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Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS)
Social Work Competencies
The nine Social Work Competencies are listed below. Programs may
add competencies that are consistent with their mission and goals
and respond to their context. Each competency describes the knowledge, values, skills, and cognitive and affective processes that comprise
the competency at the generalist level of practice, followed by a set of
practice behaviors that integrate these components. Practice behaviors represent
observable components of the competencies, while the preceding statements represent the underlying content and processes that inform the behaviors.
Competency 1–Demonstrate Ethical and Professional Behavior
Social workers understand the value base of the profession and its ethical standards, as well as relevant laws and regulations that may impact practice at the
micro and macro levels. Social workers understand frameworks of ethical decisionmaking and how to apply principles of critical thinking to those frameworks in
practice, research, and policy arenas. Social workers recognize personal values and
the distinction between personal and professional values. They also understand
how their personal experiences and affective reactions influence their professional
judgment and behavior. Social workers understand the profession’s history, its mission, and the roles and responsibilities of the profession. Social workers recognize
the importance of life-long learning and are committed to continually updating
their skills to ensure they are relevant and effective. Social workers also understand emerging forms of technology and the ethical use of technology in social
work practice. Social workers:
1a. make ethical decisions by applying the standards of the NASW Code of
Ethics, relevant laws and regulations, models for ethical decision-making,
ethical conduct of research, and additional codes of ethics as appropriate to
context;
1b. use reflection and self-regulation to manage personal values and maintain professionalism in practice situations;
1c. demonstrate professional demeanor in behavior; appearance; and oral, written,
and electronic communication;
1d. use technology ethically and appropriately to facilitate practice outcomes; and
1e. use supervision and consultation to guide professional judgment and behavior.
Competency 2–Engage Diversity and Difference in Practice
Social workers understand how diversity and difference characterize and shape the
human experience and are critical to the formation of identity. The dimensions of
diversity are understood as the intersectionality of multiple factors including but not
limited to age, class, color, culture, ethnicity, gender, gender identity and expression,
immigration status, marital status, physical and mental ability, political ideology, race,
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religion/spirituality, sex, sexual orientation, and tribal sovereign status. Social workers
understand that, as a consequence of difference, a person’s life experiences may
include oppression, poverty, marginalization, and alienation as well as privilege,
power, and acclaim. Social workers also understand the forms and mechanisms of
oppression and discrimination and recognize the extent to which a culture’s structures
and values, including social, economic, political, and cultural exclusions, may oppress,
marginalize, alienate, or create privilege and power. Social workers:
2a. apply and communicate understanding of the importance of diversity and difference in shaping life experiences in practice at the micro and macro levels;
2b. present themselves as learners and engage clients and constituencies as
experts of their own experiences; and
2c. apply self-awareness and self-regulation to manage the influence of personal
biases and values in working with diverse clients and constituencies.
Competency 3–Advance Human Rights and Social, Economic, and
Environmental Justice
Social workers understand that every person regardless of position in society has
fundamental human rights such as freedom, safety, privacy, an adequate standard
of living, health care, and education. Social workers understand the global interconnections of oppression and human rights violations, and are knowledgeable
about theories of justice and strategies to promote social and economic justice
and human rights. Social workers understand strategies designed to eliminate
oppressive structural barriers to ensure that social goods and responsibilities are
distributed equitably and that civil, political, environmental, economic, social, and
cultural human rights are protected. Social workers:
3a. apply their understanding of social, economic, and environmental justice to
advocate for human rights at the individual and system levels; and
3b. engage in practices that advance social, economic, and environmental justice.
Competency 4–Engage in Practice-Informed Research and ResearchInformed Practice
Social workers understand quantitative and qualitative research methods and their
respective roles in advancing a science of social work. Social workers know the principles of logic, scientific inquiry, and ethical approaches to building knowledge. Social
workers understand that evidence that informs practice derives from multi-disciplinary
sources. They also understand the processes for translating research findings into
effective practice. Social workers:
4a. use practice experience and theory to inform scientific inquiry and research;
4b. engage in critical analysis of quantitative and qualitative research methods and
research findings; and
4c. use and translate research findings to inform and improve practice, policy, and
service delivery.
(Continued)
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AN INTRODUCTION TO
THE PROFESSION OF
SOCIAL
WORK
Becoming A Change Agent
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Empowerment Series
AN INTRODUCTION TO
THE PROFESSION OF
SOCIAL
WORK
Becoming A Change Agent
5TH EDITION
Elizabeth A. Segal
Arizona State University
Karen E. Gerdes
Arizona State University
Sue Steiner
California State University Chico
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
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Empowerment Series: An Introduction to
the Profession of Social Work: Becoming
A Change Agent, Fifth Edition
Elizabeth A. Segal, Karen E. Gerdes, and
Sue Steiner
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Printed in the United States of America
Print Number: 01
Print Year: 2014
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Contents
Preface
CHAPTER 1
xvii
What Is Social Work?
1
Social Work as a Profession
Who Are Social Workers?
2
3
BOX 1.1: More About … Social Work
Social Work Education
5
6
BOX 1.2: More About … Social Work Education Criteria
BOX 1.3: What Do You Think? 6
Central Concepts and Theories
6
7
Person in Environment Concept 7
Theoretical Basis for Social Work Practice
7
BOX 1.4: What Do You Think? 11
BOX 1.5: More About … NASW Standards for Cultural Competence in Social Work Practice
The Power of Language
BOX 1.6: Point of View 16
BOX 1.7: What Do You Think?
13
17
Social Work Values and Ethics
18
Social Workers’ Ethical Responsibilities
19
BOX 1.8: Ethical Practice … Helping Clients 20
BOX 1.9: From the Field: Herman’s Rights or Worker Safety?
