RUNNING HEAD: Listening Journal 1
Karen Malone
Listening Journal
November 18, 2014
Professor Burgoyne
SPCH 470
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Entry #1 Discriminatory Listening Experience
Date:
November 2, 2014
Description of Listening Experience:
My first listening experience took place at a local community theatre approximately an hour
before a production started. I observed actors, crew members and staff interact. First, I observed
one actor who walked quickly toward the sound booth, which suggested that she was late picking
up her microphone. Shortly after, I could hear doors shuts, footsteps, and voices as a multitude of
actors filtered in from both sides of the stage, indicating that it was time for mic checks. The
sound technician gave directions to the actors over his microphone. As the technician prompted
them, each actor took turns singing various tunes. During the process, all the actors laughed, and
clapped as if they were egging each other on for fun. The pitch, timbre, and tempo of their
voices, along with their accompanying body language, suggested their enjoyment of the
interaction. This was particularly evident with the youngest actor chose to sing Whitney
Houston’s song “I Will Always Love You.” During the process, I could hear chattering among
various actors, but I could not I understand the conversations. Different actors clapped their
hands, laughed, and shook their heads. After the mic checks concluded, there was a moment of
silence, and then the actors simultaneously called a staff member to the stage. As an actor
approached the staff member, she expressed how much actors appreciated her. I also saw the
actor hand the staff member an envelope as she mentioned that the actor’s had “chipped in” to
get the staff member a gift certificate. The staff member thanked them. This was quickly
interrupted by the conductor who punched a few chords on the keyboard in preparation for the
actors’ vocal warmups. The laughing and talking stopped; the actors’ nonverbal language
completely changed. Their bodies and faces seemed to become more focused. As they went over
their vocal warmups, some actors stretched their lips and face and some stretched their bodies.
Others either used hand movements to coordinator their body to their voice, or they shifted their
bodies from side to side to keep the beat. Once they completed their vocal warmups, the actors
quickly left the stage, suggesting that they were in a hurry to get to the dressing rooms. Then, as I
walked through the house, I could hear a motor revving. Based on my previous experience, I
knew that the staff member had turned on the fog machine. The sound was shortly followed by
the smell of fog juice as the stage became cloudy. Then I could hear the stage manager close the
grand curtain. This was followed by a squeaky noise as a crew member was presetting her drops.
All these efforts reminded me that the house was about to open to the public.
Purpose and Behavior as a Listener:
I listened in a discriminatory manner as a spectator; thus, I chose to listen for the sake of using
my senses to identify different stimuli, which may improve my discriminatory skills.
Accordingly, Wolvin and Coakley suggest that listeners must “distinguish the auditory and
visual stimuli… before [they] can process the messages at any other level” (1996, p. 152).
During this listening exercise, I sat quietly in the theatre where I could hear, see, and listen to the
actors, the stage manager, the crew members, and the staff as they socialized, and as they
prepared for the show. I selected a seat, which was located directly under a light, so that I could
more easily observe and take notes. So that I would not get distracted by my note taking, I
decided to write down keywords, phrases, abbreviations, and symbols rather than full
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sentences. Because I was a spectator, this listening experience was linear in nature. Yet, even
though I did not participate in the conversations, I did respond privately. Thus, I giggled, smiled,
or shook my head when I felt compelled to.
Evaluation of Listening Strengths and Weaknesses:
My weaknesses included external and internal distractions. First, because I was cold, I began
rubbing my arms to warm myself. Next, the seat was also a little uncomfortable, and I found
myself shifting my body several times. Additionally, I thought about what tasks I had left to
complete before the show, and I thought about what information I needed for this writing
assignment, which occasionally interrupted the incoming messages. My strengths are identifying
and decoding vocal cues and environmental sounds. Such are “discriminatory auditory skills,”
which individuals "develop, refine, acquire, and cultivate throughout [their] life” (Skills Involved
in Discriminative Listening, n.d.). Thus, because of my frame of reference, I could discriminate
among different vocal cues, such as the timbre, pitch, tempo, and volume. These variances
implied specific moods, such as amusement, friendliness, appreciativeness, and seriousness. I
could also detect specific sounds from the equipment without a visual cue. Thus, the rail system
squeals loudly, the fog machine idles consistently, and the grand curtain rubs intermittently.
What I Learned About My Listening:
After reading the “receiving” function of the listening process (Wolvin, n.d.), I decided to choose
a listening environment which would use my many of my sensory receptors. During this
experience, I could detect various moods from nonverbal language. For instance, one actor
seemed amused as she laughed; further, her vocal pitch changed, which complimented her hand
and arm motions. Absorbing the enthusiasm, the child actor seemed to seek approval. His voice
became brighter and his body became loose as if he were trying to impress his peers. I also
learned that by sitting quietly and listening that I could detect messages that I may have been
otherwise unaware of. Because of this experience, I became more sensitive to incoming stimuli.
To illustrate: without a visual cue, I could discriminate among the different types of footsteps.
One actor wore tap shoes, which clicked with each step. Several actors wore dance shoes;
however, only one actor seemed to march with each step. Wearing ballet shoes, one actor
stepped quietly on the balls of her feet. Yet another actor wore flip flops, which made quick
snapping sounds, and another wore platform shoes, which made hard thump sounds.
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Entry #2: Comprehensive Listening Experience
Date:
November 9, 2014
Description of Listening Experience:
I watched the documentary, Video Games, The Movie (Snead, 2014), which my husband
selected from Netflix. The documentary focused on the evolution of gaming, starting from early
innovations. I was interested because early gaming systems, such as the Atari and Nintendo, had
impacted my childhood and early adulthood. However, while we were in the comfort of our
living room, I was mentally and physically tired because it was late in the evening. My husband
and I had just returned from seeing the movie Interstellar, which was over three hours long with
previews. Plus, we had driven a long distance the day before. The documentary editors used
various elements to send the message, including illustrations, pictures, old commercial clips,
narrations, interviewees, and timelines. However, it became monotonous at times. The show
went through the timeline and proceeded to and from the year 2013 numerous times. Each time,
the narrator, Sean Astin, introduced a new topic, such as the innovation of the cloud, the decline
in the early video industry, the invention of video tournaments, and controversy of game
violence. Then the documentary quickly jumped from interviewee to interviewee to various
commercial clips, video clips, photographs, and illustrations. The film editor used quotes from
famous people, such as Bill Gates, Mohutma Ghandy, and Nikola Tesla, as major transitions.
