Nations: Statistics Division (2008) Saudi Arabia.
21
CHAPTER
THE MANAGEMENT
OF DISASTERS
1
CHAPTER SUMMARIES
Disasters have adversely affected humans since the dawn of our existence. In response, individuals and societies
alike have made many attempts to decrease their exposure to the consequences of these disasters. All of these
efforts have the same goal: disaster management. The motivating concepts that guide disaster management—the
reduction of harm to life, property, and the environment—are largely the same throughout the world. Whether due
to political, cultural, economic, or other reasons, the unfortunate reality is that some countries and some regions
are more capable than others at addressing the problem. Furthermore, the emergence of a global economy makes
it increasingly difficult to contain the consequences of any disaster within one country’s borders. This chapter
examines basic concepts of disaster management and expands upon those concepts to specifically address the
management of international disasters, which is a complex discipline. Like disaster management on the national
level, it involves actions that seek to mitigate the effects of hazards, ensures that populations are prepared for
disasters should they occur, facilitates the response to disasters that do occur, and helps nations and people recover
in the months and years following disaster events. The chapter provides a brief history of disaster management. To
illustrate the disparity in the effects of disasters around the world, an examination of the global impact of disasters
has also been carried out.
Key Terms: civil defense; complex humanitarian emergency; disaster; disaster management; disaster trends;
emergency management; history of emergency management; mitigation; preparedness response; recovery.
INTRODUCTION
Disasters have adversely affected humans since the dawn of our existence. In response, individuals
and societies alike have made many attempts to decrease their exposure to the consequences of these
disasters, developing measures to address initial impact as well as post-disaster response and recovery needs. Regardless of the approach adopted, all of these efforts have the same goal: disaster
management.
The motivating concepts that guide disaster management—the reduction of harm to life, property,
and the environment—are largely the same throughout the world. However, the capacity to carry out
this mission is by no means uniform. Whether due to political, cultural, economic, or other reasons,
the unfortunate reality is that some countries and some regions are more capable than others at
addressing the problem. But no nation, regardless of its wealth or influence, is advanced enough to
be fully immune from disasters’ negative effects. Furthermore, the emergence of a global economy
makes it more and more difficult to contain the consequences of any disaster within one country’s
borders.
Introduction to International Disaster Management. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-801477-6.00001-0
Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
1
2
CHAPTER 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS
This chapter examines basic concepts of disaster management and expands upon those concepts to
specifically address the management of international disasters. A brief history of disaster management
is provided for context. To illustrate the disparity in the effects of disasters around the world, an examination of the global impact of disasters follows. Finally, several relevant terms used throughout this text
are defined.
DISASTERS THROUGHOUT HISTORY
Disasters are not merely ornamental or interesting events that adorn our collective historical record—
these disruptions have served to guide and shape it. Entire civilizations have been decimated in an
instant. Time and time again, epidemics and pandemics have resulted in sizable reductions of the
world’s population, as much as 50 percent across Europe during the fourteenth century bubonic plague
(Black Plague) pandemic. Theorists have even ventured to suggest that many of history’s great civilizations, including the Mayans, the Norse, the Minoans, and the Old Egyptian Empire, were ultimately
brought to their knees not by their enemies but by the effects of floods, famines, earthquakes, tsunamis,
El Niño events, and other widespread disasters (Fagan 1999). A worldwide drought in the eighth and
ninth centuries, caused by shifts in the yearly monsoons and resulting in mass crop failure and subsequent starvation, is now believed to have been behind the fall of both the Mayan empire in Mexico and
the Tang dynasty in China (Sheridan 2007). From a modern perspective, each of the catastrophic events
that has occurred as of late, including the December 26, 2004, earthquake and tsunami (over 230,000
killed), the 2005 Kashmir earthquake (80,000 killed), the 2008 Sichuan earthquake in China (68,000
killed), the 2008 Cyclone Nargis (135,000 killed), the 2010 Haiti earthquake (perhaps as many as
200,000 killed), and the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake (16,000 killed) might seem anomalous, but
these disastrous events are not close to record-breaking, or even unique, in the greater historical context.
(See table 1.1.)
Table 1.1 Selected Notable Disasters throughout History
Disaster
Year
Number Killed
Mediterranean earthquake (Egypt and Syria)
Shaanxi earthquake (China)
Calcutta typhoon (India)
Caribbean hurricane (Martinique, St. Eustatius, Barbados)
Tamboro volcano (Indonesia)
Influenza epidemic (world)
Yangtze River flood (China)
Famine (Russia)
Bangladesh cyclone (Bangladesh)
Tangshan earthquake (China)
1201
1556
1737
1780
1815
1917
1931
1932
1970
1976
1,100,000
830,000
300,000
22,000
80,000
20,000,000
3,000,000
5,000,000
300,000
655,000
Source: St. Louis University, 1997; NBC News, 2004.
