RUNNING HEAD: Listening Journal 1 Karen Malone Listening Journal November 18, 2014 Professor Burgoyne SPCH 470 Listening Journal 1 2 Entry #1 Discriminatory Listening Experience Date: November 2, 2014 Description of Listening Experience: My first listening experience took place at a local community theatre approximately an hour before a production started. I observed actors, crew members and staff interact. First, I observed one actor who walked quickly toward the sound booth, which suggested that she was late picking up her microphone. Shortly after, I could hear doors shuts, footsteps, and voices as a multitude of actors filtered in from both sides of the stage, indicating that it was time for mic checks. The sound technician gave directions to the actors over his microphone. As the technician prompted them, each actor took turns singing various tunes. During the process, all the actors laughed, and clapped as if they were egging each other on for fun. The pitch, timbre, and tempo of their voices, along with their accompanying body language, suggested their enjoyment of the interaction. This was particularly evident with the youngest actor chose to sing Whitney Houston’s song “I Will Always Love You.” During the process, I could hear chattering among various actors, but I could not I understand the conversations. Different actors clapped their hands, laughed, and shook their heads. After the mic checks concluded, there was a moment of silence, and then the actors simultaneously called a staff member to the stage. As an actor approached the staff member, she expressed how much actors appreciated her. I also saw the actor hand the staff member an envelope as she mentioned that the actor’s had “chipped in” to get the staff member a gift certificate. The staff member thanked them. This was quickly interrupted by the conductor who punched a few chords on the keyboard in preparation for the actors’ vocal warmups. The laughing and talking stopped; the actors’ nonverbal language completely changed. Their bodies and faces seemed to become more focused. As they went over their vocal warmups, some actors stretched their lips and face and some stretched their bodies. Others either used hand movements to coordinator their body to their voice, or they shifted their bodies from side to side to keep the beat. Once they completed their vocal warmups, the actors quickly left the stage, suggesting that they were in a hurry to get to the dressing rooms. Then, as I walked through the house, I could hear a motor revving. Based on my previous experience, I knew that the staff member had turned on the fog machine. The sound was shortly followed by the smell of fog juice as the stage became cloudy. Then I could hear the stage manager close the grand curtain. This was followed by a squeaky noise as a crew member was presetting her drops. All these efforts reminded me that the house was about to open to the public. Purpose and Behavior as a Listener: I listened in a discriminatory manner as a spectator; thus, I chose to listen for the sake of using my senses to identify different stimuli, which may improve my discriminatory skills. Accordingly, Wolvin and Coakley suggest that listeners must “distinguish the auditory and visual stimuli… before [they] can process the messages at any other level” (1996, p. 152). During this listening exercise, I sat quietly in the theatre where I could hear, see, and listen to the actors, the stage manager, the crew members, and the staff as they socialized, and as they prepared for the show. I selected a seat, which was located directly under a light, so that I could more easily observe and take notes. So that I would not get distracted by my note taking, I decided to write down keywords, phrases, abbreviations, and symbols rather than full Listening Journal 1 3 sentences. Because I was a spectator, this listening experience was linear in nature. Yet, even though I did not participate in the conversations, I did respond privately. Thus, I giggled, smiled, or shook my head when I felt compelled to. Evaluation of Listening Strengths and Weaknesses: My weaknesses included external and internal distractions. First, because I was cold, I began rubbing my arms to warm myself. Next, the seat was also a little uncomfortable, and I found myself shifting my body several times. Additionally, I thought about what tasks I had left to complete before the show, and I thought about what information I needed for this writing assignment, which occasionally interrupted the incoming messages. My strengths are identifying and decoding vocal cues and environmental sounds. Such are “discriminatory auditory skills,” which individuals "develop, refine, acquire, and cultivate throughout [their] life” (Skills Involved in Discriminative Listening, n.d.). Thus, because of my frame of reference, I could discriminate among different vocal cues, such as the timbre, pitch, tempo, and volume. These variances implied specific moods, such as amusement, friendliness, appreciativeness, and seriousness. I could also detect specific sounds from the equipment without a visual cue. Thus, the rail system squeals loudly, the fog machine idles consistently, and the grand curtain rubs intermittently. What I Learned About My Listening: After reading the “receiving” function of the listening process (Wolvin, n.d.), I decided to choose a listening environment which would use my many of my sensory receptors. During this experience, I could detect various moods from nonverbal language. For instance, one actor seemed amused as she laughed; further, her vocal pitch changed, which complimented her hand and arm motions. Absorbing the enthusiasm, the child actor seemed to seek approval. His voice became brighter and his body became loose as if he were trying to impress his peers. I also learned that by sitting quietly and listening that I could detect messages that I may have been otherwise unaware of. Because of this experience, I became more sensitive to incoming stimuli. To illustrate: without a visual cue, I could discriminate among the different types of footsteps. One actor wore tap shoes, which clicked with each step. Several actors wore dance shoes; however, only one actor seemed to march with each step. Wearing ballet shoes, one actor stepped quietly on the balls of her feet. Yet another actor wore flip flops, which made quick snapping sounds, and another wore platform shoes, which made hard thump sounds. Listening Journal 1 4 Entry #2: Comprehensive Listening Experience Date: November 9, 2014 Description of Listening Experience: I watched the documentary, Video Games, The Movie (Snead, 2014), which my husband selected from Netflix. The documentary focused on the evolution of gaming, starting from early innovations. I was interested because early gaming systems, such as the Atari and Nintendo, had impacted my childhood and early adulthood. However, while we were in the comfort of our living room, I was mentally and physically tired because it was late in the evening. My husband and I had just returned from seeing the movie Interstellar, which was over three hours long with previews. Plus, we had driven a long distance the day before. The documentary editors used various elements to send the message, including illustrations, pictures, old commercial clips, narrations, interviewees, and timelines. However, it became monotonous at times. The show went through the timeline and proceeded to and from the year 2013 numerous times. Each time, the narrator, Sean Astin, introduced a new topic, such as the innovation of the cloud, the decline in the early video industry, the invention of video tournaments, and controversy of game violence. Then the documentary quickly jumped from interviewee to interviewee to various commercial clips, video clips, photographs, and illustrations. The film editor used quotes from famous people, such as Bill Gates, Mohutma Ghandy, and Nikola Tesla, as major transitions. The editor also attempted to use digitalized voice-overs, video-themed music, volume, and tempo to propel the story. However, the editor added awkwardly long pauses between transitions, which suggested to me that the documentary had ended when it had not. And the video-game themed music, along with the