Write a blog 300-500 words about IT ethics and reasonings

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Humanities

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Search the internet for a case related to ICT ethics and submit your views and reflections on the ethical issues involved as a blog entry. (should include some video/ image)

Combine the theory on lecture 1 and 2 (2 files included below) with the cases.

Using APA 6th Format for references

Use at least 5 quality references

Links to some relevant cases or case databases are as follows:

http://computingcases.org/case_materials/case_materials.html

http://www.onlineethics.org/Resources.aspx?resource-type=29_772

http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/collection/

http://www.scu.edu/ethics/practicing/focusareas/cases.cfm

http://ethics.iit.edu/eelibrary/search/site

http://johnkevinfoster.com/equifax-data-breach/

However, you may consider any appropriate case available from reputable sources, including published articles, news items and so on.

I also add some sample so you can make the blog follow their format.


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ITC 331 Topic 2 Representing ethical arguments Ethics and Morality  The term Ethics is derived from Ethos (Greek), and Morality from Mores (Latin).  Both terms translate roughly into notions affecting “custom,” ”habit,” and “behavior.”  Ethics is defined as the study of morality, which raises two questions:  (a) What is morality?  (b) What is the study of morality? What is Morality?  Morality can be defined as: a system of rules for guiding human conduct, and principles for evaluating those rules. Two points are worth noting in this definition:  (i) morality is a system;  (ii) it is a system comprised of moral rules and principles.  Moral rules can be understood as "rules of conduct," which are very similar to "policies." Rules of Conduct as “Policies”  James Moor (2004) notes that policies can range from formal laws to informal, implicit guidelines for actions.  Moor suggests that every act can be viewed as an instance of a policy.  There are two kinds of rules of conduct:  1) Directives for guiding our conduct as individuals (at the micro-level)  2) Social Policies framed at the macro-level. Directives  Directives are rules (of conduct) that guide our actions, and thus direct us to behave in certain ways.  Rules such as "Do not steal" and "Do not harm others" are both examples of rules of conduct that direct us in our individual moral choices at the "micro-ethical" level (i.e., the level of individual behavior). Social Policies  Some rules of conduct guide our actions at the "macro-ethical" level by helping us frame social policies.  Rules such as “Proprietary software should not be copied" or “Software that can be used to invade the privacy of users should not be developed" are examples of rules of conduct that arise out of our social policies.  There is a correlation between directives and social policies (e.g., rules involving stealing). Principles  The rules of conduct in a moral system are evaluated by way of standards called principles.  For example, the principle of "social utility," which is concerned with promoting the greatest good for the greatest number, can be used to evaluate a social policy such as “Proprietary software should not be copied without permission." Figure 2-1: Basic Components of a Moral System Rules of Conduct (Action-guiding rules, in the form of either directives or social policies) two types Principles of Evaluation (Evaluative standards used to justify rules of conduct) Examples include principles such as of social utility and justice as fairness Rules for guiding the actions of individuals (micro-level ethical rules) Rules for establishing social policies (macro-level ethical rules) Examples include directives such as:"Do not steal" and "Do not harm others." Examples include social policies such as: "Software should be protected“ and "Privacy should be respected." Three Schemes for Grounding the Evaluative Rules in a Moral System  The principles are grounded in one of three different kinds of schemes:  Religion;  Law;  Philosophical Ethics.  Consider how a particular moral principle can be justified from the vantage-points of each scheme.  Consider the rule of conduct: “Do not steal.” Approach #1: Grounding Moral Principles in a Religious System  Consider the following rationale for why stealing is morally wrong: Stealing is wrong because it offends God or because it violates one of God's (Ten) Commandments.  From the point of view of institutionalized religion, stealing is wrong because of it offends God or because it violates the commands of a supreme authority. Approach #2: Grounding Moral Principles in a Legal System An alternative rationale would be: Stealing is wrong because it violates the law.  Here the grounds for determining why stealing is wrong are not tied to religion.  If stealing violates a law in a particular nation or jurisdiction, then the act of stealing can be declared to be wrong independent of any religious beliefs that one may or may not happen to have. Approach #3: Grounding Moral Principles in a Philosophical System of Ethics ▪ A third way of approaching the question is: Stealing is wrong because it is wrong (independent of any form of external authority or any external sanctions). ▪ On this view, the moral "rightness" or "wrongness" of stealing is not grounded in some external authoritative source. ▪ It does not appeal to an external authority, either theological or legal, for justification. Ethicists vs. Moralists  Ethicists study morality from the perspective of philosophical methodology; they appeal to logical arguments to justify their positions.  