Background for Arthurian Legends British Literature I Spring 2018 Arthurian England Arthur’s Introduction The legends surrounding King Arthur probably grew out of the struggles of a Celtic chieftain and his warriors in southwestern England against invading Saxons during the 6th century. Arthur’s Introduction His name first appears in a long Welsh poem of the 7th century, Y Goddodin. He is referred to by the Welsh chronicler Nennius in the 9th century and figures prominently in British historical annals of the 10th century. Arthur’s Introduction In 1138 Geoffrey of Monmouth wrote the "semi-historical" History of the Kings of Britain, devoting half of his work to the exploits of Arthur. Blending and embellishing many strands of the oral tradition, then setting the action in his own times, he forged the first Arthurian written account. Arthur’s Introduction Manuscripts were translated from Latin into Anglo-Saxon and Norman French and widely distributed throughout Britain. Arthur’s Introduction At the end of the 12th century, French poet Chretien de Troyes further embellished the legend, adding new tales of chivalrous knights as well as the tragic romance of Lancelot and Guinevere, including the story of Lancelot and Elaine Arthur’s Introduction A decade later, Robert de Borron reintroduced the theme of the grail from early Celtic folklore and the stories took on greater Christian overtones. The first appearance of Galahad Arthur’s Introduction The first appearance of Galahad, the son of Lancelot and Elaine who becomes the perfect knight, is in medieval romance in the thirteenth-century Vulgate Cycle. The Vulgate Cycle of Literature In the early thirteenth century (ca. 1215– 35), a group of anonymous French authors produced five immensely long prose romances, which modern scholars refer to collectively as the Vulgate Cycle. The Cycle vastly expands, multiplies, and complicates material from earlier verse romances The Vulgate Cycle of Literature In this respect the French Arthurian Vulgate resembles the medieval Latin Bible, which was called the Vulgate and was interpreted by Christian commentators as expressing God's plan for the world in which earthly empires, such as Rome's or King Arthur's, would rise and pass away. The Vulgate Cycle of Literature The Vulgate Cycle is the main source of Sir Thomas Malory's romances, which he often refers to as "the French book" and which William Caxton first printed under the title Morte Darthur. The Vulgate Cycle of Literature Although certain pagan elements remained, King Arthur had come to embody the ideal Christian knight. In the 15th century, Sir Thomas Malory reworked the collection of tales into a long unified epic entitled Le Morte d'Artur. Written in English prose rather than Latin, Malory’s work became the definitive version of the story of King Arthur. To see Le Morte D’Arthur A wonderful collection of information on Malory is available at the British Library Online Gallery:  British Library: Thomas Malory's 'Le Morte Darthur' In the 19th century Victorian poet Lord Tennyson repopularized the Arthurian legend in his long poetic work, Idylls of the King, and in the early 20th century T.H. White created his well-loved adaptation, The Once and Future King. Arthur and his court of chivalrous knights continue to grace the stage in productions of Lerner and Loewe's musical Camelot and appear year after year in films like Excalibur, First Knight, Merlin, and Tristan. Who was Thomas Malory? In his own words, Malory was a ‘knight prisoner’ who implored his readers to pray for his deliverance in life and his soul in death. Though his identity is not certain, he is generally believed to have been the Sir Thomas Malory who inherited the estates of Newbold Revel in Warwickshire and Winwick in Northamptonshire in 1434, aged around 24 years. Who was Thomas Malory? Malory led the unremarkable life of a country gentleman, attending to his judicial and social responsibilities as lord of the manor until 1450 when, for unknown reasons, he turned to a life of crime. Who was Thomas Malory? With 26 men, he ambushed the Duke of Buckingham and tried to murder him. He stole livestock, and extorted money with menaces. He was accused of rape on two occasions. Leading a small army of 100 men, he attacked Combe Abbey, terrifying the monks and stealing their money and valuables. Malory was arrested and spent most of the 1450s in various prisons without ever coming to trial. He made his escape twice and was bailed out on two other occasions. Who was Thomas Malory? Malory was one of a number of gang leaders who exploited the increasing breakdown of law and order across England. Central government was weak under Henry VI, who suffered from bouts of insanity. Local disorder thrived. Richard, Duke of York