BOX 1.10: What Do You Think? 21
Social Work Careers
13
20
21
Child Welfare: Working with Children and Their Families
People Who Are Older 22
Health Care/Medical Social Work 22
Mental Health 22
School Social Work 23
Substance Abuse 23
Violence, Victims, and Criminal Justice 23
Crisis, Trauma, and Disasters 24
Military Social Work 24
Public Welfare 24
Community Organization 24
Policy Practice 25
21
v
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vi
CONTENTS
Management/Administration 25
Rural Social Work 25
International Social Work 25
Is Social Work for You?
26
Personal Characteristics Suited to Social Work Practice
Social Workers as Change Agents 28
BOX 1.11: Becoming a Change Agent
BOX 1.12: What Do You Think? 29
29
Choosing Social Work as a Career
Conclusion
CHAPTER 2
26
29
30
The History of the Social Welfare System and the Social Work
Profession 37
How the Social Welfare System Helps People
BOX 2.1: What Do You Think?
The History of U.S. Social Welfare
Colonial Period
39
41
41
42
Values Reflecting the Colonial Period
Pre–Civil War Period
42
43
Values Reflecting the Pre–Civil War Period
The Civil War and Post–Civil War Period
43
43
Values Reflecting the Civil War and Post–Civil War Period
The Progressive Era
44
44
Values Reflecting the Progressive Era 45
The Great Depression and the New Deal
45
Values Reflecting the Great Depression and the New Deal
World War II and the Postwar Economy
Values Reflecting World War II and the Postwar Economy
The Social Reform Years
48
48
Values Reflecting the Social Reform Years
The Retrenchment Years
47
47
49
49
Values Reflecting the Retrenchment Years
50
Social Welfare in the New Millennium: Terrorism, War, Financial Struggles,
and Recovery 50
Values Influencing the New Millennium
BOX 2.2: Becoming a Change Agent 52
Major Social Welfare Programs
Cash Assistance Programs
In-Kind Benefit Programs
BOX 2.3: What Do You Think?
51
52
54
55
56
The History of the Social Work Profession
57
Charity Organization Societies 57
BOX 2.4: More About … Mary Richmond 58
Settlement Movement 58
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CONTENTS
BOX 2.5: More About … Jane Addams
vii
59
Values, Social Welfare, and Social Work
62
Are Recipients Worthy or Unworthy? 62
Religious Values or Separation of Church and State
BOX 2.6: Ethical Practice … Abortion
63
63
Should We Change the Person or the System? 64
Impartial Professional or Advocate 64
Helping People We Know or Helping Strangers 64
Crisis or Ongoing Need 64
BOX 2.7: What Do You Think?
Conclusion
CHAPTER 3
65
65
Poverty and Economic Disparity
Defining Poverty
69
70
BOX 3.1: What Do You Think?
71
The Official Definition of Poverty
Who Is Poor in America? 72
The Causes of Poverty
71
73
Values and Blaming the Victim
74
BOX 3.2: From the Field: The Faces of Poverty
BOX 3.3: What Do You Think? 76
Employment and Income Levels
Jobs 76
Income Distribution
Race
75
76
77
78
The Costs of Poverty
79
Homelessness and Housing
Personal Costs 81
79
The Roles of Social Workers
81
BOX 3.4: Becoming a Change Agent
Social Welfare Programs
82
83
Supplemental Security Income 83
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families 83
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program 86
Psychosocial Interventions
Advocacy 87
86
BOX 3.5: Ethical Practice … Self-Sufficiency or Neglect?
Conclusion
CHAPTER 4
88
88
Human Rights and Social and Economic Justice
What Is Social Justice?
95
97
Social Work’s Mandate for Social Justice
Barriers to Social Justice 98
98
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viii
CONTENTS
BOX
BOX
BOX
BOX
4.1:
4.2:
4.3:
4.4:
More About … Oppression and Violence 100
What Do You Think? 101
Becoming a Change Agent 102
From the Field: Doing My Civic Duty 105
Explanations of Social Injustice
106
Biological Determinism 106
The Socialization Process 107
Psychological Perspectives 107
Sociological Perspectives 108
Models of Intergroup Relations
Overcoming Social Injustice
108
110
Civil Rights 110
Protection from Discrimination 110
Civil Rights for Lesbians, Gay Men, Bisexuals, and Transgender Persons
Hate Crimes Prevention Act 113
Affirmative Action 113
Immigration Rights 115
Social Work Roles in Fighting Social Injustice
112
116
BOX 4.5: More About … Social Work’s Commitment to Social Justice 116
BOX 4.6: Ethical Practice … Social Justice 117
Social Justice and Civil Rights in the Twenty-First Century
Conclusion
CHAPTER 5
117
118
Dimensions of Diversity
123
Social Construction of Differences
Diversity in the United States
Historical Background
124
126
128
Exploration and Colonization 128
Forced Relocation and Enslavement 129
Expansion into Mexico 129
Immigration 129
Refugee Status 130
Undocumented or Unauthorized Immigrants
Implications for Social Work Practice 131
Influence of History 131
Barriers to Service 132
BOX 5.1: From the Field: Cultural Divide
BOX 5.2: What Do You Think? 133
Cultural Competency
Multiculturalism
130
132
133
134
BOX 5.3: What Do You Think?
134
Ecological Framework 135
Empowerment Practice 135
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CONTENTS
Achieving Cultural Competency
ix
136
Awareness of Self 136
Understanding Cultural Differences
137
BOX 5.4: More About … Core Values for Working with Diverse Populations 138
Stages of Cultural Understanding
BOX 5.5: What Do You Think?
