Using Sources Effectively abilities to find and document sources and to develop an argument about or ren'retation of them have many applications in school and on the job. The genres of e:earctted writing used in academic disciplines include the argumentative research (often called a term paper), the proposal, the annotated bibliography, the book the literature review, the personal research report (often called an "!-Search" the name given to it by Ken Macrorie, an early advocate of this genre). You may be to.a build a Web site based on library research. You may be asked to simply report research, or to use it as a starting point for experimentation or observation in the iinr,~tn•n:r or on field observations. Usually oral presentations and the visuals that supthem are rooted in extensive research. Research reports in the sciences (lab reports) social sciences, although their formats differ from papers in the humanities, usually with a review of the previous research that led to the hypothesis currently under !pVE$ti;gation All these genres of researched writing involve similar strategies for findand evaluating sources, taking notes, and using quotations, summaries, and paraskillfully. However, when and how sources are used and how they are cited vary different kinds of writing and from field to field. Thus, these general information and research writing skills must be adapted to meet discipline-specific expectaformat, style, and means of presentation in specific academic fields. - ......... FOR ACADEMIC INQUIRY: QUOTATION, SUMMARY, AND SYNTHESIS ~ll'~r·nn.-~~;;, are four basic means for using sources when writing researched papers and reports: Qll(ltatllon, paraphrase, summary, and synthesis. These techniques help writers progress taking notes to drafting. It is always necessary to cite sources as you use them and to OOI11Sistently distinguish between your own words and ideas and those of your sources. 1. Quotations are exact repetitions Qf a writer's work. Quotations are less often used :ii1 disciplines that use APA (American Psychological Association) style than those who use MLA (Modern Language Association) style because arguments in most 101 102 Chapter 6 • Using Sources Effectively Skills for disciplines that use APA depend more on summary and synthesis of previot:.: research than on close analysis of texts. 2. Paraphrases are restatements of the writer's ideas in your own words, followir.f the source closely in the order in which an argument is developed or evidence .15laid out. Paraphrases must be clearly identified as such, by direct attribution to th: author, because they can be mistaken for your own thinking. 3. Summaries give an overall representation of a writer's argument or part of on£: and also must also be identified as representing the ideas of the original as th;:: are moved from notes to drafts. 4. Syntheses draw on more than one source in order to show relationships among. methodologies, assumptions, and conclusions. Summaries and syntheses of other writers' work make up the "literature review" tha:. opens most academic papers and provides the context for most academic argumeniS. Any aspects of understanding or response that occur to you while taking notes · working with sources make drafting a researched paper easier, so write your int·pn-,rPrtions, questions, and responses into your notes, using a consistent method (font, etc.) to distinguish your voice from the voice of the author. Quoting Quotations always must be exact copies of the original, whether copied or cut pasted, and in your notes they should always be enclosed in quotation marks accompanied by a reference to the source. One convenient way to keep retere~nos · attached to citations while taking notes and drafting is to attach a footnote to each tation, which can then travel with the citation as you use the source for various pr4::>JedS.Add each source to your working bibliography, so that you can easily copy it into reference pages of each project. FOCUS POINTS~ USING QUOTATIONS Remember that whenever you reproduce a source's wording, even for a few you must put quotation marks around it You may not add or delete anything the quoted text, unless you use brackets (for adding) or ellipses (for deleting). liD Be very careful not to take a quotation out of context in a way that changes distorts its meaning. For example, Jacob Bronowski's statement quoted Chapter 1 would be severely misrepresented by cutting out a few words of statement, even if ellipses were correctly used. Notice the difference between following statements: [The book] will bring home to the nonscientist how the scientific method really works: we invent a model and then test its consequences, and that it is this conjunction of ination and realism that constitutes the inductive method. [The book] will bring home to the nonscientist how the scientific method really works: we invent a model . . . and that it is this conjunction of imagination and realism . constitutes the inductir(e method. 11 When taking notes, copy quotations when you want the exact wording v: source, or when you think you might want it later. If you do not 11 --....