ruled as Regent during the illness of Henry VI, who came from the house of Lancaster. When Henry recovered in 1455, Richard was not about to relinquish power. Civil war broke out as the houses of York and Lancaster fought for the throne in the Wars of the Roses. Who was Thomas Malory? By 1462, Malory had been released from prison and was fighting with the powerful Earl of Warwick on the side of the Yorkists. He joined a campaign to re-take the Northumbrian castles at Alnwick, Bamburgh and Dunstanbrugh. When Warwick later switched his allegiance to the Lancastrian cause, Malory followed. It was a political miscalculation. In 1468, he was specifically excluded from the list of Lancastrians granted pardon by the new Yorkist king, Edward IV. Malory was back in prison. Who was Thomas Malory? It was during this second imprisonment, in London’s Newgate Prison, that Malory began occupying his time in writing the work he called “the whole book of King Arthur and his noble knights of the Round Table”. Malory’s book was re-titled Le Morte Darthur by William Caxton who produced the first printed edition in 1485. Caxton’s was the only known version of Malory’s text until the discovery of this manuscript in 1934. Who was Thomas Malory? When Henry VI briefly regained the throne in October 1470, all Lancastrian political prisoners in London’s jails were freed. Just five months later, Malory died and was buried in Greyfriars Churchyard – just across the road from Newgate Prison. What is the Holy Grail? In medieval legend, the Holy Grail is the cup from which Jesus Christ drank during the Last Supper before his crucifixion. The same cup was used by Joseph of Arimathea to catch drops of Christ’s blood as he hung on the cross. Joseph brought the holy relic to Britain where it was eventually concealed in a mysterious castle surrounded by a blighted landscape. What is the Holy Grail? Though no historical evidence supports the existence of such a cup, legend endowed the Holy Grail with miraculous qualities of regeneration and spiritual self-realization for the knight who found it. The mystic qualities of the vessel may be a legacy of Celtic mythology, which features magical cauldrons that provided endless amounts of food and drink. Some belonged to gods, while others were kept in enchanted lands beyond the reach of ordinary mortals. Who was the real King Arthur? Nennius, a Welsh monk writing in the lateeighth century, compiled a history that describes a ‘dux bellorum’, a war lord, called Arthur who led the Britons in 12 battles against the Saxons some three hundred years earlier. The ancient annals of Wales date one of Arthur’s battles, the Battle of Mount Badon, to the year 518. But the description of that battle by Gildas, a chronicler writing less than 30 years after the event, makes no mention of Arthur. Who was the real King Arthur? It’s likely that the King Arthur handed down to the middle ages was largely a literary figure, echoing mythological traditions from Celtic Britain. He emerges as a fullyformed hero in the ‘Historia Regum Britanniae’, written by Geoffrey of Monmouth in the first half of the 12th century – a work condemned by a contemporary for being more fiction than fact. Who was the real King Arthur? Geoffrey’s history of the kings of Britain tells of Arthur becoming king at the age of 15 and conquering Scotland, Orkney, Ireland and Iceland. He introduces other elements of the legend too: Merlin, the powerful wizard; the beautiful Guanhamara, who becomes Guinevere; and the magical sword Caliburn, Excalibur. Who was the real King Arthur? Arthur’s legend was embellished by later writers, both English and European. In France, the story formed the perfect subject for a new literary form called the ‘romance’, a long poem written in the native tongue rather than Latin. The Arthurian romances by Chrétien de Troyes were the most popular and probably formed the starting point for Malory’s work. Artistic Renderings of Arthurian Legend King Uriens by Dan Beard Dan Beard (1850-1941). "King Uriens" from: Illustrations to Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. New York: Charles L. Webster & Company, 1889. Merlin Taketh the Child Arthur into His Keeping by Aubrey Beardsley Guinevere in the Golden Days by Eleanor Fortescue-Brickdale Sir Lancelot by M. Bowley The Green Knight by Ian Brown The Knights of the Round Table  The emblem of the Knights of the Round Table worn round the necks of all the Knights was given to them by King Arthur as part of the ceremony of their being made a knight. Knights…  The Order's dominant idea was the love of God, men, and noble deeds. The cross in the emblem was to remind them that they were to live pure and stainless lives, to stive after perfection and thus attain the Holy Grail. . Knights…  