Moralists often claim to have all of the answers regarding morality.  Many moralists also exhibit characteristics that have been described as "preachy" and "judgmental."  Some moralists may have a particular moral agenda to advance. Discussion Stoppers as "Roadblocks" to Moral Discourse  Discussion stoppers can be articulated in terms of the following four questions:  1. People disagree about morality; so how can we reach agreement on moral issues?  2. Who am I/Who are we to judge others and to impose my/our values on others?  3. Isn't morality simply a private matter?  4. Isn't morality simply a matter that different cultures and groups should determine for themselves? Discussion Stopper # 1: People Disagree on Solutions to Moral Issues  People who hold this view fail to recognize:  (i) Experts in other fields of study, such as science and math., also disagree on what the correct answers to certain questions are.  (ii) There is common agreement about answers to some moral questions.  (iii) People do not always distinguish between "disagreements about factual matters" and "disagreements on general principles" in disputes involving morality. Discussion Stopper # 2: Who am I to Judge Others?  We need to distinguish between:  (a) “persons making judgments” and “persons being judgmental,“ and  (b) “judgments involving condemnations” vs. “judgments involving evaluations.”  Also, we are sometimes required to make judgments about others. Discussion Stopper # 3: Ethics is Simply a Private Matter  Many people assume that morality is essentially personal in nature and that morality must therefore be simply a private matter.  “Private morality" is essentially an oxymoron or contradictory notion.  Morality is a public phenomenon (Gert). Discussion Stopper # 4: Morality is Simply a Matter for Individual Cultures to Decide  According to this view, a moral system is dependent on, or relative to, a particular culture or group.  There are some very serious problems with this view, which is called ethical relativism.  To understand the problems inherent in this position, it is useful to distinguish between two positions involving relativism: cultural relativism and moral relativism. Table 2-2 Summary of Logical Flaws in the Discussion Stoppers Stopper #1 Stopper #2 Stopper #3 People disagree on solutions to moral issues. Who am I to judge others? Ethics is imply a private Morality is simply a matter. matter for individual cultures to decide. __________________ __________________ _________________ ___________________ 1. Fails to recognize that experts in many areas disagree on key issues in their fields. 1. Fails to distinguish between the act of judging and being a judgmental person. 1. Fails to recognize that morality is essentially a public system. 1. Fails to distinguish between descriptive and normative claims about morality. 2. Fails to recognize that there are many moral issues on which people agree. 2. Fails to distinguish between judging as condemning and judging as evaluating. 2. Assumes that people can never reach common agreement on some moral principles. 3. Fails to distinguish between disagreements about principles and disagreements about facts. 3. Fails to recognize that sometimes we are required to make judgments 2. Fails to note that personally-based morality can cause major harm to others. 3. Confuses moral choices with individual or personal preferences. Stopper #4 3. Assumes that a system is moral because a majority in a culture decides it is moral. Why Do We Need Ethical Theories?  Ethical theories can guide us in our analysis of moral issues involving cyber-technology.  Is there a simpler, alternative scheme that we could use in our moral deliberations?  Why not simply follow the "golden rule" or follow one's own conscience? Following the Golden Rule  No one one would ever object to the spirit the golden rule: "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."  This rule assumes that whatever I am willing to accept that you do unto me, you would also be willing to accept that I do unto you.  Suppose that if I were a programmer I would be willing to give away my software programs for free.  Does it follow that I should expect others to do the same for me? Following your Conscience  On the face of it, the notion of following one's conscience seems like a reasonable maxim.  But it is also a dangerous principle or rule for grounding one’s choices for acting morally.  Consider that the 9/11 terrorists might been following their individual consciences.  Because conscience is very subjective, it cannot provide grounds for moral deliberation that are both rational and impartial. The Structure of Ethical Theories  An essential feature of theory in general is that it guides us in our investigations.  In science, theory provides us with some general principles and structures to analyze our data.  The purpose of ethical theory, like scientific theory, is to provide us with a framework for analyzing moral issues.  Ideally, a good theory should be coherent, consistent, comprehensive, and systematic. Four Ethical Theories  Consequence-based  Duty-based  Contract-based  Character-based Consequence-based Ethical Theories  Some argue that the primary goal of a moral system is to produce desirable consequences or outcomes for its members.  On this view, the consequences (i.e., the ends achieved) of actions and policies that provide the ultimate standard against which moral decisions must be evaluated.  So if choosing between acts A or B, the morally correct action will be the one that produces the most desirable outcome. Consequence-based Theories (Continued)  In determining the best ourcome, we can ask the question, whose outcome?  