The editor also attempted to use digitalized voice-overs, video-themed music, volume, and
tempo to propel the story. However, the editor added awkwardly long pauses between
transitions, which suggested to me that the documentary had ended when it had not. And the
video-game themed music, along with the narrator’s digitalized voice-over, became irritating. In
addition, the viewers do they hear what questions the interviewees are being asked; and the
documentary presents the interviewee individually; they are all seated, and they use hand
gestures, eye behavior, facial expressions, or vocal inflections to emphasize their messages. At
one point, however, one interviewee kept his hands clasped in his lap, which suggested that he
didn’t know what else to do with his hands.
Purpose/s and behavior as a listener:
I watched this documentary in the privacy of my home for comprehensive purposes. I chose to
watch the documentary later in the evening even though I was tired. I sat upright on my sofa, so
that I could be attentive to the documentary. Further, I listened and watched to understand how
video games have evolved and how they have changed societal norms. I had not prepared for this
listening experience, as suggested in our module (Week 4: Preparing for the Lecture/Seminar,
n.d.). Further, although I am an avid note-taker, I initially did not take notes. These factors may
have affected my memory recall. Still, I actively listened; as the show progressed, my husband
and I often discussed what we were watching. For instance, my husband read the quotations out
loud. I also explained how similar some of the information was to a previous computer class.
Overall, the visual cues of the video, the discussion with my husband, and my previous
experiences may have improved my memory in spite of being tired and not taking
notes Subsequently, however, approximately an hour into the movie, I could not maintain focus
on the documentary and had to quit watching it. I returned to the documentary at 7 a.m. the
following morning. I was well rested. I watched the remaining 40 minutes of the documentary
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alone, and I took notes (outline format) for the remainder of the documentary.
Evaluation of Strengths and Weaknesses
My main weaknesses were noises, including mental and physical tiredness. Yet, with conscious
effort, I was able to refocus my attention and become more attentive to the messenger for a short
while. As the listening experience was unplanned, I did not make preparations nor did I take
notes at first. However, I did identify the documentaries format, including the transitions and the
main ideas, which allowed me to anticipate the subsequent segments and recall the information
more easily. I also discussed the information with my husband, which reinforced my
memory. Finally, from a contextual standpoint, I related to the material on two levels: 1) I
remember the early gaming systems, and 2) I identified with some of the computer terminology
which was used to discuss modern gaming systems.
What I Learned about My Listening:
I was interested in the topic; however, I learned that I have some difficulty comprehensively
listening late in the evening, particularly when I am tired. While I can consciously focus on and
actively listen to messages, my attention span may become limited when I am tired. Hence, after
45 minutes, the documentary became increasingly hard for me to watch and listen to. I attempted
to refocus for another 15 minutes; however, I became incredibly sleepy, and I decided to stop
watching the documentary. I also realized that I should have taken notes early on, which may
have helped me maintain attention even though I was tired. Thus, according to Wolvin and
Coakley, “[n]otetaking can improve our ability to concentrate” (Wolvin & Coakley, Listening,
1996, p. 239).
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Entry #3: Comprehensive Listening Experience
Date:
November 15, 2014
Description of Listening Experience:
I chose to watch a communication lecture, which was uploaded on YouTube. In this video, Dr.
Teresa Pierce, a professor at the University Of Ontario Institute Of Technology, presents the
lecture Language & Gender (2011). During the 41 minute lecture, the camera angle remained
fixed on Dr. Pierce’s face and her upper body. Her upper body was open to the audience even
though she was seated behind a desk. Her laptop was to her left; and a power point presentation,
which also to her left, was projected on the white board. During the lecture, the professor used a
lot of facial expressions and hand movements to suggest various nonverbal messages. For
instance, the professor’s eyes pointed up when she was thinking of an example relating to the
topic, and she also used hand motions to emphasize different comments. In one instance, she
counted with her fingers when she listed items, and she made a circular shape with her hands to
emphasize the word “all.” She also used vocal inflections to emphasize the importance of
specific keywords. However, several of her nonverbal behaviors were distracting. For instance,
she often looked down to read her notes from her laptop, she made a lisp noise when changing
pages, and she sometimes used filler words.
Purpose and Behavior as a Listener:
Because I am a communication major, I must take various communication courses, including
Communication and Gender. To supplement my understanding of my course material, I chose to
watch a lecture on gender and communication for comprehensive purposes. I also chose to watch
it around 3 pm, when I was more focused and alert. I was not only interested in the topic, but I
was also willing to actively listen. I began watching the lecture on my laptop in my bedroom,
where it was conformable, quiet, and well lit. I sat in an upright position, so that I could
efficiently take notes. During this listening environment, I used the outline style note-taking
technique.
Evaluation of Strengths and Weaknesses:
According to the article Listening Understanding, and Misunderstanding, contextual,
physiological, psychological factors can affect the listening experience (Wolvin, n.d., pp. 46). For instance, from a contextual standpoint, because I had been exposed to the lecture
material previously, I was more receptive to receiving the professor’s message. In addition, I had
chosen to watch the lecture during the afternoon because I am less alert in the early morning and
late evening. While I was focused on the message, I had some physiological or external
influences which distracted me intermittently. For instance, my dog whimpered, my cell phone
rang, and my stomach rumbled. Otherwise, I had removed myself from other external noises.
Finally, I was bothered by some psychological or internal noises, such as thinking about
completing this journal before the deadline, and starting my upcoming final exam in my other
class. Thus, such stress may interfere with listening, according to Dr. James Lynch (Wolvin &
Coakley, 1996, p. 134). However, I was able to tell myself to stop and I refocused my attention.
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What I learned About My Listening:
I learned that I am more attentive in the afternoon than I am in the early morning or late evening.
This experience also reinforced my belief that I could more easily retain and recall the
information if I take notes. This correlates with research which suggests that “notetakers are
better able to recall information than those who do not take notes” (Wolvin & Coakley,
Listening, 1996, p. 239). In addition, because my frame of reference was similar to the sender’s
frame of reference, I was more receptive to accepting the sender and her message— which I
believe also improved my ability remember the information. Hence, the “knowledge” of the
subject matter not only aided the listening experience, it influenced the “selection of information
to process” (Wolvin & Coakley, Listening, 1996, p. 91).
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Concluding Summary:
During these listening exercises, I realized that I must discriminately listen in order to
comprehensively understand the incoming information (Comprehensive Listening, n.d.). Thus, it
is plausible that by improving my discriminative listening skills, I will also improve my
comprehensive listening skills. I also learned that in order to intently listen and effectively
decode an incoming message, I must receive, attend, perceive, interpret, and respond to it, which
are the elements outlined in Wolvin and Coakley’s listening model (Wolvin, n.d.). This process
is necessary when I am listening for discriminatory purposes, or when I am listening for
comprehensive purposes.