narrator’s digitalized voice-over, became irritating. In addition, the viewers do they hear what questions the interviewees are being asked; and the documentary presents the interviewee individually; they are all seated, and they use hand gestures, eye behavior, facial expressions, or vocal inflections to emphasize their messages. At one point, however, one interviewee kept his hands clasped in his lap, which suggested that he didn’t know what else to do with his hands. Purpose/s and behavior as a listener: I watched this documentary in the privacy of my home for comprehensive purposes. I chose to watch the documentary later in the evening even though I was tired. I sat upright on my sofa, so that I could be attentive to the documentary. Further, I listened and watched to understand how video games have evolved and how they have changed societal norms. I had not prepared for this listening experience, as suggested in our module (Week 4: Preparing for the Lecture/Seminar, n.d.). Further, although I am an avid note-taker, I initially did not take notes. These factors may have affected my memory recall. Still, I actively listened; as the show progressed, my husband and I often discussed what we were watching. For instance, my husband read the quotations out loud. I also explained how similar some of the information was to a previous computer class. Overall, the visual cues of the video, the discussion with my husband, and my previous experiences may have improved my memory in spite of being tired and not taking notes Subsequently, however, approximately an hour into the movie, I could not maintain focus on the documentary and had to quit watching it. I returned to the documentary at 7 a.m. the following morning. I was well rested. I watched the remaining 40 minutes of the documentary Listening Journal 1 5 alone, and I took notes (outline format) for the remainder of the documentary. Evaluation of Strengths and Weaknesses My main weaknesses were noises, including mental and physical tiredness. Yet, with conscious effort, I was able to refocus my attention and become more attentive to the messenger for a short while. As the listening experience was unplanned, I did not make preparations nor did I take notes at first. However, I did identify the documentaries format, including the transitions and the main ideas, which allowed me to anticipate the subsequent segments and recall the information more easily. I also discussed the information with my husband, which reinforced my memory. Finally, from a contextual standpoint, I related to the material on two levels: 1) I remember the early gaming systems, and 2) I identified with some of the computer terminology which was used to discuss modern gaming systems. What I Learned about My Listening: I was interested in the topic; however, I learned that I have some difficulty comprehensively listening late in the evening, particularly when I am tired. While I can consciously focus on and actively listen to messages, my attention span may become limited when I am tired. Hence, after 45 minutes, the documentary became increasingly hard for me to watch and listen to. I attempted to refocus for another 15 minutes; however, I became incredibly sleepy, and I decided to stop watching the documentary. I also realized that I should have taken notes early on, which may have helped me maintain attention even though I was tired. Thus, according to Wolvin and Coakley, “[n]otetaking can improve our ability to concentrate” (Wolvin & Coakley, Listening, 1996, p. 239). Listening Journal 1 6 Entry #3: Comprehensive Listening Experience Date: November 15, 2014 Description of Listening Experience: I chose to watch a communication lecture, which was uploaded on YouTube. In this video, Dr. Teresa Pierce, a professor at the University Of Ontario Institute Of Technology, presents the lecture Language & Gender (2011). During the 41 minute lecture, the camera angle remained fixed on Dr. Pierce’s face and her upper body. Her upper body was open to the audience even though she was seated behind a desk. Her laptop was to her left; and a power point presentation, which also to her left, was projected on the white board. During the lecture, the professor used a lot of facial expressions and hand movements to suggest various nonverbal messages. For instance, the professor’s eyes pointed up when she was thinking of an example relating to the topic, and she also used hand motions to emphasize different comments. In one instance, she counted with her fingers when she listed items, and she made a circular shape with her hands to emphasize the word “all.” She also used vocal inflections to emphasize the importance of specific keywords. However, several of her nonverbal behaviors were distracting. For instance, she often looked down to read her notes from her laptop, she made a lisp noise when changing pages, and she sometimes used filler words. Purpose and Behavior as a Listener: Because I am a communication major, I must take various communication courses, including Communication and Gender. To supplement my understanding of my course material, I chose to watch a lecture on gender and communication for comprehensive purposes. I also chose to watch it around 3 pm, when I was more focused and alert. I was not only interested in the topic, but I was also willing to actively listen. I began watching the lecture on my laptop in my bedroom, where it was conformable, quiet, and well lit. I sat in an upright position, so that I could efficiently take notes. During this listening environment, I used the outline style note-taking technique. Evaluation of Strengths and Weaknesses: According to the article Listening Understanding, and Misunderstanding, contextual, physiological, psychological factors can affect the listening experience (Wolvin, n.d., pp. 46). For instance, from a contextual standpoint, because I had been exposed to the lecture material previously, I was more receptive to receiving the professor’s message. In addition, I had chosen to watch the lecture during the afternoon because I am less alert in the early morning and late evening. While I was focused on the message, I had some physiological or external influences which distracted me intermittently. For instance, my dog whimpered, my cell phone rang, and my stomach rumbled. Otherwise, I had removed myself from other external noises. Finally, I was bothered by some psychological or internal noises, such as thinking about completing this journal before the deadline, and starting my upcoming final exam in my other class. Thus, such stress may interfere with listening, according to Dr. James Lynch (Wolvin & Coakley, 1996, p. 134). However, I was able to tell myself to stop and I refocused my attention. Listening Journal 1 7 What I learned About My Listening: I learned that I am more attentive in the afternoon than I am in the early morning or late evening. This experience also reinforced my belief that I could more easily retain and recall the information if I take notes. This correlates with research which suggests that “notetakers are better able to recall information than those who do not take notes” (Wolvin & Coakley, Listening, 1996, p. 239). In addition, because my frame of reference was similar to the sender’s frame of reference, I was more receptive to accepting the sender and her message— which I believe also improved my ability remember the information. Hence, the “knowledge” of the subject matter not only aided the listening experience, it influenced the “selection of information to process” (Wolvin & Coakley, Listening, 1996, p. 91). Listening Journal 1 8 Concluding Summary: During these listening exercises, I realized that I must discriminately listen in order to comprehensively understand the incoming information (Comprehensive Listening, n.d.). Thus, it is plausible that by improving my discriminative listening skills, I will also improve my comprehensive listening skills. I also learned that in order to intently listen and effectively decode an incoming message, I must receive, attend, perceive, interpret, and respond to it, which are the elements outlined in Wolvin and Coakley’s listening model (Wolvin, n.d.). This process is necessary when I am listening for discriminatory purposes, or