The History of Disaster Management
3
THE HISTORY OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT
ANCIENT HISTORY
Hazards, and the disasters that often result, have not always existed. To qualify as a hazard, an action,
event, or object must maintain a positive likelihood of affecting humans or possibly have a consequence
that may adversely affect humans’ existence. Until humans existed on the planet, neither the likelihood
nor the consequence factors of hazards were calculable; thus their presence is negated.
With the appearance of humans, however, followed the incidence of hazards and disasters. Archeological discovery has shown that our prehistoric ancestors faced many of the same risks that exist today:
starvation, inhospitable elements, dangerous wildlife, violence at the hands of other humans, disease,
accidental injuries, and more. These early inhabitants did not, however, sit idly by and become easy
victims. Evidence indicates that they took measures to reduce, or mitigate, their risks. The mere fact
that they chose to inhabit caves is testament to this theory.
Various applications of disaster management appear throughout the historical record. The story of
Noah’s ark from the Old Testament, for example, is a lesson in the importance of warning, preparedness, and mitigation. In this tale, believed to be based at least partly on actual events, Noah is warned
of an approaching flood. He and his family prepare for the impending disaster by constructing a floating
ark. The protagonist in this story even attempts to mitigate the impact on the planet’s biodiversity by
collecting two of each species and placing them within the safety of the ark. These individuals are
rewarded for their actions by surviving the disastrous flood. Those who did not perform similar actions,
the story tells us, perished.
Evidence of risk management practices can be found as early as 3200 BC. In what is now modernday Iraq lived a social group known as the Asipu. When community members faced a difficult decision,
especially one involving risk or danger, they could appeal to the Asipu for advice. The Asipu, using a
process similar to modern-day hazards risk management, would first analyze the problem at hand, then
propose several alternatives, and finally give possible outcomes for each alternative (Covello and
Mumpower 1985). Today, this methodology is referred to as decision analysis, and it is key to any
comprehensive risk management endeavor.
Early history is also marked by incidents of organized emergency response. For example, when in
AD 79 the volcano Vesuvius began erupting, two towns in its shadow—Herculaneum and Pompeii—
faced an impending catastrophe. Although Herculaneum, which was at the foot of the volcano and
therefore directly in the path of its lava flow, was buried almost immediately, the majority of Pompeii’s
population survived. This was because the citizens of Pompeii had several hours before the volcano
covered their city in ash, and evidence suggests that the city’s leaders organized a mass evacuation. The
few who refused to leave suffered the ultimate consequence, and today lie as stone impressions in an
Italian museum.
MODERN ROOTS
All-hazards disaster and emergency management, wherein a comprehensive approach is applied to
address most or all of a community’s hazard risks, are relatively new. However, many of the concepts
that guide today’s practice can be traced to the achievements of past civilizations. While the management of disasters during the past few thousand years was limited to single acts or programs addressing
4
CHAPTER 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS
individual hazards, many of these accomplishments were quite organized, comprehensive, and surprisingly effective at reducing both human suffering and damage to the built environment. See the following examples.
Floods have always confounded human settlements. However, archeologists have found evidence in
several distinct and unrelated locations that early civilizations made attempts to formally address the
flood hazard. One of the most celebrated of these attempts occurred in Egypt during the reign of
Amenemhet III (1817–1722 BC). Amenemhet III created what has been described as history’s first
substantial river control project. Using a system of over 200 “water wheels,” some of which remain to
this day, the pharaoh effectively diverted the annual floodwaters of the Nile River into Lake Moeris. In
doing so, the Egyptians were able to reclaim over 153,000 acres of fertile land that would have otherwise
served no use (Quarantelli 1995; ESIS n.d.).
The roots of the modern fire department trace back 2,000 years to when the city of Rome was nearly
destroyed by fire. Before this event, slaves had been tasked with fighting fires, and their poor training, lack
of equipment, and understandable lack of motivation made them highly ineffective. Following the great
fire, Emperor Augustus established a formal, city-wide firefighting unit from within the Roman army
called the Corps of Vigiles. As a result, the firefighting profession became highly respected and, likewise,
highly effective, and was emulated throughout the vast Roman Empire for 500 years. The structure of this
organization was quite similar to many fire departments today, with members filling job-specific roles.
(See exhibit 1.1.) With the fall of Rome, however, came the disappearance of the Corps of Vigiles, and
organized firefighting did not appear anywhere in the world for another 1,000 years.