I also found that discriminatory listening requires more than hearing—it requires the use of one’s
senses. Thereby, according to Wolvin, listening involves “auditory and visual receptors,” and the
listener’s perception may be influenced by “smell, taste, and touch” (Wolvin, n.d., pp. 1-2). For
instance, I could correctly identify the visual output, sound, and odor which were produced by a
theatrical fog machine. This and future observations may improve my discriminative listening
skills, which correlates with Weaver and Rutherford’s hierarchy. Hence, with practice, I can
better “distinguish specific sounds from background noise,” distinguish the “intensity, pitch,
pattern, and duration” of sounds (Skills Involved in Discriminative Listening, n.d., p. 1), and
“detect and isolate nonverbal cues” (p. 3). For instance, with practice, I could learn to not only
detect if the fog machine was not functioning properly, but I could also identify the actual
problem.
In order to comprehend a message, I must remember the message —at least for a short time.
Thus, by actively listening, I will be more apt to “store” the messages and “recall” them when I
need them. Besides concentrating on the speaker’s message, (Comprehensive Listening, n.d.), I
may use other listening tools, such as s identifying the speaker’s organizational structure
(Listening for Organizational Structure, n.d.), and reviewing the information. (Follow-up after
the Lecture/Seminar, n.d.). For example, when applicable, I identified the speakers’ transitions
and topic sequences during my listening experiences. To follow-up, I also rewrote my notes, as
well as discussed the messages. Finally, although I did not directly communicate during these
listening experiences, I found that I still needed to “attend” to and “respond” to the
communicator, which are steps outlined in Wolvin and Coakley’s model (Wolvin, Listening,
Understanding, and Misunderstanding, n.d.). Thereby, behaviors, such as facial expressions, eye
contact, body movements, and body position (Wolvin & Coakley, Listening, 1996, p. 122),
helped me to focus, and respond indirectly to the communicator. Furthermore, all these efforts
reinforced my understanding of the information, and allowed me to remember the information.
Further, journaling my listening experiences helped me identify my ineffective communication
behaviors. For instance, I am often preoccupied with other thoughts when I am trying to actively
listen to others. While I am willing to listen, my internal messages interrupt the speaker’s
message, and alter my perception of the message. By recognizing my behavioral pattern, I can
consciously alter my behaviors. For instance, I can apply “deep-breathing” techniques before a
listening experience to relieve my stress ( (Wolvin & Coakley, Listening, 1996, p. 134). This
may improve my ability to listen. In addition, I found that my preconceived notions may
interrupt the message. To the contrary, I can make an effort to be more receptive to listening to
the speaker’s message before “jud[ing]” it. (Wolvin & Coakley, 1996, p. 118). Furthermore,
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according to Wolvin, such “[p]ositive listening attitudes are not directed only at the other
communicator. Positive listening attitudes also influence one's self-concept as a listener”
(Wolvin, Listening, Understanding, and Misunderstanding, n.d.). Thus, by listening fully before
reacting or responding, I can more logically “decide to accept or reject [a speaker’s] message”
(p. 119).
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References
Pierce, T. (2011). Language & Gender. University of Ontario Institute of Technology:
Interpersonal Communication class. LiveWire Media Productions. Retrieved Nov. 15,
2014, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnAXn9P6TtY
Snead, J. (2014). Video Game, The Movie. (J. Snead, Director, & S. Astin, Performer) Retrieved
Nov. 9, 2014, from Netflix.com
Week 3: Skills Involved in Discriminative Listening. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 15, 2014, from
University of Maryland University College: SPCH 470 Class: https://learn.umuc.edu/
d2l/le/content/31385/viewContent/1253697/View
Week 4: Comprehensive Listening. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 10, 2014, from University of
Maryland University College; SPCH 470 Class:
https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content/31385/ viewContent/1253708/View
Week 4: Follow-up after the Lecture/Seminar. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 15, 2014, from University
of Maryland University College: SPCH 470 Class: https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/content
/31385/viewContent/1253713/View
Week 4: Listening for Organizational Structure. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 15, 2014, from University
of Maryland Universtity College: SPCH 470 Class: https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/
content/31385/viewContent/1253710/View
Week 4: Preparing for the Lecture/Seminar. (n.d.). Retrieved Nov. 15, 2014, from University of
Maryland University College: SPCH 470 Class: https://learn.umuc.edu/d2l/le/
content/31385/viewContent/1253709/View
Wolvin, A. (n.d.). Listening, Understanding, and Misunderstanding. 21st Century
Communication: A Reference Handbook. Retrieved Oct. 30, 2014, from
http://www.sagepub.com/edwards/study/materials/reference/77593_5.1ref.pdf
Wolvin, A., & Coakley, C. G. (1996). Listening (5th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
What Is Therapeutic Listening and Why Is It Important?
Therapeutic listening is defined as listening to help another person talk through a problem or
concern (Wolvin & Coakley, 1986). Other common terms for this listening purpose
are empathic, empathetic, or active listening. Although it is an important behavior, empathy is
only one behavior essential for listening to help others; another is being actively engaged in the
listening. The term therapeutic listening most accurately reflects this listening purpose because it
includes the concepts of both empathy and active listening. You should not equate therapeutic
listening to psychiatric therapy. As a therapeutic listener, you are not playing the role of an
amateur psychiatrist; rather, you are using listening behaviors to show support to a speaker who
needs to share his concerns or talk through a problem. Of course, if the speaker's concerns are
of a serious psychological nature, you might want to refer him to a professional.
There is clearly a need for therapeutic listening in our society today. Some of us may recognize
the need for therapeutic listening by examining our own personal lives with regards to relational,
marital, health, family, social, career, educational, or other concerns. Others of us may recognize
the need by examining our professional lives, where we may have concerns ranging from
corporate changes (such as downsizing, merging, and restructuring) to changes in our leadership
style from, for example, being a controller, supervisor, and administrator to being a coach,
supporter, and enabler. Hasn't each of us—at some time—needed "someone to talk to"? When
you need to talk through a problem or concern, who most often serves as your listener? Is it a
family member? Friend? Coworker? Someone else?
Perhaps a more important question is this: How effectively does this individual serve as a
therapeutic listener? Unfortunately, many students in listening courses and participants in
listening seminars report that they rarely find—or serve as—effective therapeutic listeners. As a
result of the scarcity of such listeners, they express a two-pronged interest in therapeutic
listening. They see a real need to (1) become better listeners for others who are troubled, and
(2) find better listeners for themselves when they are troubled. Although our purpose is not to
help others become more satisfying listeners for us, we can learn to become more effective
therapeutic listeners for others and, perhaps, indirectly help others by serving as role models for
them.
Think about this...