Utilitarians argue that it is the consequences of the greatest number of individuals, or the majority, in a given society that deserve consideration in moral deliberation. Consequence-based Theories: (Utilitarianism continued)  According to the utilitarian theory: An individual act (X) or a social policy (Y) is morally permissible if the consequences that result from (X) or (Y) produce the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of persons affected by the act or policy. Utilitarianism (continued)  Utilitarians such as Jeremy Bentham assume:  (a) all people desire happiness;  (b) happiness is an intrinsic good that is desired for its own sake. Criticism of Act Utilitarianism  Critics reject the emphasis on the consequence of individual acts.  They point out that in our day-to-day activities, we tend not to deliberate on each individual action as if that action were unique.  Rather, we are inclined to deliberate on the basis of certain principles or general rules that guide our behavior. Duty-based Ethical Theories  Immanuel Kant argued that morality must ultimately be grounded in the concept of duty or obligations that humans have to one another.  For Kant, morality can never be grounded in the consequences of human actions.  Thus, in Kant’s view, morality has nothing to do with the promotion of happiness or the achievement of desirable consequences. Duty-based Ethical Theories (Continued)  Kant rejects utilitarianism in particular, and all consequentialist ethical theories in general.  He points out that, in some instances, performing our duties may result in our being unhappy and may not necessarily lead to consequences that are considered desirable.  Theories in which the notion of duty or obligation serve a foundation for morality are called deontological theories because they derive their meaning from the Greek root deon, which means duty. Duty-based Ethical Theories (Continued)  Kant defends his ethical theory on the grounds that:  (1) humans are rational, autonomous agents;  (2) human beings are ends-in-themselves, and not means to ends. Categorical Imperative  Kant believed that if everyone followed the categorical imperative, we would have a genuinely moral system.  It would be a system based on two essential principles:  universality,  impartiality.  In such as system, every individual would be treated fairly since the same rules would apply universally to all persons. Criticisms of Rule Deontology  Kant's theory has been criticized as inadequate because the categorical imperative cannot help us in cases where we have two or more conflicting duties.  Consider that we have duties to both keep promises and to tell the truth, and sometimes we encounter situations in which we are required either to tell the truth and break a promise or to keep a promise and tell a lie.  Kant does not provide us with a mechanism for resolving such conflicts. Contract-based Ethical Theories  From the perspective of social-contract theory, a moral system comes into being by virtue of certain contractual agreements between individuals.  One of the earliest versions of a contract-based ethical theory can be found in the writings of Thomas Hobbes. Contract-based Ethical Theories (Continued)  One virtue of the social-contract model is that it gives us a motivation for being moral.  It is in our individual self-interest to develop a moral system with rules.  This type of motivation for establishing a moral system is absent in both the utilitarian or deontological theories.  So a contract-based ethical theory would seem to have one advantage over them. Criticisms of Social Contract Theory  Critics point out that social-contract theory provides for only a minimalist morality.  It is minimalist in the sense that we are obligated to behave morally only where an explicit or formal contract exists.  So if I have no express contract with you, or if a country like the U.S. has no explicit contract with a developing nation, there is no moral obligation for me to help you or no obligation for the U.S. to come to the aid of that developing nation. Character-based Ethical Theories  Virtue ethics(also sometimes called "character ethics") ignores the roles that consequences, duties, and social contracts play in moral systems in determining the appropriate standard for evaluating moral behavior.  Virtue ethics focuses on criteria having to do with the character development of individuals and their acquisition of good character traits from the kinds of habits they develop. Character-based Ethical Theory (continued)  Virtue ethics can be traced back to Plato and Aristotle.  To become an ethical person, more is required than simply memorizing and deliberating on certain kinds of rules.  What is also needed, Aristotle argued, is that people develop certain virtues.  Aristotle believed that to be a moral person, one had to acquire the right virtues (strengths or excellences). Character-based Ethical Theories (Continued)  Instead of asking, “What should I do in such and such a situation?", a virtue ethicist asks: “What kind of person should I be?"  The emphasis is on being a moral person - not simply understanding what moral rules are and how they apply in certain situations.  While deontological and utilitarian theories are "action-oriented" and "rule-oriented," virtue ethics is "agent-oriented" because it is centered on the agent him/her-self. Criticism of Character-based Ethical Theories  Character-based ethical systems tend to flourish in cultures where the emphasis placed on community life is stronger than that accorded to the role of individuals themselves.  