when I am listening for comprehensive purposes. I also found that discriminatory listening requires more than hearing—it requires the use of one’s senses. Thereby, according to Wolvin, listening involves “auditory and visual receptors,” and the listener’s perception may be influenced by “smell, taste, and touch” (Wolvin, n.d., pp. 1-2). For instance, I could correctly identify the visual output, sound, and odor which were produced by a theatrical fog machine. This and future observations may improve my discriminative listening skills, which correlates with Weaver and Rutherford’s hierarchy. Hence, with practice, I can better “distinguish specific sounds from background noise,” distinguish the “intensity, pitch, pattern, and duration” of sounds (Skills Involved in Discriminative Listening, n.d., p. 1), and “detect and isolate nonverbal cues” (p. 3). For instance, with practice, I could learn to not only detect if the fog machine was not functioning properly, but I could also identify the actual problem. In order to comprehend a message, I must remember the message —at least for a short time. Thus, by actively listening, I will be more apt to “store” the messages and “recall” them when I need them. Besides concentrating on the speaker’s message, (Comprehensive Listening, n.d.), I may use other listening tools, such as s identifying the speaker’s organizational structure (Listening for Organizational Structure, n.d.), and reviewing the information. (Follow-up after the Lecture/Seminar, n.d.). For example, when applicable, I identified the speakers’ transitions and topic sequences during my listening experiences. To follow-up, I also rewrote my notes, as well as discussed the messages. Finally, although I did not directly communicate during these listening experiences, I found that I still needed to “attend” to and “respond” to the communicator, which are steps outlined in Wolvin and Coakley’s model (Wolvin, Listening, Understanding, and Misunderstanding, n.d.). Thereby, behaviors, such as facial expressions, eye contact, body movements, and body position (Wolvin & Coakley, Listening, 1996, p. 122), helped me to focus, and respond indirectly to the communicator. Furthermore, all these efforts reinforced my understanding of the information, and allowed me to remember the information. Further, journaling my listening experiences helped me identify my ineffective communication behaviors. For instance, I am often preoccupied with other thoughts when I am trying to actively listen to others. While I am willing to listen, my internal messages interrupt the speaker’s message, and alter my perception of the message. By recognizing my behavioral pattern, I can consciously alter my behaviors. For instance, I can apply “deep-breathing” techniques before a listening experience to relieve my stress ( (Wolvin & Coakley, Listening, 1996, p. 134). This may improve my ability to listen. In addition, I found that my preconceived notions may interrupt the message. To the contrary, I can make an effort to be more receptive to listening to the speaker’s message before “jud[ing]” it. (Wolvin & Coakley, 1996, p. 118). Furthermore, Listening Journal 1 according to Wolvin, such “[p]ositive listening attitudes are not directed only at the other communicator. Positive listening attitudes also influence one's self-concept as a listener” (Wolvin, Listening, Understanding, and Misunderstanding, n.d.). Thus, by listening fully before reacting or responding, I can more logically “decide to accept or reject [a speaker’s] message” (p. 119). 9 Listening Journal 1 10 References Pierce, T. (2011). Language & Gender. University of Ontario Institute of Technology: Interpersonal Communication class. LiveWire Media Productions. Retrieved Nov. 15, 2014, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnAXn9P6TtY Snead, J. (2014). Video Game, The Movie. (J. Snead, Director, & S. Astin, Performer) Retrieved Nov. 9, 2014, from Netflix.com Week 3: Skills Involved in Discriminative Listening. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 15, 2014, from University of Maryland University College: SPCH 470 Class: https://learn.umuc.edu/ d2l/le/content/31385/viewContent/1253697/View Week 4: Comprehensive Listening. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 10, 2014, from University of Maryland University College; SPCH 470 Class: https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content/31385/ viewContent/1253708/View Week 4: Follow-up after the Lecture/Seminar. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 15, 2014, from University of Maryland University College: SPCH 470 Class: https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content /31385/viewContent/1253713/View Week 4: Listening for Organizational Structure. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 15, 2014, from University of Maryland Universtity College: SPCH 470 Class: https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/ content/31385/viewContent/1253710/View Week 4: Preparing for the Lecture/Seminar. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 15, 2014, from University of Maryland University College: SPCH 470 Class: https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/ content/31385/viewContent/1253709/View Wolvin, A. (n.d.). Listening, Understanding, and Misunderstanding. 21st Century Communication: A Reference Handbook. Retrieved Oct. 30, 2014, from http://www.sagepub.com/edwards/study/materials/reference/77593_5.1ref.pdf Wolvin, A., & Coakley, C. G. (1996). Listening (5th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill. What Is Therapeutic Listening and Why Is It Important? Therapeutic listening is defined as listening to help another person talk through a problem or concern (Wolvin & Coakley, 1986). Other common terms for this listening purpose are empathic, empathetic, or active listening. Although it is an important behavior, empathy is only one behavior essential for listening to help others; another is being actively engaged in the listening. The term therapeutic listening most accurately reflects this listening purpose because it includes the concepts of both empathy and active listening. You should not equate therapeutic listening to psychiatric therapy. As a therapeutic listener, you are not playing the role of an amateur psychiatrist; rather, you are using listening behaviors to show support to a speaker who needs to share his concerns or talk through a problem. Of course, if the speaker's concerns are of a serious psychological nature, you might want to refer him to a professional. There is clearly a need for therapeutic listening in our society today. Some of us may recognize the need for therapeutic listening by examining our own personal lives with regards to relational, marital, health, family, social, career, educational, or other concerns. Others of us may recognize the need by examining our professional lives, where we may have concerns ranging from corporate changes (such as downsizing, merging, and restructuring) to changes in our leadership style from, for example, being a controller, supervisor, and administrator to being a coach, supporter, and enabler. Hasn't each of us—at some time—needed "someone to talk to"? When you need to talk through a problem or concern, who most often serves as your listener? Is it a family member? Friend? Coworker? Someone else? Perhaps a more important question is this: How effectively does this individual serve as a therapeutic listener? Unfortunately, many students in listening courses and participants in listening seminars report that they rarely find—or serve as—effective therapeutic listeners. As a result of the scarcity of such listeners, they express a two-pronged interest in therapeutic listening. They see a real need to (1) become better listeners for others who are troubled, and (2) find better listeners for themselves when they are troubled. Although our purpose is not to help others become more satisfying listeners for us, we can learn to become more effective therapeutic listeners for others and, perhaps, indirectly help others by serving as role models for them. Think about this... Have you ever had a rotten day at work and really needed someone with whom you could share the experience? If