Have you ever had a rotten day at work and really needed someone with whom you
could share the experience? If so, did you want someone that would listen to you
rather than someone who provided solutions to your problems or offered criticism?
If you were able to find such a person, did you feel better by simply talking through
the ordeal? How did you feel if the listener provided unsolicited advice?
Skills Involved in Therapeutic Listening
The skills involved in therapeutic listening also could be termed "encouraging" skills. When they
are applied effectively, they encourage speakers to express (not suppress) their thoughts and
feelings. And, when essential therapeutic listening attitudes and knowledge are applied, they
send the following message:
I'm interested in you as a person, and I think that what you feel is important. I respect your
thoughts, and even if I don't agree with them, I know they are valid to you…I…want to
understand you. I think you're worth listening to, and I want you to know that I'm the kind
of person you can talk to (Rogers and Farson, 1973, p. 548).
There are many therapeutic skills. In this section we are going to examine three of the most
useful:
1. empathy
2. paraphrasing
3. perception checking
In addition to their importance to therapeutic listening, you will find that these skills can be
applied effectively to a variety of communication situations. As you develop and practice these
skills, be sure to analyze and assess the therapeutic responses you compose. Through practice,
you will learn to replace an inappropriate response with an appropriate one.
Empathy
Empathy is a common term that you probably have heard throughout your life, but not everyone
is clear on what it is or how to achieve it. Most of us, however, realize that we should strive for
empathy, especially in our close interpersonal relationships. Let's first look at some definitions
for empathy and then we'll look at how to develop this skill.
If you review the psychology and communication literature, you will find many definitions for
empathy. Here are just a few. In psychology, empathy is commonly defined as an "awareness of
the thoughts and feelings of another person; the capacity to understand and in some measure
share another person's state of mind" (Goldenson, 1970. p. 395). Another definition is provided
by communication scholars Adler, Rosenfeld, and Proctor (2003, p. 379): empathy is "the ability
to project oneself into another person's point of view in an attempt to experience the other
person's thoughts and feelings." Both definitions basically characterize empathy as the ability to
walk in another person's shoes. It is impossible to achieve complete empathy because we are
unable to enter another person's world and experience life from her unique perspective.
However, just because we are not able to achieve complete success does not diminish our
responsibility to try to experience what another person is thinking and feeling. Developing
empathy is an essential skill needed for therapeutic listening.
Brownell (2002) distinguishes among three different types of empathy: cognitive, perceptive,
and behavioral. Cognitive empathy involves your ability to mentally perceive the world as
another individual views it. Perceptive empathy entails your skill at properly interpreting the
nonverbal behavior, context, and underlying emotions of another person. Behavioral empathy
relates to your proficiency at verbally and nonverbally communicating to the other person that
you are being attentive and that you care.
Being proficient in each category of empathy is necessary in order to achieve a greater degree of
empathy in your relationships. If you achieve cognitive and perceptive empathy, but lack
behavioral empathy, the source may not realize that you are truly listening and understanding
his message. As a result, he may terminate the conversation or not fully disclose the burden he
is carrying. If you possess cognitive and behavioral empathy, but lack perceptive, you are
probably missing many important aspects of the message that are subtly communicated through
the context and nonverbal cues.
We all experience barriers that keep us from obtaining a high level of empathy in some
relationships. Making assumptions in conversations is a very common obstacle. Some
assumptions in conversations are necessary, even helpful (such as what conversation style a
person may use), but assumptions are counterproductive when they are unexplored and when
they do not allow you to see another person's point of view (Nichols, 1995). If you want to
achieve empathy, you need to resist the assumption that you know what other people are going
to say. When you make assumptions, you generally risk jumping to conclusions. Jumping to
conclusions often leads to cutting others off. You may not realize it, but this is often done in
conversations in order to gain control. How can you achieve empathy when you don't allow the
person to share her message? In order to be supportive you should not try to predict or exceed
the source's expression of emotions.
Empathy is an important skill. It creates a bond between communicators and promotes caring.
However, it is not an easy skill to develop. It requires effort and practice. Wolvin and Coakley
(1986) suggest three useful steps for developing empathy. First they suggest that you need to
learn about the other person. If you truly want to empathize with someone, you have to know
him. What are his likes, dislikes, cultural backgrounds, values, attitudes, and current situation?
They point out that self-disclosure must take place in order for you to gain this knowledge. You
need to promote a positive, trusting atmosphere and share some of yourself in order to create an
environment where self-disclosure can thrive. When we as listeners engage in self-disclosure,
reciprocity is very likely to occur.
Their second step for developing empathy is that the speaker and the listener need to experience
similar feelings. "If the two have been in a similar situation or if they have been in two
completely different situations but have experienced similar feelings, they can often achieve a
high degree of empathy" (Wolvin & Coakley, 1986, p. 282). For example, two people, from
different families, who lost a parent at an early age, can empathize because they have both
experienced feelings of loss, loneliness, hurt, and even anger. Also, a woman whose spouse
cheated on her can relate to a girlfriend whose sister betrayed her because they both felt
abandoned, resentful, deceived, and disappointed even though they were in different situations.
The ability to draw from our own experiences and similar feelings enables us to empathize with
others without having gone through the same experience.
The third step is to have a strong desire to understand the source or speaker in order to achieve
empathy. This may be the most important element of success in therapeutic listening. You need
to have the desire to understand and to communicate that desire to the speaker. This is largely
done through your nonverbal behaviors. Do you use mutual gaze, head nods, open-body
orientation, appropriate touch, attentive facial expressions, and a caring vocal tone? Do you
avoid judging, advising, lecturing, sharing your own experiences, topic switching, and name
calling in order to serve as a sounding board and truly understand the message and the source
(Wolvin & Coakley, 1986)?
Think about this...
If you just got in a fender bender on the way to work, which response would you prefer to
receive from your significant other? First response: After asking what happened, she
patiently listens while you explain the incident. As you are speaking via phone you hear an
occasional "oh, wow, really or um hum". She follows up with "It sounds like the car will
need some repairs, but you seem a little shaken from the incident. I'm just glad you're all
right. Is there anything I can do to help you?" Versus the second response: "Were you on
your cell phone when the incident occurred because I've been warning you to get a handsfree device for months? You're so easily distracted. I hope you realize that your insurance
rates are going to increase, not to mention the cost of a rental while the car gets
repaired."
Now that you have a better understanding of empathy and the important role that it can play in
therapeutic listening, let's take a look at paraphrasing. We will explore what it is, why it is
important, and how to appropriately paraphrase.
Paraphrasing
You may remember from earlier content that paraphrasing is defined as reflecting back to your
partner the content and feelings of his message in your own words (Brownell, 2002).