In the West, since the Enlightenment, more emphasis has been placed on the importance of individual autonomy and individual rights.  In the Ancient Greek world of Aristotle's time, the notion of community was paramount. Table 2-3 Four Types of Ethical Theory Type of Theory Advantages Disadvantages Consequence-based (Utilitarian) Stresses promotion of happiness and utility Ignores concerns of justice for the minority population Duty-based (Deontology) Stresses the role of duty and respect for persons Underestimates the importance of happiness and social utility Contract-based (Rights) Provides a motivation for morality Offers only a minimal morality Character-based (Virtue) Stresses moral development and moral education Depends on homogeneous community standards for morality Ethical Principles applied to Mary’s problem 43/65 Doing ethics technique 1. What is going on? 2. What are the facts? 3. What are the issues? 4. Who is affected? This leads to: 5. What are the ethical issues and implications? 6. What can be done about it? 7. What options are there? 8. Which option is best – and why? 44 Mary’s problem  Consider an HCI consultant, Mary, with extensive experience in evaluating web sites and GUI’s. She has just received an evaluation contract for a new accounting product made by company A due to her prior experience with ecommerce site evaluation. The work involves assessing the training requirements and the usability of the system. During the initial configuration of her usability laboratory she becomes aware that software she is to evaluate contains a GUI already patented by a rival company B, which she evaluated several weeks before.  Under her contractual agreements Mary is not allowed to discuss the evaluation of a product with anyone outside the contract. She therefore has an obligation to company B not to provide information regarding their product to anyone else without their permission. She has a similar obligation to company A. 45/65 Mary’s problem  Questions:       Can she continue with the evaluation? If she cannot continue with the evaluation how does she inform company A of the patent violation? Does she have an obligation to let Company B know Company A has copied their GUI? Underlying the various ethical issues in this case is that of the violation of intellectual property rights. Such a violation is certainly illegal, but whether it is also immoral is more contentious. When examined in detail its basis is not as solid as it is often assumed, despite the commonly held view presented by which claims that companies that have invested resources in creating software are entitled to reap an economic reward. It is not obvious that the reward should come through ownership. But be this as it may, the fact that it is illegal raises the important issue in this case. The central issue is that of honouring contracts, and the more basic principle of keeping promises. The consultant has, in effect, promised to keep the information learnt in the consultancies confidential. The problem is that it is difficult both to do this and to let Company A know that they are doing something illegal. One ought, generally, to keep promises. But why? The answer that one gives will depend on more general ethical theories. Lets consider two types of theories, consequentialist and deontological. 46/65 Mary’s problem Consequentialism versus deontology  Consequentialist theories state that consequences are all important in determining what is the ethical or moral thing to do. The best known of these theories is the utilitarianism, particularly as it was made famous by John Stuart Mill.  Mill's well known view is that the morally right action is that which produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. Many varieties of utilitarianism have been developed to take account of various problems, but there is something attractive about the general idea. It does seem right that consequences are important in determining the rightness or wrongness of actions.  Immanuel Kant for example, believed that lying was always wrong, regardless of the consequences. Looking at invasion of personal privacy and unauthorised copying in this light, those activities, if wrong, they are wrong in themselves, regardless of consequences even where those consequences might be good. 47/65 Mary’s problem Why should Mary worry about breaking a contract?  On deontological grounds one might argue that to break a promise is to show lack of respect for the person to whom the promise was made, and as such is always morally wrong, regardless of whether or not the consequences are good.  On a consequentialist view breaking promises is generally bad simply because the convention of having promises is a very useful one, and any promise breaking weakens that convention.  However, in order to avoid a greater harm, in an individual case the right thing to do could be to break a promise.  Perhaps in this example it is not too difficult to avoid breaking the promise of confidentiality. The consultant can just tell Company A that the particular GUI has been patented. She need not say how she knows this. But the situation may not be so simple, if she worked for Company B just a few weeks previously. It may be obvious that she learnt this while working for them, in which case she could be accused of breaking her promise to them. It may well be that by revealing anything at all she is breaking a promise to one of the companies.  But if she does nothing, she is acting unprofessionally in not letting her client know that they are doing something illegal, and this too is unethical! 48/65 Doing ethics technique 1. What is going on? While Mary was evaluating company A’s GUIs, she became aware that some of these GUIs are already patented by company B, which she worked several weeks before. 