Cultural Humility
139
BOX 5.6: Ethical Practice … Racism
Emerging Issues
138
139
140
140
Civil Rights for LGBT People
140
BOX 5.7: Becoming a Change Agent
141
Multiethnic or Transracial Adoptions 142
Redress or Reparations for Past Social Injustices 142
Underfunded Schools 142
Environmental Justice 143
English Only Emphasis 143
New Research on Human Diversity and Genetic Makeup
Conclusion
CHAPTER 6
143
144
Generalist Social Work Practice
151
BOX 6.1: More About … Generalist Social Work Practice
BOX 6.2: More About … Levels of Practice 153
153
A Theoretical Framework for Generalist Social Work Practice
154
Ecological Systems Framework 155
The Strengths and Diversity Perspectives 155
Historical Influence of Theories of Human Behavior in Social Work Practice
Psychodynamic Theory 156
Cognitive-Behavioral Theory 158
Crisis Theory and Crisis Intervention
159
Generalist Social Work Practice with Individuals and Families
Case Management
156
159
160
Engagement and Assessment 161
BOX 6.3: More About … Empathy 161
Intervention 162
Monitoring and Evaluation 164
Family Intervention
164
BOX 6.4: From the Field: Using Multiple Practice Skills
165
Ethical Challenges in Working with Individuals and Families
BOX 6.5: Ethical Practice … Doing Two Things at Once?
Generalist Social Work Practice with Groups
The Unique Challenges of Rural Social Work
Other Types of Groupwork 169
167
167
168
169
Support Groups 169
Self-Help Groups 170
Social Action Groups 170
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x
CONTENTS
BOX 6.6: What Do You Think?
170
Ethical Challenges in Working with Groups
Community Practice
Roles
171
171
172
BOX 6.7: More About … The Goals of Organizing
Models of Community Practice
173
174
Neighborhood and Community Organizing 174
Functional Organizing 174
Community Social and Economic Development 175
Social Planning 175
Program Development and Community Liaison 175
Political and Social Action 175
Coalition Building 176
Ethical Challenges in Working with Communities
176
The Role of a Global Perspective in Generalist Practice
177
BOX 6.8: From the Field: Social Work Takes Many Forms of Practice
BOX 6.9: Becoming a Change Agent 180
Conclusion
CHAPTER 7
178
181
Child Welfare: Working with Children and Their Families
The Importance of Theory
186
BOX 7.1: What Do You Think?
186
Theories of Child Development
Ecological Approach
185
187
188
BOX 7.2: More About … Systems and Children
Human Development
189
189
Prenatal 189
Infancy 189
Preschool Years 190
Middle Childhood 190
Adolescence 190
Other Theories
191
The Child Welfare System
Historical Background
BOX 7.3: Point of View
Child Welfare
191
191
192
193
Child Protective Services (CPS)
Juvenile Justice
193
194
The Roles of Social Workers
195
Case Management 195
Direct Practice 195
BOX 7.4: From the Field: Learning from a Child
BOX 7.5: What Do You Think? 197
196
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CONTENTS
Advocacy and Policy Building
xi
197
The Intervention Process 198
Referral 198
Assessment and Engagement 199
Determining Intervention Strategies 201
Planning and Implementation 202
Termination 202
Values and Ethics
203
Respect for the Dignity and Uniqueness of the Individual
Respect for Self-Determination 204
Respect for Confidentiality 204
BOX 7.6: Ethical Practice … Child Welfare
205
Critical Issues Facing Children and Families
Child Maltreatment
203
205
205
BOX 7.7: Becoming a Change Agent
206
Foster Care 207
Alcohol and Drug Abuse 208
Decisions About Sexual Behavior
Delinquency 209
Divorce 210
Poverty 210
Immigration 210
BOX 7.8: What Do You Think?
208
211
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
211
Working with Children and Families from a Strengths Perspective
Conclusion
CHAPTER 8
211
212
Gerontology: Working with People Who Are Older
BOX 8.1: More About … Age Discrimination
219
221
Human Development within the Social Context
221
Biological and Physiological Aspects of Aging 221
Cognitive Process and Emotional/Psychological Development
Sociological Aspects of Aging 223
Legal, Economic, and Political Aspects 223
Social Work Practice with People Who Are Older
Historical Background
Current Context 226
224
224
BOX 8.2: More About … The Group of People Who Are Older
Diversity 228
Critical Public Policies
222
227
230
The Roles of Social Workers
231
Current Practice Interventions
Older People at Risk 233
231
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xii
CONTENTS
Values and Ethical Issues
235
BOX 8.3: Point of View 236
BOX 8.4: What Do You Think?
237
Critical Issues and Emerging Concerns
238
Medicare Drug Prescription Benefit and the Affordable
Care Act 238
BOX 8.5: Ethical Practice … High Cost of Care
Elder Abuse and Neglect 240
Alzheimer’s Disease and Dementia
BOX 8.6: From the Field: Quality of Life
241
242
Mental Health and Depression 244
Caregivers for Aging Parents 245
Grandparents Caring for Grandchildren
BOX 8.7: Becoming a Change Agent
Conclusion
CHAPTER 9
239
246
247
248
Health Care Services
255
Health Care in America
256
Defining Health 257
The U.S. Health Care System 258
Historical Background 258
Health Care Reform: 1960s 259
Health Care Reform: 1990s 260
Health Care Reform: The States 260
Health Care Reform: The Obama Administration
The Current Health Care System 262
BOX 9.1: What Do You Think?