The Incas, who lived throughout the Andes region in South America during the thirteenth to fifteenth centuries, practiced a form of urban planning that focused on their need to defend themselves
from enemy attack. Many of the Incan cities were located at the peaks of rugged, although easily defensible, mountains. The prime example of their architectural achievement is the fortress of Machu Picchu.
However, in locating their cities upon mountaintops and other similar areas, the Incas merely replaced
one man-made hazard with a whole range of environmental hazards. To facilitate life on this extreme
terrain, the Incas developed an innovative form of land terracing that not only conserved water in their
unpredictable climate but also protected their crops—and thus their existence—from the landslides that
occurred during periods of heavy precipitation.
As later eras are examined, still more examples of methods created to address specific hazards
and their consequences emerge. One of the greatest and most effective forms of disaster mitigation
in history is the collective effort of the British and Indian governments, which sought to reduce
Indians’ annual suffering and starvation that occurred as a result of regular drought patterns. These
famines became so devastating during the late nineteenth century that up to a million people were
dying of starvation each year. A government study found that sufficient food existed throughout
EXHIBIT 1.1 JOB TITLES WITHIN THE ROMAN CORPS OF VIGILES
Aquarius: The firefighter whose main duties were the supply of water to the siphos or pumps and the organization of
“bucket chains.”
Siphonarius: The firefighter who was responsible for the supervision and operation of the water pumps.
Uncinarius: The firefighter who was a “hook” man, who carried a large fire hook for pulling off burning roofs.
Source: FFCA, 2014.
The History of Disaster Management
5
the country to feed the nation’s entire population at all times, but insufficient capacity to distribute
these resources led to location-specific shortages. To address these problems, planning committees
were formed to develop various preventive measures, including a rapid expansion of the extensive
railway system that crisscrosses the country (to quickly transport food), the adoption of a method
by which indicators of emerging needs were identified and logged in a central repository, and
greater monitoring of public health. So effective at controlling famine were these measures that
many remain in force today. How much of a positive role was played by India’s acclaimed railroad,
which connects almost every settlement nationwide, continues to be debated. (Keniston 2007;
Sweeney 2008).
CIVIL DEFENSE: THE BIRTH OF MODERN EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
There is no global formula that explains how the countries of the world developed their disaster
management capacities. However, there is one particular period in recent history that witnessed the
greatest overall move toward a centralized safeguarding of citizens—the Civil Defense era. (See
figure 1.1.)
FIGURE 1.1
Civil defense era poster, Pennsylvania, United States.
Source: Library of Congress, 2000.
6
CHAPTER 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS
Modern disaster management, in terms of the emergence of global standards and organized efforts
to address preparedness, mitigation, and response activities for a wide range of disasters, did not begin
to emerge until the mid-twentieth century. In most countries, this change materialized as a response to
specific disaster events. At the same time, it was further galvanized by a shift in social philosophy, in
which the government played an increasing role in preventing and responding to disasters. The legal
foundation that allowed for such a shift was the result of advances in warfare technology.
In response to the threat posed by air raids and the ever-present and dreadful prospect of a nuclear
attack, many industrialized nations’ governments began to form elaborate systems of civil defense.
These systems included detection mechanisms, early warning alarms, hardened shelters, search and
rescue teams, and local and regional coordinators. Most nations’ legislatures also established legal
frameworks to guide both the creation and maintenance of these systems through the passage of
laws, the creation of national-level civil defense organizations, and the allocation of funding and
personnel.
Despite these impressive efforts, surprisingly few civil defense units evolved over time into more
comprehensive disaster or emergency management organizations (Quarantelli 1995). But the legal
framework developed to support them remained in place and formed the basis for modern disaster and
emergency management as we know it today. For example:
• Great Britain’s disaster management agency traces its roots to the Civil Defense Act of 1948.
• Canada’s Office of Critical Infrastructure Preparedness and Emergency Preparedness (OCIPEP)
grew out of the Canadian Civil Defense Organization created in 1948.
• The United States Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) grew out of the Federal
Civil Defense Act of 1950.
• France’s civil protection is a product of that nation’s 1950 Ordinance and the 1965 Decree Relating to Civil Defense.
• Algeria Civil Protection grew out of the 1964 Decree on the Administrative Organization of Civil
Defense.
CAPACITY BY DEMAND: THE 1970S AND ‘80S
National emergency management capacity began to take a more centralized role in the 1970s and ‘80s
as countries focused on the creation of national-level emergency management systems. Many developed their disaster management capabilities out of necessity and an acceptance of the need to formalize
both the authority and budget for an agency to address blatant disaster risk. Other countries formed
their disaster management structures not for civil defense, but after being spurred into action by popular
criticism for poor management of a natural disaster (e.g., Peru in 1970, Nicaragua in 1972, and
Guatemala in 1976 following destructive earthquakes in each country).