2. What are the facts? ◦ ◦ ◦ Mary is currently working with company A’s GUIs She was working with company B She became aware that company A has some GUIs which are being already patented by company B. 49/65 Doing ethics technique 3. What are the issues?  Breaking confidentiality  Violation of Patent/copyright  Breaking of rules of contract with company B 4. Who is affected?  Mary  Company A  Company B 50/65 Doing ethics technique 5. What are the ethical issues and implications?  According KANT – Categorical Imperative ◦ {You have to treat people the same always, respect yourself and respect ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ ◦ others} You can not lie, you can not break promises Mary can not work on this project with A because she would be respecting company B, she would lie to company A that she knows nothing about company B. Mary can NOT say anything to company B, because she has a contract with company A. She can NOT say anything to company A about B because she had a confidentiality contract with company B. To respect her professional integrity she has to remove herself from this project. She has a duty to inform company A that there could be a patent issue and they investigate further. 51/65 Doing ethics technique 5. What are the ethical issues and implications?  According to utilitarianism ◦ If Mary does nothing and continuous to work on the project that is egoism. ◦ The aim of utilitarianism is to make the majority of the parties happy.    Mary would be happy if this situation was not happening – if she did not work in on this project with company A she not be in trouble with company B in the future.. Mary would be in trouble with company A if she tells company B. Mary has to stop working on this project and to stop company A from breaking the patent.  Finally Mary has to stop working on this project and ask company A to review existing patents. 52/65 Doing ethics technique 6. What can be done about it? ◦ Mary can not work on this project but has to look at some options. 7. What options are there? ◦ Mary can quit the contract and say nothing (personal reasons) ◦ Mary can tell everything to company A (but she will be breaking the old contract with company B). ◦ Mary stops working on this project and ask company A to review existing patents 8. Which option is best – and why? OPTION C is the BEST 53/65 ITC 331 Topic 1 INTRODUCTION TO ETHICS Introduction •Human beings are often classified by their behavior. •Behavior is therefore considered as indicators of the attitudes held by a person •How do we objectively evaluate behavior to determine ethicality? •Dictionary meaning of Ethics "moral philosophy" or "moral principles; rules of conduct” •Dictionary meaning of Ethical "relating to morals, especially as concerning human conduct" 2/38 Ethics and Ethical Decision Making •Ethics has to do with a principle - based choice between competing alternatives. The choices are often between the Right and the Wrong. •Its about attacking the problem logically and making decisions based on well reasoned, defensible ethical principles. •Ethical principles are ideas of behavior that are commonly acceptable to society. •This module is all about ethics and Info Technology, its relation with human actions, how to choose between right and wrong, how to use a number of guidelines and ethical principles to make ethical decisions. 3/38 Competing Factors That Affect Our Behavior Maslow’s definition of Behavior Maslow (1954) described behavior as based upon a hierarchy of needs that if satisfied provide reward for the individual and if not can result in inappropriate behavior. UTAS - Community Leadership Online Resource. Retrieved Feb 20th, 2008, from http://www.ruralhealth.utas.edu.au/comm-lead/leadership/Maslow-Diagram.htm 4/38 Competing Factors That Affect Our Behavior and Value Judgment •Human action is rarely simple or straight forward. •A number of influences often lead to competing outcomes and therefore an individual must weigh risks and consequences before making an independent value judgment. •The objective is to make a judgment, based on combination of values and those of others, to arrive at a defensible principled choice. •A way of achieving a high quality ethical value judgment is through a structured analysis and decision making process which forms the core of this module. 5/38  http://www.abc.net.au/lateline/business/items/200908/s2655 515.htm  http://www.theage.com.au/business/clive-peeters-leftreeling-by-20m-sting-20090811-egz2.html 6 Ethics and Computers Managing computers ethically is not an easy task for individuals or organizations. Some of the difficulty posed by computers are: • Using computers and data communications alters relationship with people because of reduced personal contact and the speed of processing. • Electronic information is more fragile and can be manipulated with easily or can be accessed by unauthorised sources. • Effort to protect and desire to share information integrity, confidentiality and availability do conflict. • Lack of ethical values and practices or different values and practices by different individuals. 