262
Limitations of the Current Health Care System
BOX 9.2: Point of View
263
264
The Roles of Social Workers
Acute Care
261
265
266
BOX 9.3: From the Field: Helping to Find the Problem
BOX 9.4: What Do You Think? 268
Ambulatory Care 269
Long-Term Care 269
Developmental Disabilities
Public Health Policies
266
271
272
Social Work Values and Ethics in Health Care Settings
Critical Issues
Disability
276
276
BOX 9.5: More About … The Americans with Disabilities Act
HIV/AIDS
274
277
278
BOX 9.6: Ethical Practice … Confidentiality or Health Safety?
279
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CONTENTS
Medical Use of Marijuana
Diabetes 279
279
BOX 9.7: Becoming a Change Agent
Conclusion
CHAPTER 10
xiii
280
281
Mental Health Services
287
Mental Health and Mental Illness
289
BOX 10.1: More About … Mental Disorders
290
Biological and Psychological Factors
Social Factors 293
291
The Mental Health Care System
293
Historical Background 294
The Current System 296
Fragmentation of the System 296
Managed Care 297
Deinstitutionalization 297
Criminalization 297
Community Treatment 298
Multidisciplinary Aspects of Mental Health Care
BOX 10.2: Point of View 300
BOX 10.3: What Do You Think?
301
Social Work Practice in Mental Health Settings
Social Work Roles
Treatment 302
298
301
302
Family Therapy 304
Psychotherapy Groups 304
E-Therapy 307
Culturally Responsive Practice
Strengths Perspective 309
307
BOX 10.4: From the Field: Working with People Living with Serious Mental Illness
BOX 10.5: What Do You Think? 311
Obstacles to Treatment
311
BOX 10.6: Becoming a Change Agent 313
BOX 10.7: Katie A. and Increased Collaboration
Policy Issues
314
314
Iraq and Afghanistan War Veterans and Mental Health
Values and Ethics
CHAPTER 11
315
316
BOX 10.8: Ethical Practice … Cost or Care?
Conclusion
310
317
317
School Social Work
323
The History of School Social Work
School Social Work Roles and Skills
325
326
Responsibilities of School Social Workers
327
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xiv
CONTENTS
Working with Students at Risk
328
BOX 11.1: From the Field: Social Work Persistence
BOX 11.2: What Do You Think? 332
Knowledge and Skills
330
333
BOX 11.3: From the Field: Experiencing School Social Work 334
BOX 11.4: What Do You Think? 336
BOX 11.5: More About … School Social Work Credentials 336
Critical Public Policies
336
Students with Disabilities 337
Poor and Homeless Students 338
Diversity
340
Multicultural Education 341
Bilingual Education and Immigration
BOX 11.6: Becoming a Change Agent
341
343
Students Who Are Deaf or Hearing Impaired 343
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Students 344
Social Work Values and Ethics
345
BOX 11.7: More About … School Social Work Standards
Challenges Facing School Social Workers
345
347
Violence Prevention 347
Teenage Pregnancy and Disease Prevention 348
Tobacco, Alcohol, and Illicit Drug Prevention 349
Dropout Prevention 349
BOX 11.8: Ethical Practice
Conclusion
CHAPTER 12
350
351
Substance Abuse
359
Substance Abuse and Human Development
Types of Drugs
362
362
BOX 12.1: More About … Alcoholism
363
Dependence and Addiction 369
Sugar and Caffeine Addiction 369
BOX 12.2: More About … Criteria in the DSM-5 for Diagnosis of Substance Use Disorders
Causes of Dependence and Addiction
Substance Abuse Treatment and Prevention
Historical Background 373
Current Context 374
The Role of the Social Worker
370
371
372
375
BOX 12.3: From the Field: The Case of Twyla
Diversity Issues and Populations at Risk
377
378
Women 378
African Americans 379
Latino Populations 380
Indigenous People 381
The LGBT Community 382
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CONTENTS
Social Work Values and Ethics
BOX 12.4: What Do You Think?
383
384
Should Drug Use During Pregnancy Be Prosecuted?
Are Needle Exchange Programs Ethical? 385
Should Some Drugs Be Legalized? 385
BOX 12.5: What Do You Think?
xv
384
386
Emerging Issues and Future Concerns
387
AOD Problems in the Workplace 387
Drugs and HIV/AIDS 388
Criminalization or Treatment 389
Steroids and Human Growth Hormone 390
BOX 12.6: Ethical Practice … Punishment or Treatment?
BOX 12.7: Becoming a Change Agent 391
Conclusion
CHAPTER 13
390
392
Violence, Victims, and Criminal Justice
399
Violence, Crime, and Punishment in the United States
The Criminal Justice System
400
401
The Extent and Variety of Crime in the United States 401
Theories of Criminal Behavior Relevant to Social Work 402
Individualistic Theories 402
Sociological Theories 405
BOX 13.1: What Do You Think? 405
Theories and Social Work 406
The Criminal Justice System 407
Racial Imbalance 407
Women 409
Inmates with Disabilities 409
BOX 13.2: What Do You Think?
410
Inmates with Chronic Health Problems 410
Undocumented Immigrants and Crime 411
Social Work Roles and Skills
Historical Background
Practice Settings 415
412
412
Juvenile and Family Courts
Juvenile Corrections 416
Adult Corrections 417
415
Probation, Parole, and Community Corrections
Victim Assistance Services 421
BOX 13.3: More About … Victim Assistance
Policy Issues
419
421
422
Juvenile Offenders
422
BOX 13.4: What Do You Think?
Domestic Violence
423
424
BOX 13.5: What Do You Think? 424
BOX 13.6: From the Field: An Unexpected Journey
425
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xvi
CONTENTS
Crime and Mental Illness 426
Overcriminalization and Privatization
The Death Penalty 427
427
BOX 13.7: The Case of Cameron Todd Willingham: Is the System Too Fallible?