so, did you want someone that would listen to you rather than someone who provided solutions to your problems or offered criticism? If you were able to find such a person, did you feel better by simply talking through the ordeal? How did you feel if the listener provided unsolicited advice? Skills Involved in Therapeutic Listening The skills involved in therapeutic listening also could be termed "encouraging" skills. When they are applied effectively, they encourage speakers to express (not suppress) their thoughts and feelings. And, when essential therapeutic listening attitudes and knowledge are applied, they send the following message: I'm interested in you as a person, and I think that what you feel is important. I respect your thoughts, and even if I don't agree with them, I know they are valid to you…I…want to understand you. I think you're worth listening to, and I want you to know that I'm the kind of person you can talk to (Rogers and Farson, 1973, p. 548). There are many therapeutic skills. In this section we are going to examine three of the most useful: 1. empathy 2. paraphrasing 3. perception checking In addition to their importance to therapeutic listening, you will find that these skills can be applied effectively to a variety of communication situations. As you develop and practice these skills, be sure to analyze and assess the therapeutic responses you compose. Through practice, you will learn to replace an inappropriate response with an appropriate one. Empathy Empathy is a common term that you probably have heard throughout your life, but not everyone is clear on what it is or how to achieve it. Most of us, however, realize that we should strive for empathy, especially in our close interpersonal relationships. Let's first look at some definitions for empathy and then we'll look at how to develop this skill. If you review the psychology and communication literature, you will find many definitions for empathy. Here are just a few. In psychology, empathy is commonly defined as an "awareness of the thoughts and feelings of another person; the capacity to understand and in some measure share another person's state of mind" (Goldenson, 1970. p. 395). Another definition is provided by communication scholars Adler, Rosenfeld, and Proctor (2003, p. 379): empathy is "the ability to project oneself into another person's point of view in an attempt to experience the other person's thoughts and feelings." Both definitions basically characterize empathy as the ability to walk in another person's shoes. It is impossible to achieve complete empathy because we are unable to enter another person's world and experience life from her unique perspective. However, just because we are not able to achieve complete success does not diminish our responsibility to try to experience what another person is thinking and feeling. Developing empathy is an essential skill needed for therapeutic listening. Brownell (2002) distinguishes among three different types of empathy: cognitive, perceptive, and behavioral. Cognitive empathy involves your ability to mentally perceive the world as another individual views it. Perceptive empathy entails your skill at properly interpreting the nonverbal behavior, context, and underlying emotions of another person. Behavioral empathy relates to your proficiency at verbally and nonverbally communicating to the other person that you are being attentive and that you care. Being proficient in each category of empathy is necessary in order to achieve a greater degree of empathy in your relationships. If you achieve cognitive and perceptive empathy, but lack behavioral empathy, the source may not realize that you are truly listening and understanding his message. As a result, he may terminate the conversation or not fully disclose the burden he is carrying. If you possess cognitive and behavioral empathy, but lack perceptive, you are probably missing many important aspects of the message that are subtly communicated through the context and nonverbal cues. We all experience barriers that keep us from obtaining a high level of empathy in some relationships. Making assumptions in conversations is a very common obstacle. Some assumptions in conversations are necessary, even helpful (such as what conversation style a person may use), but assumptions are counterproductive when they are unexplored and when they do not allow you to see another person's point of view (Nichols, 1995). If you want to achieve empathy, you need to resist the assumption that you know what other people are going to say. When you make assumptions, you generally risk jumping to conclusions. Jumping to conclusions often leads to cutting others off. You may not realize it, but this is often done in conversations in order to gain control. How can you achieve empathy when you don't allow the person to share her message? In order to be supportive you should not try to predict or exceed the source's expression of emotions. Empathy is an important skill. It creates a bond between communicators and promotes caring. However, it is not an easy skill to develop. It requires effort and practice. Wolvin and Coakley (1986) suggest three useful steps for developing empathy. First they suggest that you need to learn about the other person. If you truly want to empathize with someone, you have to know him. What are his likes, dislikes, cultural backgrounds, values, attitudes, and current situation? They point out that self-disclosure must take place in order for you to gain this knowledge. You need to promote a positive, trusting atmosphere and share some of yourself in order to create an environment where self-disclosure can thrive. When we as listeners engage in self-disclosure, reciprocity is very likely to occur. Their second step for developing empathy is that the speaker and the listener need to experience similar feelings. "If the two have been in a similar situation or if they have been in two completely different situations but have experienced similar feelings, they can often achieve a high degree of empathy" (Wolvin & Coakley, 1986, p. 282). For example, two people, from different families, who lost a parent at an early age, can empathize because they have both experienced feelings of loss, loneliness, hurt, and even anger. Also, a woman whose spouse cheated on her can relate to a girlfriend whose sister betrayed her because they both felt abandoned, resentful, deceived, and disappointed even though they were in different situations. The ability to draw from our own experiences and similar feelings enables us to empathize with others without having gone through the same experience. The third step is to have a strong desire to understand the source or speaker in order to achieve empathy. This may be the most important element of success in therapeutic listening. You need to have the desire to understand and to communicate that desire to the speaker. This is largely done through your nonverbal behaviors. Do you use mutual gaze, head nods, open-body orientation, appropriate touch, attentive facial expressions, and a caring vocal tone? Do you avoid judging, advising, lecturing, sharing your own experiences, topic switching, and name calling in order to serve as a sounding board and truly understand the message and the source (Wolvin & Coakley, 1986)? Think about this... If you just got in a fender bender on the way to work, which response would you prefer to receive from your significant other? First response: After asking what happened, she patiently listens while you explain the incident. As you are speaking via phone you hear an occasional "oh, wow, really or um hum". She follows up with "It sounds like the car will need some repairs, but you seem a little shaken from the incident. I'm just glad you're all right. Is there anything I can do to help you?" Versus the second response: "Were you on your cell phone when the incident occurred because I've been warning you to get a handsfree device for months? You're so easily distracted. I hope you realize that your insurance rates are going to increase, not to mention the cost of a rental while the car gets repaired." Now that you have a better understanding of empathy and the important role that it can play in therapeutic