And yet others, to a diminishing degree, still have no real emergency management structure to speak
of, irrespective of their disaster history.
THE INTERNATIONAL DECADE FOR NATURAL DISASTER REDUCTION
On December 11, 1987, the United Nations General Assembly declared the 1990s to be the “International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction” (IDNDR). This action was taken to promote internationally coordinated efforts to reduce material losses and social and economic disruption caused by natural
Capacity by Demand: The 1970s and ‘80s
7
disasters, especially in developing countries, through capacity building. On December 22, 1989,
through UN Resolution 44/236, the General Assembly set forth the goals they wished to achieve during
the Decade. In addition to establishing a special UN office in Geneva to coordinate associated activities, the resolution directed the various UN agencies to:
• improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of natural disasters expeditiously and
effectively, paying special attention to assisting developing countries in the assessment of disaster
damage potential and in the establishment of early warning systems and disaster-resistant structures when and where needed;
• devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying existing scientific and technical knowledge, taking into account the cultural and economic diversity among nations;
• foster scientific and engineering endeavors aimed at closing critical gaps in knowledge in order to
reduce loss of life and property;
• disseminate existing and new technical information related to measures for the assessment, prediction, and mitigation of natural disasters;
• develop measures for the assessment, prediction, prevention, and mitigation of natural disasters
through programmes of technical assistance and technology transfer, demonstration projects, and
education and training, tailored to specific disasters and locations, and to evaluate the effectiveness of those programs. (United Nations 1989)
It was expected that all participating governments would, at the national level:
• formulate national disaster-mitigation programmes, as well as economic, land use, and insurance
policies for disaster prevention, and particularly in developing countries, to integrate them fully
into their national development programmes;
• participate during the [IDNDR] in concerted international action for the reduction of natural disasters and, as appropriate, establish national committees in cooperation with the relevant scientific
and technological communities and other concerned sectors with a view to attaining the objective
and goals of the Decade;
• encourage their local administrations to take appropriate steps to mobilize the necessary support from the public and private sectors and to contribute the achievement of the purposes of the
Decade;
• keep the Secretary-General informed of the plans of their countries and of assistance that can
be provided so that the United Nations may become an international centre for the exchange of
information and the coordination of international efforts concerning activities in support of the
objective and goals of the Decade, thus enabling each State to benefit from the experience of other
countries;
• take measures, as appropriate, to increase public awareness of damage risk probabilities and of the
significance of preparedness, prevention, relief, and short-term recovery activities with respect to
natural disasters, and to enhance community preparedness through education, training, and other
means, taking into account the specific role of the news media;
• pay due attention to the impact of natural disasters on healthcare, particularly to activities to
reduce the vulnerability of hospitals and health centres, as well as the impact on food storage
facilities, human shelter, and other social and economic infrastructure;
• improve the early international availability of appropriate emergency supplies through the storage
or earmarking of such supplies in disaster-prone areas. (United Nations 1989)
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CHAPTER 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS
THE YOKOHAMA STRATEGY – GLOBAL RECOGNITION OF THE NEED FOR DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
In May 1994, UN member states met at the World Conference on Natural Disaster Reduction in
Yokohama, Japan, to assess the progress attained by the IDNDR. At this meeting, they developed the
Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action for a Safer World. Through this document, the UN affirmed that:
1. I mpact of natural disasters in terms of human and economic losses has risen in recent years, and
society in general has become more vulnerable to natural disasters. Those usually most affected
by natural and other disasters are the poor and socially disadvantaged groups in developing
countries, as they are least equipped to cope with them.
2. Disaster prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and relief are four elements which contribute to
and gain from the implementation of sustainable development policies. These elements, along
with environmental protection and sustainable development, are closely interrelated. Therefore,
nations should incorporate them in their development plans and ensure efficient follow-up measures at the community, national, subregional, regional, and international levels.
3. Disaster prevention, mitigation, and preparedness are better than disaster response in achieving [disaster reduction] goals. . . . Disaster response alone is not sufficient, as it yields only
temporary results at a very high cost. We have followed this limited approach for too long. This
has been further demonstrated by the recent focus on response to complex emergencies, which,
although compelling, should not divert from pursuing a comprehensive approach. Prevention
contributes to lasting improvement in safety and is essential to integrated disaster management.
4. The world is increasingly interdependent. All countries shall act in a new spirit of partnership to
build a safer world based on common interests and shared responsibility to save human lives, since
natural disasters do not respect borders. Regional and international cooperation will significantly
enhance our ability to achieve real progress in mitigating disasters through the transfer of technology and the sharing of information and joint disaster prevention and mitigation activities. Bilateral
and multilateral assistance and financial resources should be mobilized to support these efforts.