Victims’ Rights
BOX 13.8: Becoming a Change Agent 431
BOX 13.9: Ethical Practice … Rehabilitation or Punishment?
Ethics and Values
Conclusion
CHAPTER 14
428
430
432
432
433
Crisis, Trauma, and Disasters
441
What Do We Mean by Crisis, Trauma, and Disaster?
BOX 14.1: What Do You Think?
442
443
Stress 443
Trauma 445
BOX 14.2: More About … Trauma A Unique Approach to Recovery from Trauma 446
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
BOX 14.3: More About … PTSD
447
448
Disasters—Natural and Human Made 449
Terrorist Attacks on American Soil—September 11, 2001
The Unexpected Nature of Disasters 451
International Events 452
BOX 14.4: Becoming a Change Agent
The Iraq War 454
Secondary Traumatic Stress
Social Work Practice
450
453
455
456
BOX 14.5: From the Field: We Didn’t Start the Fire
456
Micro-Level Interventions 458
Techniques for Reducing Stress 459
Mindfulness and Stress 459
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy 460
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing 460
Emerging Techniques—Energy Psychology and Trauma-Releasing Exercises
461
Pharmacological Treatment 461
Macro-Level Interventions 462
Prevention 463
Military Social Work 464
Social Work Values and Ethics
Conclusion
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX B
465
466
NASW Code of Ethics 473
Web Resources 495
Glossary 501
Index 509
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Preface
The twenty-first century has been a time of extraordinary social and economic
changes. The first African-American president was elected, with women candidates
running in both political parties. The steepest economic recession since the Great
Depression in the 1930s gripped the nation for 18 months. Major health care legislation was passed, after decades of political debate and arguments. More
Americans struggle against poverty, and many face oppression and violence.
Millions live without adequate wages, health care, food, or education. The threat
of terrorism still lingers and challenges us to make our lives safer without turning
to hate, bigotry, or repression. Social workers are called on to address these
challenges.
WHY WE WROTE THIS BOOK
As social work educators, we are charged with preparing a new generation of
practitioners trained to help individuals, families, and communities develop and
expand the strengths they need to address their problems. Today’s social workers
face these challenges during a time of budget constraints and vocal distrust of government and public social welfare efforts. The task of introducing students to our
changing and demanding world often begins in social work classes.
Introductory social work courses attract a variety of students. Most are drawn
to the profession because they want to help people. An Introduction to the
Profession of Social Work: Becoming a Change Agent provides a foundation of
knowledge about social work practice that prepares students for future social
work classes and more advanced study. This book also introduces students to the
process of becoming change agents. Although wanting to help people is critical
for anyone working in human services, there is much more to becoming a professional social worker. The book provides students with information about the
breadth of social work practice and what it means to be a social worker, helping
them determine whether social work is a good fit for them. Therefore, the book is
designed to encourage knowledge building and self-exploration, both of which are
essential to developing good social work practice.
xvii
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xviii
PREFACE
CONTENT OF THE CHAPTERS
An Introduction to the Profession of Social Work: Becoming a Change Agent, like
many other textbooks, informs students about what it means to be a professional
social worker. Unlike some other books, it also instills interest and enthusiasm in
students about pursuing a social work career and encourages students to take an
active role in changing social conditions for the better. The chapters include
detailed, first-person stories by social work practitioners, who describe daily work
in their areas of expertise and highlight cases that illustrate their work. The stories
show the many sides of social work practice. The chapters also include “More
About …” and “Point of View” boxes with additional details and differing points
of view on topics of interest. Each chapter includes a box featuring an ethics
dilemma, an exercise in how to become a change agent, and a concluding section
on how to put into practice the concepts presented.
Pedagogically, the book includes several aids to learning and teaching. Besides
the boxed material, the book features challenging but uplifting case examples.
Some of them remind us why we do this type of work; others end less positively
and make us wonder how to make a difference. The stories give students a very
real picture of social work practice and help them better understand what it is like
to be a social worker. Each chapter is followed by a conclusion and a list of key
terms. Each term is set in bold type in the chapter and is also defined in the glossary at the end of the textbook.
NEW TO THIS EDITION
New to the fifth edition is content from the newly revised Educational Policy and
Accreditation Standards (EPAS). The EPAS document is revised in periodic intervals not to exceed seven years. The latest revisions will not be officially accepted
by Council on Social Work Education (CSWE*) until June 2015 but we were able
to include the most recent draft (2014) version of the new EPAS.
Throughout the text we have updated statistics and referenced new state and
federal legislation as well as recent Supreme Court decisions when appropriate.
For example, in Chapters 2 and 9, we have added new information about the
implementation of the Affordable Care Act, and in Chapter 13 we have referenced
the latest Supreme Court decisions to impact the regulations for juvenile offenders
who are treated as adults in the criminal justice system.
Chapter 4 on Human Rights and Social and Economic Justice has new content
on gender identity and the 2013 Supreme Court ruling on DOMA as unconstitutional as well as enhanced content on disabilities, immigration issues, and the
NSA spying controversy. Chapter 6 provides information on the latest science on
empathy, LGBT youth, and the disproportionality of minorities in foster care.
Chapter 10 on Mental Health has a new focus on mental health recovery.
*The Council on Social Work Education’s Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS) are revised periodically.
This version is the final draft of the EPAS 2015 and may differ slightly from the adopted EPAS 2015.
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PREFACE
xix
“Mental health recovery is a journey of healing and transformation enabling a person with a mental health problem to live a meaningful life in a community of his
or her choice while striving to achieve his or her full potential” (SAMHSA, 2004,
p. 3). The recovery model stresses that people with mental health issues can and do
recover, and can be engaged in productive ways in their communities. The new
DSM-5 is also referenced throughout the text.