listening, let's take a look at paraphrasing. We will explore what it is, why it is important, and how to appropriately paraphrase. Paraphrasing You may remember from earlier content that paraphrasing is defined as reflecting back to your partner the content and feelings of his message in your own words (Brownell, 2002). Paraphrasing allows you to evaluate your understanding of the speaker's message and her feelings. Clearly this is a skill that can assist you in being empathetic towards others. You may have a false sense of confidence in your understanding of the interaction and thus paraphrasing can be a very useful skill. It is quite different from parroting, which can sound condescending and contrived. A paraphrase should include the following: • the general gist of the message the speaker delivered, relayed in your words rather than a regurgitation of the speaker's message word for word • your perception of what the speaker is feeling, considering what emotions are attached to the message For example, Sarah states the following to Janis: "I had a fantastic vacation! The weather was perfect and the entire week was so relaxing. I was initially concerned about the cost, but it was money well spent." Janis then paraphrases back to Sarah, "Wow, you look energized. It sounds like you had a great trip. Tranquility can be costly, but it appears that it was worth it." If a colleague says to you, "I hate this job. I keep getting passed over for promotions. My position has slowly evolved into an accounting position and I'm not an accountant! I'm not even good with numbers. I didn't apply for an accounting position." A paraphrase would sound something like this: "What I hear you saying is that you're really unhappy in your current position as a result of the changes that our department has undergone. The skills that your position now requires are not your strengths and as a result you are not getting the promotions that you've applied for." Compare the previous paraphrase to the following comfort statement: "It's not fair that they've changed your position. I'm sorry they've done that to you." Which statement would you prefer? Trenholm and Jensen (2004) note that it is a natural inclination to provide comfort rather than to paraphrase, but you need to gain understanding before you can provide adequate comfort. Cahn and Tubbs (1983) reveal three benefits of paraphrasing. First, it lets the speaker know that you understand his or her feelings as well as the content of the message. Second, paraphrasing encourages the speaker to elaborate on her message and enables the listener to gain further insights. Third, it reveals that you are open rather than judgmental, helping to promote more self-disclosure and trust. Think about this... Have you ever used paraphrasing in a work situation when you were trying to understand a message (comprehensive listening)? Or, have you used paraphrasing when listening to a persuasive argument (critical listening) to ensure you understood the speaker's arguments? Paraphrasing is a technique that is not limited to therapeutic listening. It also may be applied to other listening purposes. Paraphrasing is commonly used in comprehensive and critical situations. Using this skill may seem odd or awkward at first, but it is a useful tool that helps improve your listening effectiveness. Trenholm and Jensen (2004) recommend that you vary the first line of your paraphrase to avoid sounding repetitious, awkward, and trite. As you practice this skill, it will become more natural and you will be able to see the benefits it provides firsthand. We'll now examine another skill useful to therapeutic listening: perception checking. Perception Checking Our perceptions of the words and actions of others are often wrong. Because verbal communication is often ambiguous and nonverbal messages may carry a variety of meanings, it is easy to misinterpret the messages we receive. As you may recall from our previous discussion of the definition of listening, the International Listening Association's (ILA) Web site defines listening as "the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken and/or nonverbal messages. (1996)" We often need assistance to appropriately construct meaning from the spoken and/or nonverbal messages we receive from others. Perception checking is a tool to assist us in accurately interpreting messages. It also provides a response (the last portion of ILA's definition) to the messages that you receive. Perception checking is defined as the process of clarifying your interpretation of a message, behavior, circumstances, or emotion to reduce uncertainty. "The goal of perception checking is not to prove that your initial perception is correct, but to further explore the thoughts and feelings of the other person" (Interpersonal skills, 2004). Using this simple technique helps to reduce misunderstandings. According to Adler and Towne (2003), there are three basic steps involved in perception checking: 1. Provide an objective description of the other person's behavior. 2. Present a minimum of two plausible interpretations of the person's behavior. 3. Ask for assistance on how to accurately interpret the behavior. All three portions of the perception-checking message should be directed to the person to whom you are speaking. By presenting at least two plausible interpretations you are making it less likely that the other person will become defensive and it suggests that you are open minded. Requesting assistance on how to ultimately interpret the behavior demonstrates your desire to truly understand the situation. For example Bill, the supervisor, calls Dave, his subordinate and delivers the following message: "Dave, you've been late to work eight times last month (#1). Your tardiness leads me to believe that you don't value your job or maybe there are extenuating circumstances that I'm not aware of (#2)? What's going on (#3)?" Using perception checking enables you to be less judgmental. Perception checking and paraphrasing are both tools to gain understanding and insights from the speaker. Paraphrasing focuses more on the content of the communication and the emotions while perception checking tends to be more behavior-based and seeks to understand the speaker's motives and emotions. Can you tell what is wrong with the following example of perception checking? "Cindy, you rudely and thoughtlessly neglected to return my phone calls. I'm wondering if I've done something to make you mad or have you just been busy? Why haven't you returned my calls?" The problem with the previous example is that the behavior is not described in an objective manner. The words rudely and thoughtlessly are not objective and will likely lead to defensiveness on the part of the receiver. Although there are three basics steps to perception checking, under certain circumstances you may find that a modified "perception check," which omits a portion of the technique, to be effective (Adler, Rosenfeld and Proctor, 2003). In some situations it may not be necessary to describe the behavior, or only one interpretation may be warranted in conjunction with a request for interpretation assistance. Wolvin and Coakley (1996) conceptualize perception checking as having the listener share her interpretation of the sender's feelings and requesting verification of whether her perception is correct. An example of this approach would be: "You seem really angry about not receiving the promotion. Am I correct?" The source may reply that he is disappointed and frustrated because he feels that he earned the promotion. The perception check enables you to see that you were incorrectly labeling feelings of disappointment and frustration as anger. When you are able to appropriately identify the feelings of the speaker, you are more likely to create empathy. In order for perception checking to be effective, it is also important that your nonverbal behavior be consistent with your verbal behavior. This admonition directly relates to Brownell's (2002) conceptualization of behavioral empathy presented above, which argues that you must demonstrate your concern for others behaviorally (it's not enough to experience it internally). A condescending glance or slightly sarcastic tone will undercut your