Paraphrasing allows you to evaluate your understanding of the speaker's message and her
feelings. Clearly this is a skill that can assist you in being empathetic towards others. You may
have a false sense of confidence in your understanding of the interaction and thus paraphrasing
can be a very useful skill. It is quite different from parroting, which can sound condescending
and contrived.
A paraphrase should include the following:
•
the general gist of the message the speaker delivered, relayed in your words rather than
a regurgitation of the speaker's message word for word
•
your perception of what the speaker is feeling, considering what emotions are attached to
the message
For example, Sarah states the following to Janis: "I had a fantastic vacation! The weather was
perfect and the entire week was so relaxing. I was initially concerned about the cost, but it was
money well spent." Janis then paraphrases back to Sarah, "Wow, you look energized. It sounds
like you had a great trip. Tranquility can be costly, but it appears that it was worth it."
If a colleague says to you, "I hate this job. I keep getting passed over for promotions. My
position has slowly evolved into an accounting position and I'm not an accountant! I'm not even
good with numbers. I didn't apply for an accounting position." A paraphrase would sound
something like this: "What I hear you saying is that you're really unhappy in your current
position as a result of the changes that our department has undergone. The skills that your
position now requires are not your strengths and as a result you are not getting the promotions
that you've applied for." Compare the previous paraphrase to the following comfort statement:
"It's not fair that they've changed your position. I'm sorry they've done that to you." Which
statement would you prefer?
Trenholm and Jensen (2004) note that it is a natural inclination to provide comfort rather than to
paraphrase, but you need to gain understanding before you can provide adequate comfort. Cahn
and Tubbs (1983) reveal three benefits of paraphrasing. First, it lets the speaker know that you
understand his or her feelings as well as the content of the message. Second, paraphrasing
encourages the speaker to elaborate on her message and enables the listener to gain further
insights. Third, it reveals that you are open rather than judgmental, helping to promote more
self-disclosure and trust.
Think about this...
Have you ever used paraphrasing in a work situation when you were trying to understand
a message (comprehensive listening)? Or, have you used paraphrasing when listening to a
persuasive argument (critical listening) to ensure you understood the speaker's
arguments?
Paraphrasing is a technique that is not limited to therapeutic listening. It also may be applied to
other listening purposes. Paraphrasing is commonly used in comprehensive and critical
situations. Using this skill may seem odd or awkward at first, but it is a useful tool that helps
improve your listening effectiveness. Trenholm and Jensen (2004) recommend that you vary the
first line of your paraphrase to avoid sounding repetitious, awkward, and trite. As you practice
this skill, it will become more natural and you will be able to see the benefits it provides
firsthand. We'll now examine another skill useful to therapeutic listening: perception checking.
Perception Checking
Our perceptions of the words and actions of others are often wrong. Because verbal
communication is often ambiguous and nonverbal messages may carry a variety of meanings, it
is easy to misinterpret the messages we receive. As you may recall from our previous discussion
of the definition of listening, the International Listening Association's (ILA) Web site defines
listening as "the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken
and/or nonverbal messages. (1996)" We often need assistance to appropriately construct
meaning from the spoken and/or nonverbal messages we receive from others. Perception
checking is a tool to assist us in accurately interpreting messages. It also provides a response
(the last portion of ILA's definition) to the messages that you receive.
Perception checking is defined as the process of clarifying your interpretation of a message,
behavior, circumstances, or emotion to reduce uncertainty. "The goal of perception checking is
not to prove that your initial perception is correct, but to further explore the thoughts and
feelings of the other person" (Interpersonal skills, 2004).
Using this simple technique helps to reduce misunderstandings. According to Adler and Towne
(2003), there are three basic steps involved in perception checking:
1. Provide an objective description of the other person's behavior.
2. Present a minimum of two plausible interpretations of the person's behavior.
3. Ask for assistance on how to accurately interpret the behavior.
All three portions of the perception-checking message should be directed to the person to whom
you are speaking. By presenting at least two plausible interpretations you are making it less
likely that the other person will become defensive and it suggests that you are open minded.
Requesting assistance on how to ultimately interpret the behavior demonstrates your desire to
truly understand the situation. For example Bill, the supervisor, calls Dave, his subordinate and
delivers the following message: "Dave, you've been late to work eight times last month (#1).
Your tardiness leads me to believe that you don't value your job or maybe there are extenuating
circumstances that I'm not aware of (#2)? What's going on (#3)?" Using perception checking
enables you to be less judgmental.
Perception checking and paraphrasing are both tools to gain understanding and insights from the
speaker. Paraphrasing focuses more on the content of the communication and the emotions
while perception checking tends to be more behavior-based and seeks to understand the
speaker's motives and emotions.
Can you tell what is wrong with the following example of perception checking? "Cindy, you rudely
and thoughtlessly neglected to return my phone calls. I'm wondering if I've done something to
make you mad or have you just been busy? Why haven't you returned my calls?" The problem
with the previous example is that the behavior is not described in an objective manner. The
words rudely and thoughtlessly are not objective and will likely lead to defensiveness on the part
of the receiver.
Although there are three basics steps to perception checking, under certain circumstances you
may find that a modified "perception check," which omits a portion of the technique, to be
effective (Adler, Rosenfeld and Proctor, 2003). In some situations it may not be necessary to
describe the behavior, or only one interpretation may be warranted in conjunction with a request
for interpretation assistance. Wolvin and Coakley (1996) conceptualize perception checking as
having the listener share her interpretation of the sender's feelings and requesting verification of
whether her perception is correct. An example of this approach would be: "You seem really angry
about not receiving the promotion. Am I correct?" The source may reply that he is disappointed
and frustrated because he feels that he earned the promotion. The perception check enables you
to see that you were incorrectly labeling feelings of disappointment and frustration as anger.
When you are able to appropriately identify the feelings of the speaker, you are more likely to
create empathy.
In order for perception checking to be effective, it is also important that your nonverbal behavior
be consistent with your verbal behavior. This admonition directly relates to Brownell's (2002)
conceptualization of behavioral empathy presented above, which argues that you must
demonstrate your concern for others behaviorally (it's not enough to experience it internally). A
condescending glance or slightly sarcastic tone will undercut your carefully worded message.
When a discrepancy exists between verbal and nonverbal cues, we have a tendency to believe
the nonverbal cues. Nonverbal congruency is essential in order to successfully engage in
perception checking (Adler & Towne, 2003).