7/38 Unethical Computer use and Issues • • • • • • • • • • Social and economic issues Issues of individual practice Software development issues Computer processing issues Issues relating to work place Issues of data collection, storage and access Issues relating electronic mail and internet Resource exploitation issues Vendor - Client issues Computer crime issues 8/38 The Ten cyber-commandments ☺ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Thou shall not use a computer to harm other people. Thou shall not interfere with other people's computer work. Thou shall not snoop around in other people's files. Thou shall not use a computer to steal. Thou shall not use a computer to bear false witness. Thou shall not use or copy software for which you have not paid. Thou shall not use other people's computer resources without authorization. Thou shall not appropriate other people's intellectual output. Thou shall think about the social consequences of the program you write. Thou shall use a computer in ways that show consideration and respect. 9/38 What Is Cyberethics?  Cyberethics is the study of moral, legal, and social issues involving cybertechnology.  It examines the impact that cybertechnology has for our social, legal, and moral systems.  It also evaluates the social policies and laws that we frame in response to issues generated by the development and use of cybertechnology. 10/38 What Is Cybertechnology?  Cybertechnology refers to a wide range of computing and communications devices – from standalone computers, to "connected" or networked computing and communications technologies, to the Internet itself.  Cybertechnologies include:  hand-held devices (such as personal digital assistants);  personal computers (desktops and laptops);  large mainframe computers. 11/38 Cybertechnology (Continued)  Networked devices can be connected directly to the Internet.  They also can be connected to other devices through one or more privately owned computer networks.  Privately owned networks include both:  Local Area Networks (LANs),  Wide Area Networks (WANs). 12/38 Why the term cyberethics?  Cyberethics is a more accurate label than computer ethics, which can suggest the study of ethical issues limited either to:  computing machines,  computing professionals.  Cyberethics is also more accurate than Internet ethics, which is limited only to ethical issues affecting computer networks. 13/38 The Evolution of Cybertechnology and Cyberethics: Four Phases  Computer technology emerged in the late 1940s, when some analysts confidently predicted that no more than six computers would ever need to be built.  The first phase of computing technology (1950s and 1960s) consisted mainly of huge mainframe computers that were unconnected (i.e., stand-alone machines).  One ethical/social question that arose during Phase 1 dealt with the impact of computing machines as “giant brains” and what that meant for being human.  Another question raised during this phase concerned privacy threats and the fear of Big Brother. 14/38 The Evolution of Cybertechnology and Cyberethics (Continued)  In Phase 2 (1970s and 1980s), computing machines and     communications devices began to converge. Mainframe computers and personal computers could be linked together via privately owned networks such as LANs and WANs. Privacy concerns arose because confidential information could easily be exchanged between networked databases. Intellectual property issues emerged because personal computers could easily duplicate proprietary software programs. Computer crime was possible because people could break into the computers of large organizations. 15/38 The Evolution of Cybertechnology and Cyberethics (Continued)  During Phase 3 (1990-present), the availability of Internet      access to the general public has increased significantly. This has been facilitated by the phenomenal growth of the World Wide Web. The proliferation of Internet- and Web-based technologies in this phase has raised ethical and social concerns affecting: free speech, anonymity, jurisdiction. 16/38 The Evolution of Cybertechnology and Cyberethics (Continued)  As cybertechnology evolves in Phase 4, computers will likely become more and more a part of who or what we are as human beings.  James Moor (2005) notes that computing devices will soon be a part of our clothing, and even our bodies.  Computers are already becoming ubiquitous, and are beginning to “pervade” both our work and recreational environments.  Objects in these environments already exhibit what Philip Brey (2005) calls “ambient intelligence,” which enables “smart objects” to be connected to one another via wireless technology. 17/38 Table 1-1: Summary of Four Phases of Cyberethics Phase Time Period Technological Features Associated Issues 1 1950s-1960s Stand-alone machines (large mainframe computers) Artificial intelligence (AI), database privacy ("Big Brother") 2 1970s-1980s Minicomputers and PCs interconnected via privately owned networks Issues from Phase 1 plus concerns involving intellectual property and software piracy, computer crime, privacy and the exchange of records. 3 1990s-Present Internet and World Wide Web Issues from Phases 1 and 2 plus concerns about free speech, anonymity, legal jurisdiction, virtual communities, etc. 4 Present to Near Future Convergence of information and communication technologies with nanotechnology research and bioinformatics research, etc. Issues from Phases 1-3 plus concerns about artificial electronic agents ("bots") with decision-making capabilities, bionic chip implants, nanocomputing research, etc. 18/38 Uniqueness Issue  There are two points of view on whether cybertechnology has generated any new or unique ethical issues:  (1) Traditionalists argue that nothing is new – crime is crime, and murder is murder.  (2) Uniqueness Proponents argue that cybertechnology has introduced (at least some) new and unique ethical issues that could not have existed before computers. 19/38 Uniqueness Issue (Continued)  Both sides seem correct on some claims, and both seem to be wrong on others.  Traditionalists underestimate the role that issues of scale and scope that apply because of the impact of computer technology.  