__ ::::::::> lttWJ:2------ PUNOUATI Skills for Academic Inquiry: Quotation, Paraphrase, Summary, and Synthesis nnderstand a claim or a piece of evidence, making an exact copy allows you to go back to it later, when further reading in the field may give you a better underof it. However, you should resort to that kind of copying as little as posDiDc:e it can lead to a paper that simply pieces together quotations rather them to make an argument. To write effectively you need to understand liUJ'~"""'' not just repeat them. you use notes to draft a paper, it is advisable to state the point or purpose of before you use it and to integrate shorter quotations smoothly into comsentences. This is a way to demonstrate your understanding of the source and guide your readers to share it. For example: Alfie Kohn claims that there is no data to confirm that more students in the present than in the past receive higher grades for less real achievement: "The bottom line: No one has ever demonstrated that students today get A's for the same work that used to receive B's or C's." POINTS: PUNCTUATING QUOTATIONS important to distinguish word-for-word quotations of sources from paraphrases summaries in your own words, and correct punctuation is the way to make this clearly and effectively. The rules for punctuating quotations are relatively but they need to be followed consistently. These rules follow Modern Language -..~a-.u.u (MLA) style, because quotations are rarely used in fields that use American ~··u•v.1'.•~·a• Association (APA) style. first time you use an author's name, you should use the full name, without hon(Mr., Miss., Professor, Dr., etc.). For later reference, use only the last name. Never to an author by first name only. • In contemporary American practice, short quotes are put in double quotation marks. • In the following example from Benjamin Franklin's biography, the spelling and capitalization of the original are maintained, even though they are now obsolete. , • If the author's name is mentioned before the quote, only the page number goes in the parenthetical citation. The period that ends the final sentence follows the final parenthesis. • In the following example from the MLA Handbook, notice how the quotation is fused to the writer's text to produce a single, grammatically correct sentence. Since the author is not cited before the quotation, the last name is included in the parenthetical citation. Quote Following a Complete Sentence Benjamin Franklin describes how he learned to write through imitating The Spectator, an English magazine: ui bought it, read it over,, and was much delighted with it. I thought the Writing excellent, and wish'd if possible to imitate it" (532). 103 104 Skills J Chapter 6 • Using Sources Effectively within Quotati' Short Quote Integrated into a Sentence It is crucial for students to Learn to document sources well because it "not only recognizes the work writers do; it also tends to discourage the circulation of error" (MLA Handbook 52). Long Quotations n for the Ass A long quote (three or more lines; one or more complete sentences) should be se: off by indenting the entire quote one inch-or ten spaces. Notice in the examp:ir below that when long quotes are set off, quotation marks are not used around therr~ it Use long, set-off quotations when it is important to get the exact words of a particular passage or when the author's style is very important and you need a lo~ quote to get across its impact. However, they should be used sparingly, since th~ can look like "padding" and may suggest that you do not understand the materia: well enough to summarize it. Moreover, many readers admit to skipping ove: them, and this can dilute the impact of your argument. 111 It is particularly important to introduce long quotes, so that your reader can sef the point in a single reading. Use the same spacing (double or single) for the quotation that you use for the document itself. Iii Punduating lntrodudions to Quotations When using a quotation in a paper, it is more effective to introduce it than to let it "speak for itself." lill If the introductory statement is a complete sentence, follow it with a colon. ll If the introductory statement is integrated with the quotation to make a coinplell! sentence, use a comma only if you would use a comma if the quotation were not there. If the introductory statement would need a comma without quotation, follow it with a comma. 11 Quote Following a Complete Sentence Alfie Kohn claims that there are no data to confirm that more students in the present than in the past receive higher grades for Less real achievement: "The bottom Line: No one has ever demonstrated that students today get Ks for the same work that used to receive B's or C's." Quotes Integrated into Sentences As Alfie Kohn argues, "the Long history of indignation" over grade inflation is usually ignored. Alfie Kohn observes that "the Long history of indignation" over grade inflation is usually ignored. Quotes within Quotes Put quotations within quotations in single quotation marks, as in the example However, quotes within set-off quotes are punctuated normally, with double tion marks. ..... ------------...,..-~~~~~:c::;;~lr-:2!