carefully worded message. When a discrepancy exists between verbal and nonverbal cues, we have a tendency to believe the nonverbal cues. Nonverbal congruency is essential in order to successfully engage in perception checking (Adler & Towne, 2003). Perception checking is more effective in low-context cultures than in high-context cultures. As you will recall from our previous discussion, low-context cultures rely heavily on verbal communication in interactions, and messages are expected to be descriptive as well as clear. In contrast, high-context cultures rely heavily upon the setting and nonverbal cues to derive meaning from the interaction. They are also much more comfortable with ambiguity than are low-contact cultures. "High-context communicators are more likely to regard candid approaches like perception checking as potentially embarrassing, preferring instead less-direct ways of understanding one another" (Adler, Rosenfeld & Proctor 2003, p. 72). It is important to take into consideration the culture of the individual before engaging in perception checking. Critical Listening What is Critical Listening and Why Is It Important? Critical listening is listening to comprehend and then to evaluate the credibility of the speaker and the validity of his or her message (Wolvin & Coakley, 1996). We accept or reject the messages we receive based on reliable criteria that we have developed and repeatedly used. For example, How reliable is the source? How current is the information? We most frequently use this higher-level listening purpose when the speaker's purpose is to persuade—to try to get us to feel, believe, act a certain way, or all of these (i.e., to influence us to change our attitudes, beliefs, and actions). You should note that this high-level listening purpose builds on the skills we covered for comprehensive listening. Again, we likely do not have to go beyond ourselves to answer the question, "Why is critical listening important?" Recall the people who tried to persuade you just yesterday. Who were they? What were they attempting to get you to do or believe? Perhaps the coworker tried to influence your feelings about the newly appointed supervisor by saying, "A lot of people liked Adam in his previous position. He increased productivity 20 percent and employee morale. He's clearly qualified for the position. I think he'll make a great boss." Or, perhaps a 12-year-old stranger knocked on your door and made this appeal: "I saw my cat go into your back yard. Would you open your gate and let me get her?" Or, perhaps you were moved by the diet ads that showed the amazing before and after pictures promoting the effectiveness of their pills. Interestingly, a 20/20 expose revealed faulty strategies used by the makers of the diet supplement Xenadrine that included pictures taken of a woman just after giving birth and a competitive body builder that was paid to rapidly gain weight and then begin an intense workout regimen and strict diet (Slim chance, 2004). Or, did you pause to consider the Web site that claimed that HIV was caused by a flatworm and could be cured through the use of herbs. Luckily, the person responsible for the Web site was charged with consumer fraud (Barnett, 2001). Or, did your sister pressure you to share the expense of hearing aids for your 92-year-old mother, who does not want hearing aids? Indeed, we interact daily with speakers who are trying to persuade us. If we are to make judicious decisions regarding whether to accept or reject their messages, we need to develop our comprehensive and critical-listening skills. Skills Involved in Critical Listening Understanding the process of persuasion will help you monitor your critical-listening behaviors and establish sound criteria for evaluating whether a speaker or a message should be believed. Persuasion is defined as "Communication intended to influence the acts, beliefs, attitudes, and values of others" (Freeley, 1993, p. 466). As you are exposed to a sequence of persuasive messages over time, you are likely to change your behavior. It is important to mention that mental changes generally precede physical changes. For example, after repeated exposure to information that smoking is harmful to your health, you may quit smoking (the physical manifestation), but a mental change regarding smoking took place before you actually quit. Many of the skills involved in critical listening are based on understanding how people attempt to persuade us. Here, we are going to examine three of the most common tools of persuasion, ones that have been discussed for centuries. The classical Greek rhetorician Aristotle divided persuasive messages into three components—those relevant to (1) ethos, (2) logos, and (3) pathos. To be an effective critical listener, you should learn sound criteria for evaluating each of these components. Ethos Let's start by considering how a speaker builds his or her credibility. With this knowledge you will be a better informed listener and be more aware of how your perception of a speaker changes as you listen to his or her message. Ethos or speaker credibility can be established in a variety of ways. In addition to what a speaker says and how he or she says it, a communicator's credibility is greatly affected by who the audience perceives the speaker to be (Sprague & Stuart, 2003). Today ethos is commonly referred to as charisma or image. "Modern social scientists have tried to isolate the characteristics that distinguish the most credible speakers from others. Their list includes competence, dynamism, intention, personality, intelligence, authoritativeness, extroversion, trustworthiness, composure, and sociability" (Sprague & Stuart, 2003, p. 253). By demonstrating these qualities speakers can improve their image and increase their chances of persuading their audiences. Think about this... Of the ten qualities identified by social scientists (competence, dynamism, intention, personality, intelligence, authoritativeness, extroversion, trustworthiness, composure, or sociability), which elements are most important to you when you are listening to a persuasive message? Scholars often describe credibility as having three different phases. Credibility may be established before, during, and after the delivery of a message. Credibility established before a presentation is often referred to as prior ethos or extrinsic credibility (Jaffe, 1995). When you attend a presentation about cancer prevention delivered by an oncologist, the speaker has extrinsic credibility on the subject. It is typical for speakers to be asked to provide their qualifications and background to the audience. This information is commonly used to promote an event or speaker. Introductions also are frequently used to highlight a speaker's relevant accomplishments. Past interactions with an audience may affect your perception of a speaker's credibility. Even when you've never met the speaker, information regarding her demeanor in coordinating the event and the small talk that takes place before the speaker's presentation will alter your perceptions (Sprague & Stuart, 2003). Speakers use various methods for increasing their credibility when delivering a presentation. Credibility that speakers obtain as a result of the competence that they exude during their presentations is known as demonstrated ethos (Jaffe, 1995). Personally sharing their credentials in their presentations is one method of establishing demonstrated ethos. When discussing drunkdriving prevention, a speaker may state, "Through my 17 of years experience on the local police force I've watched…" or "I generally issue 15-20 alcohol-related citations per week." The more knowledgeable you are about the speaker's qualifications and experience on the subject, the more weight you generally give to her arguments and claims. Mary Fisher's speech entitled "A Whisper of AIDS," delivered at the Republican National Convention on August 12, 1992, clearly reveals her credibility on the topic. I would never have asked to be HIV positive, but I believe that in all things there is a purpose; and I stand before you and before the nation gladly.... In the context of an election year, I ask you, here in this great hall, or listening in the quiet of your home, to