5. The information, knowledge, and some of the technology necessary to reduce the effects of
natural disasters can be available in many cases at low cost and should be applied. Appropriate
technology and data, with the corresponding training, should be made available to all freely and
in a timely manner, particularly to developing countries.
6. Community involvement and their active participation should be encouraged to gain greater
insight into the individual and collective perception of development and risk, and to have a clear
understanding of the cultural and organizational characteristics of each society as well as of its
behaviour and interactions with the physical and natural environment. This knowledge is of the
utmost importance to determine those things which favour and hinder prevention and mitigation
or encourage or limit the preservation of the environment for the development of future generations, and in order to find effective and efficient means to reduce the impact of disasters.
7. The adopted Yokohama Strategy and related Plan of Action for the rest of the Decade and
beyond:
a. Will note that each country has the sovereign responsibility to protect its citizens from natural disasters;
b. Will give priority attention to the developing countries, in particular the least developed,
land-locked countries and the small island developing States;
Capacity by Demand: The 1970s and ‘80s
9
c. W
ill develop and strengthen national capacities and capabilities and, where appropriate,
national legislation for natural and other disaster prevention, mitigation, and preparedness,
including the mobilization of non-governmental organizations and participation of local
communities;
d. Will promote and strengthen subregional, regional, and international cooperation in activities
to prevent, reduce, and mitigate natural and other disasters, with particular emphasis on:
- Human and institutional capacity-building and strengthening;
- Technology sharing, the collection, the dissemination, and the utilization of information;
- Mobilization of resources.
8. The international community and the United Nations system in particular must provide adequate
support to [natural disaster reduction].
9. The Yokohama Conference is at a crossroad in human progress. In one direction lie the
meagre results of an extraordinary opportunity given to the United Nations and its Member
States. In the other direction, the United Nations and the world community can change
the course of events by reducing the suffering from natural disasters. Action is urgently
needed.
10. Nations should view the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World as a call to action, individually
and in concert with other nations, to implement policies and goals reaffirmed in Yokohama, and
to use the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction as a catalyst for change. (ISDR
1994)
The participating member states accepted the following principles to be applied to disaster management within their own countries. The tenth and final principle formalized the requirement that each
nation’s government accept responsibility for protecting its people from the consequences of
disasters:
1. R
isk assessment is a required step for the adoption of adequate and successful disaster reduction
policies and measures.
2. Disaster prevention and preparedness are of primary importance in reducing the need for disaster
relief.
3. Disaster prevention and preparedness should be considered integral aspects of development
policy and planning at national, regional, bilateral, multilateral, and international levels.
4. Development and strengthening of capacities to prevent, reduce, and mitigate disasters [are] top
priority area[s] to be addressed during the Decade so as to provide a strong basis for follow-up
activities [after that period].
5. Early warnings of impending disasters and their effective dissemination using telecommunications, including broadcast services, are key factors to successful disaster prevention and
preparedness.
6. Preventive measures are most effective when they involve participation at all levels, from the
local community through the national government to the regional and international levels.
7. Vulnerability can be reduced by the application of proper design and patterns of development
focused on target groups by appropriate education and training of the whole community.
8. The international community accepts the need to share the necessary technology to prevent,
reduce, and mitigate disaster; this should be made freely available and in a timely manner as an
integral part of technical cooperation.
10
CHAPTER 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS
9. E
nvironmental protection as a component of sustainable development consistent with poverty
alleviation is imperative in the prevention and mitigation of natural disasters.
10. Each country bears the primary responsibility for protecting its people, infrastructure, and other
national assets from the impact of natural disasters. The international community should demonstrate strong political determination required to mobilize adequate and make efficient use of
existing resources, including financial, scientific, and technological means, in the field of natural
disaster reduction, bearing in mind the needs of the developing countries, particularly the least
developed countries. (ISDR 1994)
THE UN INTERNATIONAL STRATEGY FOR DISASTER REDUCTION
The international community, through the efforts of the UN, named the 1990s the International Decade
for Natural Disaster Reduction to increase awareness of the importance of risk reduction. Following the
positive advances by the UN and member governments during this time, the UN General Assembly
voted in December of 1999 to further their successes by creating the International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction (ISDR).