PEDAGOGICAL FEATURES
The book is a combination of textbook and workbook. Brief questions are interspersed throughout the chapters to encourage students to engage more deeply
with the material. At the end of each chapter are questions that can be used for
full-class or small-group discussions or on examinations. The questions are based
on the material presented in the chapter; they encourage students to obtain additional information and explore their thoughts about important issues. The chapters
end with exercises that are designed as group or individual assignments. Many are
experiential and emphasize self-exploration as well as a review of the material presented in the chapter. There is also a set of ancillary materials, including exercises
linked to the EPAS core competencies, an instructor’s test bank, and practice questions for students. At the end of the course, each student will have a compendium
of exercises that help put into practice the material presented in the book and
reflect the new CSWE core competencies.
We have deliberately included more exercises than can be done in the available
time in order to provide choice and flexibility. Instructors and students can choose
which exercises to complete, or individuals or groups can work on different exercises and report back to the class on their findings. The exercises can be used to
stimulate discussions or can be semester-long assignments. The discussion questions, change agent activities, exercises, and stories challenge students to explore
the concepts introduced in the text and relate them to their own interests.
This book was developed from our combined years of practice experience and
teaching of introductory social work courses. We are appreciative of all the assistance we received from colleagues, especially those who helped write some of the
chapters, and from the professional social workers who shared their experiences.
We are also grateful to our students who, over the years, have let us know what
does and does not work in the classroom. In particular, we thank the students
who reviewed chapters and provided valuable insights from the perspective of the
target audience.
An introductory textbook cannot thoroughly cover all the topics important to
all social workers. Therefore, the responsibility for the content and design of this
book rests solely with the authors. We hope that students and instructors alike
will find An Introduction to the Profession of Social Work: Becoming a Change
Agent useful, informative, and engaging.
Liz Segal
Karen Gerdes
Sue Steiner
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CHAPTER
1
© Heinle Division of Cengage Learning®
What Is Social Work?
1
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2
CHAPTER 1
J
ane is a 32-year-old single mother with a 5-year-old son and an 8-year-old
daughter. She has supported her family by working 30 hours a week at a
small local grocery store. Her job performance was excellent, but because of a
decline in business, she was laid off. Now she needs to find a way to support her
family. Her low-income neighborhood has very few businesses, and most of her
neighbors subsist on small amounts of earned income and public social service
programs.
Jane contacts her local family service agency for advice and direction. “My
neighbor said I should come here. I just lost my job, I have two young kids to support, my rent is due next week, and I don’t know what to do. Can you help me?”
If Jane came to you, what would you do?
This book will help you identify the resources available to Jane. You will learn
about the skills that the professional social workers at the family social service
agency will draw on to help Jane and her family. Social work is not only about
Jane and her lost job. It is also about neighborhoods and communities. It is about
the childhood experiences that have contributed to Jane’s identity and concerns. It
is about government and public policies. This book is a guide to understanding
how social workers fit into all these different areas.
Once you have learned about the resources and skills needed by a professional
social worker, you will be better prepared to decide whether a career in social
work would suit you. You will be ready to decide on your next step in pursuing a
career in this ever-changing and diverse field.
This chapter provides an overview of the field of social work. It defines concepts and terms that are the basis of understanding what social workers do. The
structures in which services are provided and how social work is a part of social
change efforts are also presented. Throughout the chapter and throughout the
book, you will explore what it means to be a social worker and whether a career
in social work is right for you.
These notations reflect the link that the material in the book has to the professional accreditation standards of our national organization, the Council on Social
Work Education. You will read more about this organization later in this chapter
and how being accredited reflects the national scope of social work education.
SOCIAL WORK AS A PROFESSION
EP 3a
The purpose of the social work profession is to promote human and community
well-being. Guided by a person and environment framework, a global perspective,
respect for human diversity, and knowledge based on scientific inquiry, social
work’s purpose is actualized through its quest for social and economic justice, the
prevention of conditions that limit human rights, the elimination of poverty, and
the enhancement of the quality of life for all persons, locally and globally (CSWE,
2014, p. 1).
Many professions participate in promoting and improving human and community
well-being. For example, police officers protect people and improve safety, lawyers
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WHAT IS SOCIAL WORK?
EP 6a
EP 2
3
contribute to protecting people’s civil rights, and doctors strive to save lives and keep
people healthy. People who are not professionals also help others. Neighbors watch
each other’s children or prepare meals when someone is sick. Volunteers visit the
elderly or serve as big sisters or big brothers. All these efforts are concerned with
improving social functioning. How is the profession of social work unique?
The unique contribution of social work practice is the duality of the profession’s
person and environment mandate: social workers must help society work better for
people and help people function better within society. Helping individuals fit better
into their environments, is typically referred to as micro practice, and changing the
environment so that it works better for individuals is called macro practice. In other
words, social workers make a commitment through professional training to help
people and to improve society, and to give special attention to the interactions
between people and between people and their surroundings.
A psychologist or counselor would likely focus only on Jane’s anxiety and
depression as a result of losing her job. Although a social worker can also help
Jane deal with anxiety and depression (micro practice), the assistance would not
stop there. The social worker would also connect Jane with local, state, and federal
resources, including Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), food assistance, job training, and educational programs (micro practice). Connecting clients
with needed resources is one of the most important things a social worker can do.