The Red Dragon of King Arthur represented their allegiance to the King. The Round Table was illustrative of the Eternity of God, the equality, unity, and comradeship of the Order, and singleness of purpose of all the Knights The knights of the Round Table King Arthur Sir Galahad Sir Lancelot Sir Kay Sir Gawain Sir Bors de Ganis Sir Geraint Sir Lamorak Sir Gareth Sir Tristan Sir Gaheris Sir Percivale Sir Bedivere Sir Galahad web resource Sir Galahad was the illegitimate son of Sir Lancelot by Lady Elaine of Corbenic. He was placed under the care his paternal great aunt and grew up at the nunnery where she was abbess. Upon reaching adulthood, his father knighted him and took him to Camelot. At the Royal Court, Galahad sat in the “Siege Perilous” - the seat reserved by God for the purest of knights - yet no calamity befell him. Sir Lancelot  http://information Throughout, Lancelot is arguably as important a figure as Arthur himself. In French versions of the legend more attention is focused on Sir Lancelot than on King Arthur, and the French compared to their English counterparts appeared to be interested in the balance between the spiritual dimension and the earthly. Sir Kay Sir Kay was the son of Ector (Ectorious) and the foster brother of King Arthur. History records Kay (Cai in Welsh) as being a very tall man, as shown by his epithet, the Tall.  Sir Kay at times had a volatile and cruel nature, but he was Arthur's senechal and one of his most faithful companions.  Sir Gawain http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/gawaine.asp Gawain is generally said to be the nephew of Arthur. His parents were Lot of Orkney and Morgause (though his mother is said to be Anna in Geoffrey of Monmouth). Upon the death of Lot, he became the head of the Orkney clan, which includes in many sources his brothers Agravain, Gaheris, and Gareth, and his half-brother Mordred. The accidental death of Gawain's brothers at Sir Lancelot's hands caused Gawain, one of the mightiest warriors at court, to become the bitter enemy of his once greatest friend. He was mortally wounded in a fight with Lancelot who, it is said, lay for two nights weeping at Gawain's tomb Sir Bors de Ganis 0http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/bors.asp Sir Bors was the only knight to survive the Quest for the Holy Grail and return to court. His fathers name was Bors, and he later succeeded his father as King of Gannes. Bors was a chaste knight, but the daughter of King Brandegoris fell in love with him, and with the aid of a magic ring forced Bors into loving her. Bors was the cousin of Sir Lancelot, and he steadfastly supported him against Arthur during the conflict between the two Sir Geriant  http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/geraint.asp The eldest son of King Erbin of Dumnonia who was a Knight of Devon. After the death of his his wife, Prince Geraint spent much time at King Arthur's Court, looking for action and adventure. It was during this period that he encountered the Sparrow Hawk Knight and came to marry Lady Enid of CaerTeim (Cardiff), a story told in the ancient tales of "Erec (alias Geraint) & Enid" and "Geraint mab Erbin". SIR lAMORAK  http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/lamorak.asp Lamorak was the son of King Pellinore and in some legends the brother of Percivale. He was one of the strongest Knights of the Round Table. Lamorak was the lover of Morgause, whose husband King Lot of Orkney had been killed by Lamorak's father, Pellinore. Lamorak was one of three knights most noted for their deeds of prowess. At an early age he received a degree for jousting, at which he excelled. There were several different occasions in which Lamorak fought over thirty Sir Gareth  http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/gareth.asp Gareth was the youngest brother of Sir Gawain and the son of Lot and Morgause of Orkney. He played a significant role in Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur. Malory's "Tale of Sir Gareth" was apparently created by Malory. It presents Gareth as an exemplar of chivalry who is knighted by and devoted to Sir Lancelot and who acts chivalrously towards Lynette despite her abuse of him. This picture of Gareth, who avoided even his own brothers when they acted less than chivalrously, is one of the elements that comes together in the final scenes of the Morte to produce the tragic ending. Lancelot blindly slayed Gareth in his rescue of Guinevere from the stake. When Gawain heared of this, he turned against Lancelot and demanded that Arthur pursue him to punish him, thus setting the stage for Mordred's takeover. Sir Tristan  http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/tristan.asp Tristan, or Tristram in Old English, was a