ISDR was created to help create nations, organizations, and communities that are “disaster resilient” by espousing the idea that disaster reduction must be fully interlinked with development. The
ISDR sought to reduce disasters’ human, social, economic, and environmental toll, which was plaguing
rich and poor countries alike (and continues to). To achieve these goals, the ISDR promoted four objectives as tools toward reaching “disaster reduction for all”:
• Increase public awareness about risk, vulnerability, and disaster reduction. The more people,
regional organizations, governments, NGOs, UN entities, representatives of civil society, and
others know about risk, vulnerability, and how to manage the impacts of natural hazards, the more
disaster reduction measures will be implemented in all sectors of society.
• Obtain commitment from public authorities to implement disaster reduction policies and actions.
The more decision makers at all levels commit themselves to disaster reduction policies and
actions, the sooner communities vulnerable to natural disasters will benefit from applied disaster
reduction policies and actions. This requires, in part, a grassroots approach where communities at
risk are fully informed and participate in risk management initiatives.
• Stimulate interdisciplinary and intersectoral partnerships, including the expansion of risk-
reduction networks. The more disaster reduction entities share information on their research and
practices, the more the global body of knowledge and experience will progress. By sharing a
common purpose and through collaborative efforts, the world’s nations will be more resilient to
natural hazards impacts.
• Improve scientific knowledge about disaster reduction. The more we know about the causes
and consequences of natural hazards and related technological and environmental disasters
on societies, the better prepared we are to reduce risks. Bringing the scientific community
and policymakers together allows them to contribute to and complement each others’ work.
(UNISDR 2001)
The ISDR worked with many different UN agencies and outside organizations, as administered by
the IATF/DR and the Inter-Agency Secretariat of the ISDR. These two bodies were formed by the UN
General Assembly through UN Resolutions 54/219 and 56/195 to implement ISDR.
The Post-2015 Framework
11
THE HYOGO FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION (HFA)
In 2005, at The World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Kobe, Japan, the 168 countries in
attendance adopted the Hyogo Framework for Action 2005–2015: Building the Resilience of Nations
and Communities to Disasters. This action was endorsed by the General Assembly in UN Resolution
60/195. The HFA outlined a 10-year plan that reflected the intention of the global community to take a
more comprehensive, holistic approach to disaster risk reduction. The HFA called for nations to pursue
three strategic goals during the decade of action in order to bring about a substantial and measurable
reduction of disaster losses (fatalities and social, economic, and environmental losses). These goals
were intended to be aligned with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), signifying a recognition
that disaster risk reduction was closely connected with overall national development. The goals included:
• The integration of disaster risk reduction into sustainable development policies and planning;
• Development and strengthening of institutions, mechanisms, and capacities to build resilience to
hazards; and
• The systematic incorporation of risk reduction approaches into the implementation of emergency
preparedness, response, and recovery programs.
The Hyogo Framework also defined five priorities for action and identified the collective and individual roles and responsibilities of key stakeholders in its implementation and follow-up. These priorities include:
1. E
nsure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis
for implementation;
2. Identify, assess, and monitor disaster risks—and enhance early warning;
3. Use knowledge, innovation, and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels;
4. Reduce the underlying risk factors; and
5. Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.
Following the WCDR, the United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs (USG)
launched a consultative process to consider practical ways of strengthening the ISDR system, building
on existing mandates, institutions, partnerships, and mechanisms, with the key purpose of implementing
the Hyogo Framework for Action. The rationale for strengthening the ISDR and describing it as a system of partnerships was based on the need for making substantial progress in implementing a worldwide disaster risk reduction agenda, which calls for concerted efforts by all stakeholders. The UN Office
for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR; see chapter 10) developed a standard set of comprehensive
indicators against which regions, nations, and local governments could plan for and measure their
actions. In two-year increments, nations self-assessed their progress against the defined measures of
success, and reported this progress to the world community. The tool was called the HFA Monitor, and
the reports that were submitted were (and remain) available on the UNISDR (http://bit.ly/1mK0Rwe).
THE POST-2015 FRAMEWORK
In March of 2015 the global community again meets in Japan—this time in the tsunami-impacted city
of Sendai—to look for a way forward in managing global disaster risk. The Third World Conference on
Disaster Risk Reduction will see the culmination of years of preparation for the follow-up to the Hyogo
12
CHAPTER 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS
Framework for Action in the development of a new global framework. While at the time of publication
this framework had yet to be given a formal title, it is referred to as the post-2015 framework for disaster risk reduction, or more simply as post-HFA.
The post-2015 framework was called upon by UN General Assembly Resolution 66/199. When
nations meet in Sendai, their actions will represent the culmination of hundreds of meetings held in all
regions of the world and scores of reports drafted to define the outstanding needs. The intention is to
continue progress that has been achieved thus far in international cooperation toward achieving disaster
risk reduction. It will build on the knowledge and practice accumulated through the implementation of
each of the previous efforts, including the IDNDR, the Yokohama Strategy and Plan of Action, the
International Strategy for Disaster Reduction, and the HFA.