---_-_-_-_-_:::;:::>:""":: Skills for Academic Inquiry: Quotation, Paraphrase, Summary, and Synthesis within Quotation Marks Alfie Kohn observes that a report from "the National Center for Education Statistics "'''t:au=u that fully 33.5 percent of American undergraduates had a grade-point average of or below, a number that ought to quiet 'all the furor over grade inflation,' according to a spokesman for the Association of American Colleges and Universities." Alfie Kohn raises serious questions about the reality of grade inflation by citing highly To get a more accurate picture of whether grades have changed over the years, one needs to look at official student transcripts. Clifford Adelman, a senior research analyst with the U.S. Department of Education, did just that, reviewing transcripts from more than 3,000 institutions and reporting his results in 1995. His finding: "Contrary to the widespread lamentations, grades actually declined slightly in the last two decades." Moreover, a report released just this year by the National Center for Education Statistics revealed that fully 33.5 percent of American undergraduates had a grade-point average of C or below in 1999-2000, a number that ought to quiet "all the furor over grade inflation," according to a spokesperson for the Association of American Colleges and Universities. basic rule is that commas go inside quotation marks, and periods do so if the sentence with the last quotation mark. However, there are several important variations: • When a parenthetical citation immediately follows the quotation, the sentence does not end with the final quotation mark, and so the period follows the final parenthesis. 11 Question marks and exclamation points go inside only when they are part of the quotation. When they are not part of the quotation, they go outside. Commas go within the quotation marks, but semicolons and colons go outside them. For example: Alfie Kohn asserts, "The bottom line: No one has ever demonstrated that students today get Ks for the same work that used to receive B's or C's." Mike Rose admits that "there is no single profile of the Good Teacher'' (9). Why did Mike Rose reject the idea that "there is no single profile of the Good Teacher'' (9)? ~:BIIips;es. Brackets. and [Sic) mUse ellipses when you cut away a,piece of a quotation. Be very careful not to change the author's meaning by cutting a part away. Do not use ellipses at the beginnings or ends of quotations, unless there is a real possibility of misunderstanding without 105 106 [------.-- Chapter 6 • Using Sources Effectively them. Ellipses consist of three dots, separated by spaces. Use a period before the ellipses to show that a sentence ends before the ellipses begin (and thus the number of dots totals four in those cases). B Use brackets to add to the quotation any material necessary to understand it. The bracketed material can clarify words or expressions in the original text that could be ambiguous when read out of context. In the following example, the bracketed material replaces and clarifies what the author is referring to by "the two." 11 The term "sic" set in brackets is used to indicate that the preceding material is original to the source, not the invention or mistake of the quoter. For example, the archaic capitalization and contractions in the quotation from Franklin above could have been followed by [sic] to indicate that they were part of the original. Using [sic] is a judgment call, but it is preferable to avoid it unless there is the possibility of serious confusion or misreading. This did not seem to be the case in quoting Franklin. notes and writing t where this is not p< you know what y01 tation, introduce ea a reference. Alfie Kohn observ 1960s are ignorin· Alfie Kohn argues taken place. Ellipses ... Alfie Kohn draws on the distinction between kinds of motivation: With the exception of orthodox behaviorists, psychologists have come to realize that people can exhibit qualitatively different kinds of motivation: intrinsic, in which the task itself is seen as valuable, and extrinsic, in which the task is just a means to the end of gaining a reward or escaping a punishment. The two are not only distinct but often inversely related .... But the reality is that it doesn't matter how motivated students are; what matters is how students are motivated. A focus on grades creates, or at Least perpetuates, an extrinsic orientation that is Likely to undermine the Love of Learning we are presumably seeking to promote. your response never chang should dej ~o•...u.•.=•L, reasoning Brackets [ 1 Alfie Kohn observes that "the two [intrinsic and extrinsic motivation] are not only distinct but often inversely related." PARAPHRASING EFFECTIVELY Paraphrases follow the thinking and wording of the author closely and may include some short quotations like those in the examples above. As when you use quotations, the best way to distinguish your thinking from that of the source is to name the source at the beginning of the paraphrase and (when using MLA style) to follow the paraphrase with the page number in the source from which it was taken. Paraphrasing when taking notes can be used to follow a line of reasoning in detail, but it is risky because it is easy to reword it when actually writing the paper, bringing it back so close to the original (whether or not you intend to) that it will seem like plagiarismusing another writer's words without attribution. If you feel you must closely follow the reasoning of a source by using a paraphrase, consider quoting directly in your • Attach a referen. entry. Rememb describing a W1 any direct quot • Clearly indicatE summarizing a from that of yc would before q (by highlightin; tinguish them f • If you use an au starting place f< Try restating tladditional inf01 close the source Summarizing Appropriately and writing the paraphrase later, when you draft the paper. If there are cases this is not possible, leave