Perception checking is more effective in low-context cultures than in high-context cultures. As
you will recall from our previous discussion, low-context cultures rely heavily on verbal
communication in interactions, and messages are expected to be descriptive as well as clear. In
contrast, high-context cultures rely heavily upon the setting and nonverbal cues to derive
meaning from the interaction. They are also much more comfortable with ambiguity than are
low-contact cultures. "High-context communicators are more likely to regard candid approaches
like perception checking as potentially embarrassing, preferring instead less-direct ways of
understanding one another" (Adler, Rosenfeld & Proctor 2003, p. 72). It is important to take into
consideration the culture of the individual before engaging in perception checking.
Critical Listening
What is Critical Listening and Why Is It Important?
Critical listening is listening to comprehend and then to evaluate the credibility of the speaker
and the validity of his or her message (Wolvin & Coakley, 1996). We accept or reject the
messages we receive based on reliable criteria that we have developed and repeatedly used. For
example, How reliable is the source? How current is the information? We most frequently use
this higher-level listening purpose when the speaker's purpose is to persuade—to try to get us to
feel, believe, act a certain way, or all of these (i.e., to influence us to change our attitudes,
beliefs, and actions). You should note that this high-level listening purpose builds on the skills we
covered for comprehensive listening.
Again, we likely do not have to go beyond ourselves to answer the question, "Why is critical
listening important?" Recall the people who tried to persuade you just yesterday. Who were
they? What were they attempting to get you to do or believe? Perhaps the coworker tried to
influence your feelings about the newly appointed supervisor by saying, "A lot of people liked
Adam in his previous position. He increased productivity 20 percent and employee morale. He's
clearly qualified for the position. I think he'll make a great boss." Or, perhaps a 12-year-old
stranger knocked on your door and made this appeal: "I saw my cat go into your back yard.
Would you open your gate and let me get her?"
Or, perhaps you were moved by the diet ads that showed the amazing before and after pictures
promoting the effectiveness of their pills. Interestingly, a 20/20 expose revealed faulty strategies
used by the makers of the diet supplement Xenadrine that included pictures taken of a woman
just after giving birth and a competitive body builder that was paid to rapidly gain weight and
then begin an intense workout regimen and strict diet (Slim chance, 2004). Or, did you pause to
consider the Web site that claimed that HIV was caused by a flatworm and could be cured
through the use of herbs. Luckily, the person responsible for the Web site was charged with
consumer fraud (Barnett, 2001). Or, did your sister pressure you to share the expense of
hearing aids for your 92-year-old mother, who does not want hearing aids?
Indeed, we interact daily with speakers who are trying to persuade us. If we are to make
judicious decisions regarding whether to accept or reject their messages, we need to develop our
comprehensive and critical-listening skills.
Skills Involved in Critical Listening
Understanding the process of persuasion will help you monitor your critical-listening behaviors
and establish sound criteria for evaluating whether a speaker or a message should be believed.
Persuasion is defined as "Communication intended to influence the acts, beliefs, attitudes, and
values of others" (Freeley, 1993, p. 466). As you are exposed to a sequence of persuasive
messages over time, you are likely to change your behavior. It is important to mention that
mental changes generally precede physical changes. For example, after repeated exposure to
information that smoking is harmful to your health, you may quit smoking (the physical
manifestation), but a mental change regarding smoking took place before you actually quit.
Many of the skills involved in critical listening are based on understanding how people attempt to
persuade us. Here, we are going to examine three of the most common tools of persuasion, ones
that have been discussed for centuries. The classical Greek rhetorician Aristotle divided
persuasive messages into three components—those relevant to (1) ethos, (2) logos, and
(3) pathos. To be an effective critical listener, you should learn sound criteria for evaluating each
of these components.
Ethos
Let's start by considering how a speaker builds his or her credibility. With this knowledge you will
be a better informed listener and be more aware of how your perception of a speaker changes as
you listen to his or her message.
Ethos or speaker credibility can be established in a variety of ways. In addition to what a speaker
says and how he or she says it, a communicator's credibility is greatly affected by who the
audience perceives the speaker to be (Sprague & Stuart, 2003). Today ethos is commonly
referred to as charisma or image.
"Modern social scientists have tried to isolate the characteristics that distinguish the most
credible speakers from others. Their list includes competence, dynamism, intention, personality,
intelligence, authoritativeness, extroversion, trustworthiness, composure, and sociability"
(Sprague & Stuart, 2003, p. 253). By demonstrating these qualities speakers can improve their
image and increase their chances of persuading their audiences.
Think about this...
Of the ten qualities identified by social scientists (competence, dynamism, intention,
personality, intelligence, authoritativeness, extroversion, trustworthiness, composure, or
sociability), which elements are most important to you when you are listening to a
persuasive message?
Scholars often describe credibility as having three different phases. Credibility may be
established before, during, and after the delivery of a message. Credibility established before a
presentation is often referred to as prior ethos or extrinsic credibility (Jaffe, 1995). When you
attend a presentation about cancer prevention delivered by an oncologist, the speaker has
extrinsic credibility on the subject. It is typical for speakers to be asked to provide their
qualifications and background to the audience. This information is commonly used to promote an
event or speaker. Introductions also are frequently used to highlight a speaker's relevant
accomplishments. Past interactions with an audience may affect your perception of a speaker's
credibility. Even when you've never met the speaker, information regarding her demeanor in
coordinating the event and the small talk that takes place before the speaker's presentation will
alter your perceptions (Sprague & Stuart, 2003).
Speakers use various methods for increasing their credibility when delivering a presentation.
Credibility that speakers obtain as a result of the competence that they exude during their
presentations is known as demonstrated ethos (Jaffe, 1995). Personally sharing their credentials
in their presentations is one method of establishing demonstrated ethos. When discussing drunkdriving prevention, a speaker may state, "Through my 17 of years experience on the local police
force I've watched…" or "I generally issue 15-20 alcohol-related citations per week." The more
knowledgeable you are about the speaker's qualifications and experience on the subject, the
more weight you generally give to her arguments and claims.
Mary Fisher's speech entitled "A Whisper of AIDS," delivered at the Republican National
Convention on August 12, 1992, clearly reveals her credibility on the topic.
I would never have asked to be HIV positive, but I believe that in all things there is
a purpose; and I stand before you and before the nation gladly.... In the context of
an election year, I ask you, here in this great hall, or listening in the quiet of your
home, to recognize that the AIDS virus is not a political creature. It does not care
whether you are Democrat or Republican; it does not ask whether you are black or
white, male or female, gay or straight, young or old. Tonight I represent an AIDS
community whose members have been reluctantly drafted from every segment of
American society. Though I am white and a mother, I am one with a black infant
struggling with tubes in a Philadelphia hospital.
Though I am female and contracted this disease in marriage and enjoy the warm
support of my family, I am one with the lonely gay man sheltering a flickering
candle from the cold wind of his family's rejection.