In June of 2014, the UN General Assembly released a document entitled “Suggested Elements for
the Post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction” that addressed the structure and content of the
framework to be developed and released in March of 2015. Understandably, the proposed purpose of
the future framework was described as being “to manage disaster and climate risk in development at
local, national, regional, and global levels for the resilience of people, communities, and countries”
(United Nations General Assembly 2014). This document proposes several recommendations for the
new framework inclusive of guiding principles, implementation measures, areas of focus (including
public awareness and education, international cooperation, monitoring, reporting, and reviewing), as
well as how to perform the transition between the existing and the new framework. But perhaps most
telling are the global targets and indicators for the new framework, which include:
• Reducing disaster mortality by half by 2025 (or by a given percentage in a given period of time);
• Reducing disaster economic loss by a given percentage by 2025; and
• Reducing disaster damage to housing, educational, and health facilities by a given percentage by 2025.
MODERN DISASTER MANAGEMENT – A FOUR-PHASE APPROACH
Comprehensive disaster management is based upon four distinct components: mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. Although a range of terminology is often used in describing them, effective disaster management utilizes each component in the following manner:
1. M
itigation. Also called Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), mitigation involves reducing or eliminating the likelihood or the consequences of a hazard, or both. Mitigation seeks to “treat” the hazard
such that it impacts society to a lesser degree. See chapter 4 for more information.
2. Preparedness. This involves equipping people who may be impacted by a disaster or who may be
able to help those impacted with the tools to increase their chances of survival and to minimize
their financial and other losses. See chapter 5 for more information.
3. Response. This involves taking action to reduce or eliminate the impact of disasters that have
occurred or are currently occurring, in order to prevent further suffering, financial loss, or a
combination of both. Relief, a term commonly used in international disaster management, is one
component of response. See chapter 6 for more information.
4. Recovery. This involves returning victims’ lives back to a normal state following the impact of
disaster consequences. The recovery phase generally begins after the immediate response has
ended, and can persist for months or years thereafter. See chapter 7 for more information.
What is International Disaster Management?
13
FIGURE 1.2
The disaster management cycle.
Source: Alexander, 2002.
Various diagrams illustrate the cyclical nature by which these and other related factors are performed over time, although disagreement exists concerning how such a “disaster management cycle” is
visualized. These diagrams, such as the one in figure 1.2, are generalizations, and it must always be
understood that many exceptions can be identified in each. In practice, all of these factors are intermixed and are performed to some degree before, during, and after disasters. Disasters tend to exist in a
continuum, with the recovery from one often leading straight into another. And while response is often
pictured as beginning immediately after disaster impact, it is not uncommon for the actual response to
begin well before the disaster actually happens.
WHAT IS INTERNATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT?
Two separate but interrelated concepts are represented by the term “international disaster management”: (1) the study of the diverse emergency and disaster management systems and structures that
exist throughout the world; and (2) the study of disaster management in scenarios where the capacity
of a single nation’s response mechanisms are overwhelmed.
Every country, every government, and every society is unique regarding
• its vulnerabilities and the root causes of such;
• the perception of risk and the methods used to identify and analyze it;
• the institutions, systems, and structures created to manage risk;
• the statutory authorities that guide the management of risk and the management of events that do
actually occur; and
• the mechanisms developed to respond to disaster events and the response capacity of those
mechanisms.
14
CHAPTER 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS
EXHIBIT 1.2 INTERNATIONAL DISASTER MANAGEMENT PARTICIPANTS
• Victims
• Local first responders
• Governments of the affected countries
• Governments of other countries
• International organizations
• International financial institutions
• Regional organizations and associations
• Nonprofit organizations
• Private organizations—business and industry
• Local and regional donors
Several times each year, the response requirements of disaster events exceed the disaster management abilities of a single nation or several nations. In these instances, the governments of the affected
countries call upon the resources of the international response community. This cooperative international response is, by definition, international disaster management.
Over time and through iteration, a recognized and systemic process for responding to international disasters has begun to emerge. Standards for response have been developed by multiple
sources, and a recognized group of typical participants has been identified. (See exhibit 1.2.) Through
practice and study, formulaic, methodical processes for assessing both the affected nations’ damage
and their various response needs have been identified, tried, and improved on. What was only 30
years ago a chaotic, ad hoc reaction to international disasters has grown with astounding speed into
a highly effective machine.