recognize that the AIDS virus is not a political creature. It does not care whether you are Democrat or Republican; it does not ask whether you are black or white, male or female, gay or straight, young or old. Tonight I represent an AIDS community whose members have been reluctantly drafted from every segment of American society. Though I am white and a mother, I am one with a black infant struggling with tubes in a Philadelphia hospital. Though I am female and contracted this disease in marriage and enjoy the warm support of my family, I am one with the lonely gay man sheltering a flickering candle from the cold wind of his family's rejection. As a listener you need to be aware that speakers also increase their credibility by using sound evidence, valid statistics, expert testimony, and relevant examples. Using strong evidence has an especially powerful impact on listeners when it is done early in a presentation, because first impressions are lasting and difficult to alter (Sprague & Stuart, 2003). Speakers frequently cite the sources of their information to demonstrate their knowledge of a topic to their listeners. For example, a speaker might say "According to the Chief of Police, whom I interviewed…" or "After reading numerous current articles from both political parties, I've discovered that they all agree on one point…." Organization is another area that affects our perceptions. Listeners perceive speakers as being more credible when their material is well organized. It is interesting to note that listeners tend to view speakers whose presentations are disorganized as uninformed rather than disorganized. Being aware of how credibility is established will assist you in making more accurate assessments of others in your critical-listening encounters. Those speakers who are dynamic are perceived to be more credible. Although being physically attractive contributes to being perceived as dynamic, many other factors play a role. Speakers who use vocal variety, consistent eye contact, appropriate facial expressions, and powerful language are also perceived to be dynamic or possess charisma (Brownell, 2002). Think about this... Reflect on your past listening experiences where you perceived the speakers to be the most dynamic. Did their level of physical attractiveness influence you? How does physical attractiveness influence your listening and your perceptions of charisma? Do you listen longer or more intently if you perceive a person to be charismatic? How important is the component of dynamism in your assessment of overall credibility? Trust is an important component of credibility. Brownell (2002) mentions that a person's appearance, nonverbal behavior, as well as past dealings with an individual all affect the listener's perceptions of trust. People who verbalize the limitations of their evidence, present opposing viewpoints, and openly admit a personal interest in the topic are generally perceived as being more trustworthy (Sprague & Stuart, 2003). Establishing goodwill is another technique that speakers use to connect with their audience members. Goodwill indicates the speaker has a genuine concern for the audience members and that what matters to audience members matters to the speaker (Jaffe, 1995). Goodwill shows that the presenter identifies with you. It is often referred to as co-orientation. When you feel like someone has your best interest at heart or that they are similar to you, you are more likely to view them as credible. After you have finished listening to the speaker's message, you make a final evaluation regarding his or her credibility; this is known as terminal credibility (Brownell, 2002). When a person has finished speaking, you review his or her message, delivery, passion, arguments, and evidence. Your final assessment of the speaker may be higher or lower than the extrinsic credibility you perceived before listening to the individual speak. Prior ethos and/or demonstrated ethos enables speakers to alter your impressions of them. As you are more aware of how your perceptions of credibility are created and influenced, you will be better informed to make more accurate analyses in the future. An informed listener isn't easily fooled or influenced. Logos In addition to evaluating their perceptions of the speaker, listeners also receive and appraise the logos or content/logic of a message. Thus, we need to spend some time discussing elements included in content or logic appeals. We will first examine various types of evidence and then we will review the most common forms of reasoning that you encounter as a listener. Evidence is frequently used to support a statement about a product, policy, action, or opinion. It may take many forms. Some common types of evidence include factual illustrations, specific instances, statistics, analogies, expert testimony, and definitions. Type of Evidence Description Example Factual illustration - a detailed story that helps support the speaker's thesis Example As a listener, you should ask yourself if the illustration is clearly related to the topic and if it typical rather than an atypical example. Specific instance - a brief fact Example - less-developed piece of support Several specific instances usually follow a factual illustration. Statistics - claims that use figures and number to reveal relationships between phenomena Examples - show relationships between two variables - used to establish trends, describe segments, or illustrate magnitude As you listen to the speaker, you need to determine if the statistics are from a reliable, current source. Expert testimony - statement made by a person who is considered an authority on a particular topic or subject area Example - the expert's qualifications are usually revealed and direct quotations are frequently used As a listener, you need to determine if a quotation is taken out of context and if the individual is truly qualified to speak authoritatively on the topic. Analogy - makes a comparison between two things, one that is Examples understood by the audience and one that is not - may be figurative or literal - frequently used to help make the technical or complex simple - often use the word "like" or "as" Definitions - provide clarity to listeners Example A simple dictionary definition, operational definition (which explains the steps in a process), or etymological definition (which reveals how a word is derived from a root word in an earlier culture) may be used to familiarize the listener with word or concept (Sprague & Stuart, 2003). (Unless otherwise indicated, examples above were provided by the AIDS in Africa: An Orphaned Continent Web site, 2004.) Analogies are not as common as other types of support and you may not be as familiar with them. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1964) eloquently uses an analogy in his famous "I have a dream" speech: In a sense we have come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check which has come back marked "insufficient funds." Think about this... Of the six types of evidence (factual illustration, specific instance, statistics, expert testimony, analogy, and definitions), which do you find most convincing? Are you enticed by the details of a factual illustration or are you moved by the pervasive nature of a problem when it is revealed through statistics? Does expert testimony provided by an individual that you believe to be highly credible sway you or do you prefer a basic analogy? Or maybe you find definitions to be the most useful as a listener? When you listen to evidence presented in a message, you need to carefully determine whether it is sound. In other words, you need to carefully evaluate the information to determine if it is logical and strong or weak and flawed. Some questions to ask include (Freeley, 1993, p. 121): • • • • • • • • • • • Is Is Is Is Is Is Is Is Is Is Is there enough evidence? the evidence clear? the evidence consistent with other known evidence? the evidence consistent within itself? the evidence verifiable? the source of the evidence competent? the source of the evidence unprejudiced? the source of the evidence reliable? the evidence relevant? the evidence statistically sound? the evidence the most current available? Without realizing it, we use many