As a listener you need to be aware that speakers also increase their credibility by using sound
evidence, valid statistics, expert testimony, and relevant examples. Using strong evidence has an
especially powerful impact on listeners when it is done early in a presentation, because first
impressions are lasting and difficult to alter (Sprague & Stuart, 2003). Speakers frequently cite
the sources of their information to demonstrate their knowledge of a topic to their listeners. For
example, a speaker might say "According to the Chief of Police, whom I interviewed…" or "After
reading numerous current articles from both political parties, I've discovered that they all agree
on one point…."
Organization is another area that affects our perceptions. Listeners perceive speakers as being
more credible when their material is well organized. It is interesting to note that listeners tend to
view speakers whose presentations are disorganized as uninformed rather than disorganized.
Being aware of how credibility is established will assist you in making more accurate
assessments of others in your critical-listening encounters.
Those speakers who are dynamic are perceived to be more credible. Although being physically
attractive contributes to being perceived as dynamic, many other factors play a role. Speakers
who use vocal variety, consistent eye contact, appropriate facial expressions, and powerful
language are also perceived to be dynamic or possess charisma (Brownell, 2002).
Think about this...
Reflect on your past listening experiences where you perceived the speakers to be the
most dynamic. Did their level of physical attractiveness influence you? How does physical
attractiveness influence your listening and your perceptions of charisma? Do you listen
longer or more intently if you perceive a person to be charismatic? How important is the
component of dynamism in your assessment of overall credibility?
Trust is an important component of credibility. Brownell (2002) mentions that a person's
appearance, nonverbal behavior, as well as past dealings with an individual all affect the
listener's perceptions of trust. People who verbalize the limitations of their evidence, present
opposing viewpoints, and openly admit a personal interest in the topic are generally perceived as
being more trustworthy (Sprague & Stuart, 2003).
Establishing goodwill is another technique that speakers use to connect with their audience
members. Goodwill indicates the speaker has a genuine concern for the audience members and
that what matters to audience members matters to the speaker (Jaffe, 1995). Goodwill shows
that the presenter identifies with you. It is often referred to as co-orientation. When you feel like
someone has your best interest at heart or that they are similar to you, you are more likely to
view them as credible.
After you have finished listening to the speaker's message, you make a final evaluation
regarding his or her credibility; this is known as terminal credibility (Brownell, 2002). When a
person has finished speaking, you review his or her message, delivery, passion, arguments, and
evidence. Your final assessment of the speaker may be higher or lower than the extrinsic
credibility you perceived before listening to the individual speak. Prior ethos and/or
demonstrated ethos enables speakers to alter your impressions of them. As you are more aware
of how your perceptions of credibility are created and influenced, you will be better informed to
make more accurate analyses in the future. An informed listener isn't easily fooled or influenced.
Logos
In addition to evaluating their perceptions of the speaker, listeners also receive and appraise the
logos or content/logic of a message. Thus, we need to spend some time discussing elements
included in content or logic appeals. We will first examine various types of evidence and then we
will review the most common forms of reasoning that you encounter as a listener.
Evidence is frequently used to support a statement about a product, policy, action, or opinion. It
may take many forms. Some common types of evidence include factual illustrations, specific
instances, statistics, analogies, expert testimony, and definitions.
Type of Evidence
Description
Example
Factual illustration
- a detailed story that helps
support the speaker's thesis
Example
As a listener, you should ask
yourself if the illustration is
clearly related to the topic and if
it typical rather than an atypical
example.
Specific instance
- a brief fact
Example
- less-developed piece of support
Several specific instances usually
follow a factual illustration.
Statistics
- claims that use figures and
number to reveal relationships
between phenomena
Examples
- show relationships between two
variables
- used to establish trends,
describe segments, or illustrate
magnitude
As you listen to the speaker, you
need to determine if the statistics
are from a reliable, current
source.
Expert testimony
- statement made by a person
who is considered an authority
on a particular topic or subject
area
Example
- the expert's qualifications are
usually revealed and direct
quotations are frequently used
As a listener, you need to
determine if a quotation is taken
out of context and if the
individual is truly qualified to
speak authoritatively on the
topic.
Analogy
- makes a comparison between
two things, one that is
Examples
understood by the audience and
one that is not
- may be figurative or literal
- frequently used to help make
the technical or complex simple
- often use the word "like" or
"as"
Definitions
- provide clarity to listeners
Example
A simple dictionary definition,
operational definition (which
explains the steps in a process),
or etymological definition
(which reveals how a word is
derived from a root word in an
earlier culture) may be used to
familiarize the listener with word
or concept (Sprague & Stuart,
2003).
(Unless otherwise indicated, examples above were provided by the AIDS in Africa: An Orphaned Continent Web site,
2004.)
Analogies are not as common as other types of support and you may not be as familiar with
them. Martin Luther King, Jr. (1964) eloquently uses an analogy in his famous "I have a dream"
speech:
In a sense we have come to our nation's capital to cash a check. When the
architects of our republic wrote the magnificent words of the Constitution and the
Declaration of Independence, they were signing a promissory note to which every
American was to fall heir. This note was a promise that all men, yes, black men as
well as white men, would be guaranteed the unalienable rights of life, liberty, and
the pursuit of happiness. It is obvious today that America has defaulted on this
promissory note, insofar as her citizens of color are concerned. Instead of honoring
this sacred obligation, America has given the Negro people a bad check, a check
which has come back marked "insufficient funds."
Think about this...
Of the six types of evidence (factual illustration, specific instance, statistics, expert
testimony, analogy, and definitions), which do you find most convincing? Are you enticed
by the details of a factual illustration or are you moved by the pervasive nature of a
problem when it is revealed through statistics? Does expert testimony provided by an
individual that you believe to be highly credible sway you or do you prefer a basic
analogy? Or maybe you find definitions to be the most useful as a listener?
When you listen to evidence presented in a message, you need to carefully determine whether it
is sound. In other words, you need to carefully evaluate the information to determine if it is
logical and strong or weak and flawed. Some questions to ask include (Freeley, 1993, p. 121):
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Is
Is
Is
Is
Is
Is
Is
Is
Is
Is
Is
there enough evidence?
the evidence clear?
the evidence consistent with other known evidence?
the evidence consistent within itself?
the evidence verifiable?
the source of the evidence competent?
the source of the evidence unprejudiced?
the source of the evidence reliable?
the evidence relevant?
the evidence statistically sound?
the evidence the most current available?
Without realizing it, we use many forms of reasoning throughout the day. Reasoning is defined
as the mental process that the speaker uses to link evidence to the claim that he or she is
making (Wolvin & Coakley, 1996). We use evidence and the way we put arguments together to
make everyday decisions such as which movie to rent or whether to skip lunch as well as to
make more profound decisions such as who to vote for and which home to buy.