contemporary of King Arthur and a Knight of the Round Table. He was the nephew and champion of King Mark of Cornwall and the son of Meliodas, King of Lyoness. Tristan's mother died when he was born, and as a young man he took service with his uncle, Mark. Sir Gaheris http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/gaheris.asp Sir Gaheris was the son of King Lot of Orkney and his wife Morgause, sister of King Arthur, before being knighted he was squire to his elder brother Gawaine. Sir Gaheris married Lynette on the day his brother Gareth married hersister, Dame Lionesse, of the Castle Perilous. The two brothers were slain in the struggle following the rescue of Queen Guinevere from the fire, though this was by accident as Sir Lancelot did not recognise them in the crowd When Gawaine returned to be made a knight at Arthur's wedding to Guinevere, Gaheris was by his side to act as his page. In a way, he acted as Gawaine’s conscience. Sir Percivale  http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/percivale.asp Percivale was raised by his mother in ignorance of arms and courtesy. Percivale's natural prowess, however, led him to Arthur's court where he immediately set off in pursuit of a knight who had offended Guinevere. Percivale is the Grail knight or one of the Grail knights in numerous medieval and modern stories of the Grail quest. Percivale first appears in Chrétien de Troyes's unfinished Percivale or Conte del Graal (c.1190). Sir Bedivere  http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/bedivere.asp Sir Bedivere was a trusty supporter of King Arthur from the beginning of his reign, and one of the first knights to join the fellowship of the Round Table. He helped Arthur fight the Giant of Mont St. Michel, and later he was made Duke of Neustria. Bedivere had only one hand later in life, having lost one of his hands in a battle. He had a son called Amren and a daughter named Eneuavc.  Bedivere was present at the Last Battle, the fateful Battle of Camlan. He and Arthur alone survived the battle, and he was given the command by Arthur to throw Excalibur back into the Lake. After lying twice to Arthur, he finally tossed the precious sword out into the lake, and the hand of the Lady of the Lake came up and retrieved the sword to its watery home. Resources http://edsitement.neh.gov/lessonplan/exploring-arthurian-legend#sectresources http://www.wwnorton.com/college/english/ nael/middleages/topic_2/vulgate.htm http://www.kingarthursknights.com/knights/ default.asp    Medieval English Drama Medieval drama General features  Medieval drama flourished in the 15th century; it developed out of liturgical ceremonies: the origin of medieval plays can be found in the Church and in its rituals  After music was introduced into churches (6th century) and words were later fitted to the melodies, a dramatic dialogue began to take place in the form of an alternation of chants between the priest and the choir  Later processional and scenic effects were added which increased dramatic action: liturgical drama evolved into Miracle and Mystery plays and these ones into Morality plays Medieval drama Themes  Mystery plays usually dealt with Gospel events: their main subject was the redemption of man  Miracle Plays were concerned with episodes from the lives of saints  Moralities too were religious plays, but they focused on the conflict between good and evil; their aim was to improve people’s moral behaviour Medieval drama Structure  The Miracles grew in popularity, so the plays left the Church to be performed first in the Church yard, then in other open spaces of the town  Each play was repeated several times in different parts of the town with the help of a pageant, a carriage in the form of small house with two vertical rooms: in the lower room the actors prepared themselves, in the upper one they played their parts Medieval drama Language  In the Miracles, Latin that was slowly replaced by vernacular, and secular elements became more and more frequent  The Morality plays were didactic in content and allegorical in form. They presented personifications of vices and virtues and generalized characters. The lines were rhymed as in the Miracles, but the atmosphere was more melancholy Medieval drama Audience The cycles of Mistery plays appealed to all social classes, from royalty to peasants: they all came in to watch the plays. Cycles instilled a love of drama in the people Moralities were intended for more learned people, with some cultural background Medieval drama Authors and works  The Myracle plays were grouped in 4 cycles, known by the names of the towns where they were performed: Chester, York, Coventry, Wakefield  The best Morality play is Everyman (about 1500)
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