For example, cyberstalkers can stalk multiple victims simultaneously (scale) and globally (because of the scope or reach of the Internet).  Cyberstalkers can also operate without ever having to leave the comfort of their homes. 20/38 Alternative Strategy for Analyzing the Uniqueness Issue  James Moor (2000) argues that computer technology generates “new possibilities for human action” because computers are logically malleable.  Logical malleability, in turn, introduces policy vacuums.  Policy vacuums often arise because of conceptual muddles. 21/38 Case Illustration of a Policy Vacuum: Duplicating Software  In the early 1980s, there were no clear laws regarding the duplication of software programs, which was made easy because of personal computers.  A policy vacuum arose.  Before the policy vacuum could be filled, we had to clear up a conceptual muddle: What exactly is software? 22/38 Cyberethics as a Branch of Applied Ethics  Applied ethics, unlike theoretical ethics, examines "practical" ethical issues.  It analyzes moral issues from the vantage-point of one or more ethical theories.  Ethicists working in fields of applied ethics are more interested in applying ethical theories to the analysis of specific moral problems than in debating the ethical theories themselves. 23/38 Cyberethics as a Branch of Applied Ethics (continued)  Three distinct perspectives of applied ethics (as applied to cyberethics):  Professional Ethics;  Philosophical Ethics;  Descriptive Ethics. 24/38 Perspective # 1: Professional Ethics  According to this view, cyberethics is the field that identifies and analyzes issues of ethical responsibility for computer professionals.  Consider a computer professional's role in designing, developing, and maintaining computer hardware and software systems.  Suppose a programmer discovers that a software product she has been working on is about to be released for sale to the public, even though it is unreliable because it contains “buggy” software.  Should she “blow the whistle”? 25/38 Professional Ethics  Don Gotterbarn (1995) has suggested that computer ethics issues are professional ethics issues.  Computer ethics, for Gotterbarn, is similar to medical ethics and legal ethics, which are tied to issues involving specific professions.  He notes that computer ethics issues aren’t about technology per se.  For example, we don’t have automobile ethics, airplane ethics, etc. 26/38 Perspective # 2: Philosophical Ethics ▪ From this perspective, cyberethics is a field of philosophical analysis and inquiry that goes beyond professional ethics. ▪ Moor (2000) defines computer ethics as: ...the analysis of the nature and social impact of computer technology and the corresponding formulation and justification of policies for the ethical use of such technology. [Italics Added.] 27/38 Philosophical Ethics Perspective (continued)  Moor argues that automobile and airplane technologies did not affect our social policies and norms in the same kinds of fundamental ways that computer technology has.  Automobile and airplane technologies have revolutionized transportation, resulting in our ability to travel faster and farther than was possible in previous eras.  But they did not have the same impact on our legal and moral systems as cybertechnology. 28/38 Perspective #3: Cyberethics as a Field of Descriptive Ethics  The professional and philosophical perspectives both illustrate normative inquiries into applied ethics issues.  Normative inquiries or studies are contrasted with descriptive studies.  Descriptive investigations report about “What is the case.“  Normative inquiries evaluate situations from the vantage- point of the question: “What ought to be the case?”. 29/38 Descriptive Ethics Perspective (continued)  Scenario: A community’s workforce and the introduction of a new technology.  Suppose a new technology displaces 8,000 workers in a community.  If we analyze the issues solely in terms of the number of jobs that were gained or lost in that community, our investigation is essentially descriptive in nature.  We are simply describing an impact that technology X has for Community Y. 30/38 Descriptive Ethics Perspective (continued)  Descriptive vs. Normative Claims  Consider three assertions:  (1) "Bill Gates served as the Chief Executive Officer of Microsoft Corporation for many years.”  (2) "Bill Gates should expand Microsoft’s product offerings.“  (3) “Bill Gates should not engage in business practices that are unfair to competitors.” ▪ Claims (2) And (3) are normative, (1) is descriptive; (2) is normative but nonmoral, while (3) is both normative and moral. 31/38 Table 1-2: Summary of Cyberethics Perspectives Type of Perspective Associated Disciplines Issues Examined Professional Computer Science Engineering Library/Information Science Professional Responsibility System Reliability/Safety Codes of Conduct Philosophical Philosophy Law Privacy & Anonymity Intellectual Property Free Speech Descriptive Sociology Behavioral Sciences Impact of cybertechnology on governmental/financial/ educational institutions and socio-demographic groups 32/38 Is Cyber-technology Neutral?  Technology seems neutral, at least initially.  Consider the cliché: “Guns don’t kill people, people kill people.”  Corlann Gee Bush (2006) argues that gun technology, like all technologies, is biased in certain directions.  She points out that certain features inherent in gun technology itself cause guns to be biased in a direction towards violence. 33/38 Is Technology Neutral (continued)?  Bush uses an analogy from physics to illustrate the bias inherent in technology.  An atom that either loses or gains electrons through the ionization process becomes charged or valenced in a certain direction.  