It is important to add that disasters do not become international just because they have overwhelmed
a country’s capacity to respond. There must be a commitment on the participants’ part to recognize the
need for international involvement and to accept the appeal made by the host nation’s government. The
sad truth is that, in practice, not all disasters elicit the same level of international interest and response,
whether because of donor fatigue (see chapter 11), media interest, diverted priorities, or other events
that may dilute public interest. The Mozambique floods of 2000 are but one example of a situation in
which the international community was accused of sitting idly by as hundreds of people died. (See
exhibit 1.3.)
Response and recovery alone, however, are not effective means of managing disasters if they are
performed in the absence of a comprehensive regimen of preparedness and mitigation activities.
(See table 1.2.) An important focal shift among the world’s international disaster management
organizations, agencies, and interest groups from disaster response to disaster prevention is evidence of widespread recognition and acceptance of this. Although many national governments,
especially in the developing world, have yet to make a dedicated effort toward initiating or improving their pre-disaster management activities, many international development and disaster management agencies are working to address this issue. The UN, whose members consist of almost every
country in the world, has made a sustained effort to lead its member nations in addressing their
shortfalls: first by dedicating the 1990s to the IDNDR (producing the Yokohama Strategy and the
Plan of Action for a Safer World), and then by following up with the International Strategy for
Disaster Reduction (ISDR) and the Hyogo Framework for Action to ensure that forward momentum
is maintained.
What is International Disaster Management?
15
EXHIBIT 1.3 2000 MOZAMBIQUE FLOODS TIMELINE
February 9
Heavy rain begins falling across most of southern Africa, with Mozambique hit the hardest. The capital,
Maputo, is submerged. Throughout the country, hundreds of thousands of families are left homeless and
stranded. Damage to crops and infrastructure is severe.
February 11 At least 70 people have died due to the flooding. The UN reports that 150,000 people are in immediate
danger from starvation and disease. Dysentery outbreaks are reported outside the capital.
February 22 Tropical cyclone Eline makes a direct hit on the country, worsening the condition in many areas already submerged by the floods. The South African Air Force begins making airlifts to over 23,000 desperate victims.
February 24 The UN makes an appeal for $13 million in immediate relief and $65 million for recovery assistance.
The appeal goes unanswered. Rainfall draining from other parts of southern Africa begins to flow into
Mozambique, worsening already poor conditions.
February 27 More rainfall causes flash floods throughout the country, destroying much of the remaining farmland.
March 2
Floodwaters have risen by up to 26 feet (8 m) in many parts of the country. International aid workers report that
100,000 people are in need of immediate evacuation, and over 7,000 are trapped in trees and need to be rescued
(many have been trapped in the trees for several days without food or clean water). Finally, more than three weeks
after the crisis began, international disaster management agencies begin to send responders and relief assistance.
Source: BBC News, 2000.
Table 1.2 Response and Recovery-Based Management versus Prevention and Risk ReductionBased Management
Response and Recovery-Based Efforts
Prevention and Risk Reduction-Based Efforts
Primary focus on disaster events
Single, event-based scenarios
Basic responsibility to respond to an event
Focus on vulnerability and risk issues
Dynamic, multiple-risk issues and development scenarios
Fundamental need to assess, monitor, and update exposure to changing conditions
Extended, changing, shared or regional, local variations
Involves multiple authorities, interests, actors
Situation-specific functions, free and open association
and participation
Shifting, fluid, and tangential relationships
Dependent on related practices, abilities, and knowledge
base
Focused on aligning specialized expertise with public
views and priorities
Moderate and long timeframes in outlook, planning,
values, and returns
Accumulated, historical, layered, updated, or comparative use of information
Open or public information; multiple, diverse, or changing sources; differing perspectives and points of view
Dispersed, lateral flows of information
Matters of public interest, investment, and safety
Often fixed, location-specific conditions
Responsibility in single authority or agency
Command and control, directed operations
Established hierarchical relationships
Often focused on hardware and equipment
Dependent on specialized expertise
Urgent, immediate, and short timeframes in outlook,
planning, attention, and returns
Rapidly changing, dynamic information usage, which is
often conflicting or sensitive in nature
Primary, authorized, or singular information sources;
need for definitive facts
In-out or vertical flows of information
Relates to matters of public security, safety
Source: Adapted from Jeggle, 2001.
16
CHAPTER 1 THE MANAGEMENT OF DISASTERS
Today, the United Nations Office for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) guides the efforts of the international community’s overall disaster management mission. (See chapter 10.) Specifically, the UNISDR
seeks to build “disaster resilient communities by promoting increased awareness of the importance of
disaster reduction as an integral component of sustainable development, with the goal of reducing
human, social, economic, and environmental losses due to natural hazards and related technological
and environmental disasters” (UNISDR n.d.).
In January 2005, in Hyogo, Japan, the UN held the first World Conference on Disaster Reductio...
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