reminders to yourself when you paraphrase, so that know what you have in your notes when using them later. As with a direct quointroduce each paraphrase, end it with a page number (when available), and a reference. Alfie Kohn observes that people who blame grade inflation on the liberal excesses of the 1960s are ignoring the fact that people have been complaining about it for centuries. Alfie Kohn argues that there is no documented evidence that grade inflation has taken place. an important aspect of note-taking, are also written in your own words, but cover more of the source in a more general way. Being able to summarize what a said accurately, briefly, and without distorting the meaning is a crucial academic A summary of a whole work (sometimes called an abstract) recapitulates the claim the author makes in a piece, the reasons that support the argument, and the !On·clusion reached. Although summaries are sometimes assigned and written for their sake to demonstrate that you have read and understood an article, in research they are primarily used to establish the context of an argument and to bring in """u"''·"--"' from other researchers to support a line of reasoning. Keep those uses in mind summarizing sources and when deciding how much detail to include from a parsource. Like other uses of sources, summaries should be clearly distinguished your response to the material; although your response is important, the summary never change or distort the meaning of the original piece. The length of any should depend on how you plan to use it in the project and on how central its •rcn•rn,,+ reasoning, or evidence is to your own developing argument. POINTS: EFFECTIVE SUMMARIZING mAttach a reference to the summary so that you have the material for a bibliographic entry. Remember that the source for a summary needs to be cited, even if you are describing a writer's general approach or argument, and even if you are not using any direct quotations in it. R Clearly indicate in the notes when you are speaking for yourself and when you are summarizing another work. The clearest way to distinguish your own thinking from that of your source is to name the source before summarizing, just as you would before quoting or paraphrasing it. If you consistently mark your responses (by highlighting or using a different font) while taking notes, you can easily distinguish them from your summaries of sources. 11 If you use an author's summary-from an abstract or concluding paragraph-as a starting place for your own, make sure that you do not simply copy it into your paper. Try restating the author's summary in your own words, and then decide what additional information is needed for the purposes of your project. It may help to close the source while you summarize, so that you are forced to think through the l------ 107 108 Chapter 6 • Using Sources Effectively main ideas until you fully understand them before putting them in you: words. Then check that the summary accurately represents the source. If it :, not, a quotation might be preferable at this stage of your inquiry. ill Let the author do some of the work of summarizing by looking at the central (or thesis) of the piece, which usually can be found at the end of the mtro Learning. He concludes that claims about grade inflation derive from an uncritical acceptance of the idea that grading should be competitive and from the assumption that stringent grading effectively motivates learning. Kohn proposes that competitive grading itself is MikeJ detrimental to education and destructive to educational excellence, citing evidence that students learn better from internal motives and from teachers who expect them to succeed than from competition for grades. es,~ parti~ >\ tions ofti Question What would you expect to be the key words in this article? How Purpose Affects Summary Clearly, summarizing is an important step in progressing from taking notes to writing an argument of your own. You can shape summaries to the purpose of your projects as you go along, and later synthesize summaries of multiple sources to develop your thinking about your topic even further. In the Readings, the excerpt from the introduction to Mike Rose's Possible Lives: The Promise of Public Education in America summarizes the book and explains the order of the evidence used to argue that there is much that is good in American public education. His evidence is embedded in his account of site visits to a range of schools across the country that, he argues, can and should be considered successful. He begins and ends by addressing the purpose of the book: "I hope not so much for prescription as for an opening up of the way we think and talk about public schools" {9). A writer using Rose's book as a source might summarize this passage in ways that are relevant for a number of different purposes. Each of these sample summaries uses a different aspect of Rose's introduction as a starting point for a response, analysis, or argument. 1. To support a position or offer evidence for it: Not everyone believes that public school education in America is hopeless. For example, Mike Rose assembles case histories of schools that provide effective and engaging instruc- hoods.j l Th~s s~ort~ wntermtefti 4. To gather e4 examinint'! Angeles,~ ~~ When li betw~ indivilill This writer I tionships ill worktoesbi As you woe · thedireQ what inf
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