forms of reasoning throughout the day. Reasoning is defined as the mental process that the speaker uses to link evidence to the claim that he or she is making (Wolvin & Coakley, 1996). We use evidence and the way we put arguments together to make everyday decisions such as which movie to rent or whether to skip lunch as well as to make more profound decisions such as who to vote for and which home to buy. It is important to know how to make a reasoned decision and to determine the type of reasoning a speaker is using. This is a crucial skill in your role as a critical listener. There are many different types of reasoning; we are going to explore the four most commonly used types. Form of Reasoning Description Example Assessing the Soundness of the Reasoning Causal - demonstrates that one event leads to another An increase in the use of child safety seats leads to a decrease in infant mortality. - Is the connection valid? - Are there other causes? - Is the evidence strong enough? Deductive - applies a generalization to a specific case - includes a major premise, minor premise, and a conclusion Major premise: All mentally incompetent individuals are unfit to make binding agreements. Minor premise: Susan Smith is - Is the premise correct/accurate? - Does the conclusion logically follow? mentally incompetent. Conclusion: Susan Smith is unfit to make binding agreements. Inductive - uses a series of observations to form a generalization Tin conducts heat. - Are the cases sufficient? Lead conducts heat. - Are the cases representative/typical? Copper conducts heat. - Are the cases current? Gold conducts heat. Thus all metals conduct heat. Analogy - draws conclusions regarding unknown events, based on knowledge of past events Today is just like other holiday weekends, when traffic is heavy on the highway. - Does the comparison make sense? - Does it elucidate the concept? - makes a comparison of two similar cases and infers what is true of one is true of another (Freeley, 1993; Jaffe, 1995; Sprague & Stuart, 2003) The ability to identify the type of reasoning that the speaker is using allows you as a listener to better analyze the arguments she is presenting. Taking the time to carefully examine the validity of the messages that you receive will enable you to make better, more informed decisions. Faulty arguments and weak evidence will not easily manipulate you. Persuasive messages may not only contain logical reasoning and sound evidence, but they may attempt to appeal to your emotions. Even when compelling evidence is provided, it may be the appeal to your sense of compassion, patriotism, or fairness that ultimately compels you to believe the speaker and take action. Next, we discuss the emotional aspect of persuasive argument. Pathos Pathos entails an appeal to the listeners' emotions through the use of language, passionate delivery and motivational appeals. Again, being aware of the techniques that others use will enable you to more accurately judge the true merit of their arguments and not simply be carried away in the emotion of the event. Emotionally laden language, connotative words, vivid language, and figurative speech are often used to convince the listener. For example, speakers more frequently use the connotative word "home" rather than the word "house" because the word home is likely conjure positive, visual images of where you live. President John Kennedy's 1961 inaugural speech uses vivid language and connotative words to inspire his listeners (Jaffe, 1995). And so, my fellow Americans; ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens of the world; ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man. Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. With a good conscience our only secure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us go forth to lead the land we love, asking His blessings and His help, but knowing what here on earth God's work must truly be done. As a listener you will hear visual descriptions intended to arouse feelings of fear, sympathy, and curiosity. These stories most frequently take the form of factual illustrations (mentioned above). The excerpt below of President Ronald Reagan's 1984 remarks at the U.S. Ranger Monument on the 40th Anniversary of D-Day effectively uses a factual illustration to appeal to our feelings of patriotism and gratitude for those who served in World War II. I think I know what you may be thinking right now—thinking "we were just part of a bigger effort; everyone was brave that day." Well, everyone was. You remember the story of Bill Millin of the 51st Highlanders? Forty years ago today, British troops were pinned down near a bridge, waiting desperately for help. Suddenly, they heard the sound of bagpipes, and some thought they were dreaming. Well, they weren't. They looked up and saw Bill Millin with his bagpipes, leading the reinforcements and ignoring the smack of the bullets into the ground around him. Speakers often display the emotions that they want their listeners to feel (Brownell, 2002). For example, a stockbroker's delivery will exude enthusiasm as she tells you about a new stock her firm is offering to clients. An AIDS activist will exude anger that more research funding isn't directed at prevention and treatment programs. You need to be aware that when a speaker displays a sincere emotion you are more likely to elicit that same emotion. Another tool critical listeners should be aware of is the use of emotional content or psychological appeals. Often speakers try to persuade you by appealing to your emotions. Being aware of the tactics that speakers use to arouse your emotions will assist you in judging whether the appeal is appropriate or inappropriate. Emotional and motivational appeals commonly used by communicators include the following (Devito, 1990): • adventure (the need for exciting experiences) • achievement (the desire to be successful in whatever you do) • altruism (unselfishness, goodwill, and the desire to help others) • fear (fear of the loss of wealth, beauty, health, family, and friendships) • financial gain (financial wealth) • guilt (feelings of personal responsibility for an offense) • individuality and conformity (opposite motives that pull us in separate directions, e.g., the need to be unique versus the need to fit in) • love and affiliation (the need to be loved and to love others as well as the desire to connect with others) • pleasure (the need to be gratified and experience enjoyment) • power, control, and influence (power over your life, control over people, events, and the environment, and the ability to influence others) • self-actualization (the need to work towards our highest ideals and be what you were meant to be) • self-esteem and approval (feelings of self-worth and obtaining the approval of others) • sex appeal (feelings of being desirable and physically attractive) • status (status gained from an occupation, wealth, knowledge, athletic ability, or talent) Think about this... As you listen to a message, what emotional or motivational appeals do you find most persuasive? Why? Which appeals are least likely to influence you? Why? The motives listed above often operate collectively. For example, you may want to succeed at work in order to obtain financial gain so that you can achieve the status that you desire. Motives also vary in the influence that they have on people and they do not automatically lead to behavior on the part of the listener. For example, just because a salesperson tries to convince you that you should purchase something because "you work hard and you deserve it" doesn't mean that you'll be persuaded to buy it, especially if you are financially conservative. In order to maintain control of your life and not allow others to control you, you need to make sound decisions. Being responsible critical listeners involves (1) monitoring our thoughts, feelings, and actions while others are attempting to influence us and (2) applying sound criteria to evaluate the personal, logical, and emotional appeals others are employing. Now that we've examined therapeutic and critical listening, we will explore the final higher-level listening purpose, appreciative listening.
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