It is important to know how to make a reasoned decision and to determine the type of reasoning
a speaker is using. This is a crucial skill in your role as a critical listener. There are many
different types of reasoning; we are going to explore the four most commonly used types.
Form of
Reasoning
Description
Example
Assessing the
Soundness of the
Reasoning
Causal
- demonstrates
that one event
leads to another
An increase in the
use of child safety
seats leads to a
decrease in infant
mortality.
- Is the connection
valid?
- Are there other
causes?
- Is the evidence
strong enough?
Deductive
- applies a
generalization to
a specific case
- includes a
major premise,
minor premise,
and a conclusion
Major premise:
All mentally
incompetent
individuals are
unfit to make
binding
agreements.
Minor premise:
Susan Smith is
- Is the premise
correct/accurate?
- Does the conclusion
logically follow?
mentally
incompetent.
Conclusion:
Susan Smith is
unfit to make
binding
agreements.
Inductive
- uses a series of
observations to
form a
generalization
Tin conducts
heat.
- Are the cases
sufficient?
Lead conducts
heat.
- Are the cases
representative/typical?
Copper conducts
heat.
- Are the cases
current?
Gold conducts
heat.
Thus all metals
conduct heat.
Analogy
- draws
conclusions
regarding
unknown events,
based on
knowledge of
past events
Today is just like
other holiday
weekends, when
traffic is heavy on
the highway.
- Does the comparison
make sense?
- Does it elucidate the
concept?
- makes a
comparison of
two similar cases
and infers what is
true of one is true
of another
(Freeley, 1993; Jaffe, 1995; Sprague & Stuart, 2003)
The ability to identify the type of reasoning that the speaker is using allows you as a listener to
better analyze the arguments she is presenting. Taking the time to carefully examine the validity
of the messages that you receive will enable you to make better, more informed decisions.
Faulty arguments and weak evidence will not easily manipulate you.
Persuasive messages may not only contain logical reasoning and sound evidence, but they may
attempt to appeal to your emotions. Even when compelling evidence is provided, it may be the
appeal to your sense of compassion, patriotism, or fairness that ultimately compels you to
believe the speaker and take action. Next, we discuss the emotional aspect of persuasive
argument.
Pathos
Pathos entails an appeal to the listeners' emotions through the use of language, passionate
delivery and motivational appeals. Again, being aware of the techniques that others use will
enable you to more accurately judge the true merit of their arguments and not simply be carried
away in the emotion of the event.
Emotionally laden language, connotative words, vivid language, and figurative speech are often
used to convince the listener. For example, speakers more frequently use the connotative word
"home" rather than the word "house" because the word home is likely conjure positive, visual
images of where you live.
President John Kennedy's 1961 inaugural speech uses vivid language and connotative words to
inspire his listeners (Jaffe, 1995).
And so, my fellow Americans; ask not what your country can do for you—ask what
you can do for your country.
My fellow citizens of the world; ask not what America will do for you, but what
together we can do for the freedom of man.
Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here
the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you. With a good
conscience our only secure reward, with history the final judge of our deeds, let us
go forth to lead the land we love, asking His blessings and His help, but knowing
what here on earth God's work must truly be done.
As a listener you will hear visual descriptions intended to arouse feelings of fear, sympathy, and
curiosity. These stories most frequently take the form of factual illustrations (mentioned above).
The excerpt below of President Ronald Reagan's 1984 remarks at the U.S. Ranger Monument on
the 40th Anniversary of D-Day effectively uses a factual illustration to appeal to our feelings of
patriotism and gratitude for those who served in World War II.
I think I know what you may be thinking right now—thinking "we were just part of
a bigger effort; everyone was brave that day." Well, everyone was. You remember
the story of Bill Millin of the 51st Highlanders? Forty years ago today, British troops
were pinned down near a bridge, waiting desperately for help. Suddenly, they
heard the sound of bagpipes, and some thought they were dreaming. Well, they
weren't. They looked up and saw Bill Millin with his bagpipes, leading the
reinforcements and ignoring the smack of the bullets into the ground around him.
Speakers often display the emotions that they want their listeners to feel (Brownell, 2002). For
example, a stockbroker's delivery will exude enthusiasm as she tells you about a new stock her
firm is offering to clients. An AIDS activist will exude anger that more research funding isn't
directed at prevention and treatment programs. You need to be aware that when a speaker
displays a sincere emotion you are more likely to elicit that same emotion.
Another tool critical listeners should be aware of is the use of emotional content or psychological
appeals. Often speakers try to persuade you by appealing to your emotions. Being aware of the
tactics that speakers use to arouse your emotions will assist you in judging whether the appeal is
appropriate or inappropriate.
Emotional and motivational appeals commonly used by communicators include the following
(Devito, 1990):
•
adventure (the need for exciting experiences)
•
achievement (the desire to be successful in whatever you do)
•
altruism (unselfishness, goodwill, and the desire to help others)
•
fear (fear of the loss of wealth, beauty, health, family, and friendships)
•
financial gain (financial wealth)
•
guilt (feelings of personal responsibility for an offense)
•
individuality and conformity (opposite motives that pull us in separate directions, e.g.,
the need to be unique versus the need to fit in)
•
love and affiliation (the need to be loved and to love others as well as the desire to
connect with others)
•
pleasure (the need to be gratified and experience enjoyment)
•
power, control, and influence (power over your life, control over people, events, and the
environment, and the ability to influence others)
•
self-actualization (the need to work towards our highest ideals and be what you were
meant to be)
•
self-esteem and approval (feelings of self-worth and obtaining the approval of others)
•
sex appeal (feelings of being desirable and physically attractive)
•
status (status gained from an occupation, wealth, knowledge, athletic ability, or talent)
Think about this...
As you listen to a message, what emotional or motivational appeals do you find most
persuasive? Why? Which appeals are least likely to influence you? Why?
The motives listed above often operate collectively. For example, you may want to succeed at
work in order to obtain financial gain so that you can achieve the status that you desire. Motives
also vary in the influence that they have on people and they do not automatically lead to
behavior on the part of the listener. For example, just because a salesperson tries to convince
you that you should purchase something because "you work hard and you deserve it" doesn't
mean that you'll be persuaded to buy it, especially if you are financially conservative.
In order to maintain control of your life and not allow others to control you, you need to make
sound decisions. Being responsible critical listeners involves (1) monitoring our thoughts,
feelings, and actions while others are attempting to influence us and (2) applying sound criteria
to evaluate the personal, logical, and emotional appeals others are employing.
Now that we've examined therapeutic and critical listening, we will explore the final higher-level
listening purpose, appreciative listening.
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