For this reason, it is critical for social workers to learn about all the resources
available in every community where they work or serve. In addition, if Jane were
unable to get access to a needed resource, such as quality day care, or if the
resource were unavailable in the community, her social worker would advocate
for providing the resource and might help create it by campaigning for new social
policies and programs (macro practice). Instead of working only from their offices
and waiting for clients to come to them, social workers are out in the field trying
to change societal structures so that fewer people like Jane will need help.
In addition, social workers “understand how diversity and difference characterize and shape human experience and are critical to the formation of identity”
(CSWE, 2014, p. 4). As a result, we recognize how a culture’s educational, economic, and political structures may oppress, marginalize, and alienate some people
while at the same time create or enhance privilege and power for others. Social
workers’ keen understanding of societal forms and mechanisms of oppression has
resulted in a strong commitment to human rights, social and economic justice, and
the elimination of poverty. While other professions may ascribe to similar ideals
and values, there is no other profession that is as engaged and dedicated to ending
injustice, discrimination, and poverty as social work.
Who Are Social Workers?
Professional social workers hold social work degrees from accredited undergraduate or graduate programs. Baccalaureate social work (BSW) and graduate social
work (MSW) programs are accredited by the Council on Social Work Education
(CSWE) on the basis of whether they meet the criteria discussed later. Students in
CSWE-accredited programs learn the knowledge, values, ethics, and a variety of
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4
CHAPTER 1
intervention techniques or skills to work with individuals, families, small groups,
communities, and organizations in order to solve problems and create change.
On graduation from an accredited social work program, social workers must
comply with state licensing or certification requirements. Most states distinguish
among three levels of social work: (1) BSW, (2) MSW, and (3) MSW with two
years’ postgraduate clinical practice. Applicants must pass the examination appropriate to their level of practice. For clinical licensure, they must also complete at
least two years of post-MSW practice experience under the supervision of a
licensed clinical social worker.
MSW- and BSW-level social workers engage in micro practice or direct services
to individuals, families, and small groups. They also participate in macro practice by
conducting research into social problems and their solutions, engage in policy analysis and legislative advocacy, administer programs, and organize people to fight for
social change. To effectively address problems, social workers must help individuals
and families function better and at the same time work to change societal conditions
that limit individual and family functioning. For example, a woman like Jane who
has recently lost her job can benefit from job training and help with interviewing
skills so that she can more easily get a new job. She and others like her can also be
helped by social advocacy efforts to develop new jobs in low-income areas and by
legislative efforts to provide health coverage for the unemployed and working poor.
In addition to BSW and MSW degrees, there are also two types of doctoral-level
social work degrees. Students interested in pursuing a doctorate in social work can
either get a doctor of social work (DSW) degree or a doctor of philosophy (PhD)
degree, depending on the school they attend. While the DSW was the original social
work doctoral degree, the PhD has become more common over the years. The course
work is generally the same in DSW and PhD programs, though there are recent
efforts to make the DSW more of an advanced clinical practice degree and the PhD
more of a research-focused degree. Social workers holding doctoral degrees generally
work as social work educators, researchers, administrators, or policy analysts.
The desire to help others and change social conditions does not earn a person
professional status as a social worker. The desire must be combined with the
knowledge, values, and skills delivered in one of the more than 225 graduate and
490 undergraduate programs accredited by the Council (CSWE, 2014). Even
though other human service practitioners are sometimes referred to as social workers, if they have not completed an accredited social work program and met licensure or certification requirements, they are not professional social workers.
Few careers rival social work for the diversity and wealth of opportunities
offered to practitioners. Social workers operate in a variety of urban and rural settings, including public and private mental health centers, community centers,
courts, prisons, schools, public welfare offices, the military, hospitals, nursing
homes, businesses, and child welfare offices. They address drug and alcohol abuse,
mental and physical illness, poverty, violence, lack of community power, family
conflicts, workplace tensions, discrimination, oppression, and inadequate housing,
among other problems (see Box 1.1).
There are currently over 600,000 social workers employed in the United States
(Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). Forty-seven percent of social workers are
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WHAT IS SOCIAL WORK?
BOX 1.1
5
More About … Social Work
What people think they know about social work is
often a myth.
Myth Most social workers work for the
government.
Fact
• Fewer than 3 percent of all professional
social workers work for the federal
government.
• About a third of all professional social workers are employed by federal, state, and local
governments combined.
Myth For therapy you need a psychologist or
psychiatrist.
Fact
• Professional social workers are the nation’s
most numerous providers of mental health
and therapy services. Professional social
workers are often the only mental health
care providers serving residents of many
poor, rural counties.
• Social work is designated as one of the four
core mental health professions under federal
legislation that established the National
Institute of Mental Health.
Myth Most social workers are employed in
public welfare or child welfare.
Fact
• About one-quarter of all child welfare cases
are handled by professional social workers.
• About 1 percent of NASW members work in
public assistance.
• Professional social workers practice in many
settings: family services agencies, mental
health centers, schools, hospitals, corporations, courts, police departments, prisons, public and private agencies, and private practice.
• More than 200 professional social workers
hold elective office, including two U.S. senators and seven representatives during the
113th Congress.
Myth Social service employees, caseworkers, and volunteers are social workers.
Fact
• A social worker is a trained professional who
has a bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree
in social work.
• All states license or otherwise regulate social
work practice.
• A social service employee, caseworker, or volunteer community worker is not a social worker
unless she or he has a social work degree.
Source: naswdc.org website.
employed as child, family, or school social workers, while 43 percent are working
in the areas of health or mental health. Employment opportunities for social workers are expected to grow faster than the average profession through 2022. Social
workers who specialize in services related to health care and substance abuse are
projected to have the easiest time finding a job due to growing need in these areas.