Bush notes that all technologies, including guns, are similarly valenced in that they tend to "favor" certain directions rather than others.  Thus technology is biased and is not neutral. 34/38 Ethics and Law •Law implies that a recognized authority has decided that the action the law allows or prohibits is of benefit to society in some way or the other. •Law makes a good starting point for ethical decision making as law is grounded on ethical principals but not always as law is not always ethical. •The relationship between ethics and law leads to four possible states that depends on weather an act is ethical or not or legal or not. 35/38 Ethics and Law Four possibilities between ethics and law. I II III IV An act that is ethical and legal Buying a software package for doing accounting for clients An act that is ethical but not legal Coping copyrighted product for back up use only. An act that is not ethical but legal Using unlicensed software in foreign country where software copyrights do not apply. An act that is not ethical and not legal Making unauthorised copies of copyrighted software for commercial purposes. 36/38 Ethical Theory and Guidelines Ethical theory can be used as a foundation to provide a rationale of moral argument. It helps us to be able to classify and understand arguments and to be able to offer defensible conclusions. Many decisions have to be "made on the run". How we do this depends largely on the automated, unconscious responses we make to the particular situations. A Guideline is something that helps us to a particular direction. Informal guidelines can provide a rapid means of identifying and classifying moral dilemmas, and thus directing behaviour towards an ethical solution. Formal Guidelines are more explicit statements of expected behavior. 37/38 Informal Guidelines 1. "Don't tell anybody but ...". Such behavior is common among those who want to "keep it quiet" and they are instinctively aware that an action is unethical. 2. The Parent Test. Would you be comfortable with an action if you were to inform your parents of it? Would they approve? 3. The Public Broadcast Test. How would you and/or the public react to reporting an action in the electronic or printed media? 4. The Advertising Test. Similar to the above but more deliberate, this test asks whether a marketing or advertising campaign could be based on the action taken. 5. The Nose (or Tongue) Test. Ethical dilemmas can have that "bad smell" or "bad taste" about them. This test examines the unconscious responses that result from confronting the dilemma with instinctive moral and ethical rules. 38/38 Formal Guidelines By going through these questions one can get a clearer picture of the dilemma and perhaps of the beginning of the ethical solution 1. Does the act violate the corporate policy? This decides that weather the act is in accordance with the companies set policies and guidelines. 2. Does the act violate the corporate or professional code of conduct or ethics? These are guidelines and rules defined by various societies and companies which are based on ethical background. 3. Does the act violate the Golden Rule? How would you react if the same rules under the circumstances act on you. 39/38 Damon Horowitz calls for a "moral operating system" At TEDxSiliconValley, Damon Horowitz reviews the enormous new powers that technology gives us: to know more -- and more about each other -- than ever before. Drawing the audience into a philosophical discussion, Horowitz invites us to pay new attention to the basic philosophy -- the ethical principles -- behind the burst of invention remaking our world. Where's the moral operating system that allows us to make sense of it?  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nG3vB2Cu_jM 40
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Running Header: ETHICS AND CYBER SECURITY

Ethics and Cyber Security
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ETHICS AND CYBER SECURITY

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Ethical Implications of the Equifax Data Breach
J. K. Foster
Equifax is an institution that provides a gateway for consumers to access financial credit
and as such, it stores volumes of personal data upon which credit decisions are made. From the
face of it, Equifax has huge obligation to safeguard personal user data from maliciously prying
third parties. Which is why the company periodically issues its corporate code of ethics to its
employees to emphasize on key issues such as honesty and fair dealings.

Fundamental to Equifax’s operations is the use of Apache Struts, an open-source
software that allows her interactions with the company users including solving online disputes.
This open-source software, however, presented a vulnerability that from May 13 to July 30th,
2017, hackers gained access to Equifax's consumer data and exposed up to 143 million U.S
consumers to potential security threats.
Was the breach preventable?
Yes, definitely. Reports of the discovery of the existence of a potential route for a breach
through Apache Strut were made in way back in March but the Equifax management chose to sit
on their hands. The information that was known to Equifax would have prevented hackers from
accessing personal data of their consumers for that extended period of time.

ETHICS AND CYBER SECURITY

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Ethical issues and implications
As an organization, Equifax has an obligation of making user data security top priority
because they have been entrusted with sensitive personal data on a mutual trust basi...


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