The professional organization formed to support and advocate for social work
professionals is the National Association of Social Workers (NASW). The average
NASW member holds a master’s degree in social work, has practiced social work
for 16 years, and earns on average $45,000 annually (NASW, 2014a). Hospital
social workers have the highest median salary ($56,290); school social workers
have a median salary of $54,590; and practitioners in state-funded or public social
work positions earn on average $44,370 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014).
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6
CHAPTER 1
Social Work Education
The social work profession’s unique integration of knowledge from a number of
disciplines with the profession’s own skills, values, ethics, and knowledge can be
seen in the content of social work education. Accredited BSW programs include
relevant material from biology and from other social sciences. Most require students to take economics, political science, human biology, philosophy, psychology, and sociology courses. This material is combined with social work-specific
courses in human behavior and the social environment, research, practice, and
social policy.
In addition, students in accredited BSW programs complete a minimum of
400 hours of field practicum, while MSW students complete a minimum of
900 hours. In the field practicum course, students are assigned to a social servicerelated agency or organization under the supervision of a social work practitioner.
Field practicum organizations include child welfare agencies, schools, hospitals,
mental health agencies, senior centers, homeless and battered women’s shelters,
and juvenile and adult probation programs, among others. (See Box 1.2.)
Many two-year colleges offer social or human service programs in which students can earn pre-professional degrees. These programs provide important foundation knowledge and skills that can lay the groundwork for a BSW degree.
Students with degrees from two-year programs can work in most areas of social
services. The positions are typically entry level, and they provide excellent work
experience should the pre-professional choose to pursue a BSW degree. Many students who complete two-year degrees transfer into accredited BSW programs.
BOX 1.2
More About … Social Work Education Criteria
The criteria for social work education are outlined by the Council of Social Work Education
in its “Educational Policy and Accreditation
Standards.” All schools that wish to be accredited must follow the guidelines. Every eight
years, programs conduct self-studies and submit a comprehensive written portfolio to the
CSWE accreditation board. As part of the accreditation process, a team of social work educators
BOX 1.3
reviews the school and provides a report to the
accreditation board. The report and self-study
documents are then reviewed, and a determination is made whether to grant accredited status.
This process ensures uniform standards for
training social workers. No matter where you
choose to study, as long as it is in a CSWEaccredited program, your curriculum will reflect
the standards and values of the profession.
What Do You Think?
What are the differences between a BSW and
an MSW degree? What is the difference in
emphasis between the two degrees? How might
the different training affect the type of job a BSW
graduate might do compared with an MSW
graduate?
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WHAT IS SOCIAL WORK?
7
CENTRAL CONCEPTS AND THEORIES
Part of what defines a profession is a shared vision, typically referred to as a mission.
The primary mission of social work, according to the membership of NASW, is:
to enhance human well-being and help meet the basic human needs of all people,
with particular attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty. A historic and defining feature of social work
is the profession’s focus on individual well-being in a social context and the wellbeing of society. Fundamental to social work is attention to the environmental forces
that create, contribute to, and address problems in living. (NASW, 2014b, p. 1)
Person in Environment Concept
EP 7b; 8b
Several aspects of the mission make the profession unique. One is the focus on the
“needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in
poverty.” The profession has a clear commitment to working with members of
society who are often left behind or left out. A second unique characteristic is the
fact that individuals’ problems are addressed in combination with the social context. Social workers realize that they must pay attention to the environment in
which people live, and they work to change the environment so that it functions
more effectively for individuals, families, and communities. This dual view is
known as the person-in-environment perspective (Karls & Wandrei, 1994).
The importance of understanding problems and directing change efforts at
both the individual and environmental levels is central to good social work practice. Which approach social workers use depends on where they see problems originating. If all change efforts are directed at individuals, social workers see the
causes of people’s problems as being inside themselves. If they focus only on the
environment, they believe that the problems begin outside the individual.
Although it is true that some problems lie exclusively within individuals and
others are purely environmental, most problems have multiple causes. Some causes
are individual, whereas others are societal or structural in nature. If social workers
do not address both individual and environmental causes, they will not be able to
solve problems effectively. For example, to help someone who is depressed, a counselor might immediately engage in therapy and refer the client to a medical doctor
who can prescribe antidepressant drugs. Although these are certainly viable
approaches, the person-in-environment concept dictates also considering whether
something in the person’s environment is contributing to or even causing the
depression. If the person lives in poverty, for example, the everyday struggle to survive might result in depression. Therefore, interventions aimed at reducing poverty
would also be appropriate ways to alleviate the individual’s depression.
Theoretical Basis for Social Work Practice
Social work practice is based on a number of theories developed in a variety of
fields. For example, social workers rely on biological, sociological, anthropological,
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8
CHAPTER 1
EP 4c
and psychological knowledge and theories to help them understand human development. A theory is “a systematic set of interrelated statements intended to explain
some aspect of social life or enrich our sense of how people conduct [themselves]
and find meaning in their daily lives” (Rubin & Babbie, 2007, p. 41). In other
words, a theory attempts to explain why something is the way it is. Theories can
explain social relationships; for example, some theories explain why people develop
biases against members of other groups. Theories can also make predictions about
the likely outcomes of people’s efforts. For example, many types of therapies are
based on the theory that people’s understanding of what happened to them during
childhood leads to improved functioning as adults. A theory must be testable,
meaning that research can be conducted to see whether it is accurate. For social
work, theories help us practice effectively and understand our profession (Payne,
2014).
Theories help us understand human behavior, which is particularly important for social workers who must apply knowledge of human behavior and the
social environment across the life span. Theories alone do not create change,
but social workers apply various theories in practice settings to create desired
change. Social workers use conceptual frameworks to help determine which
theories to apply. A conceptual framework combines theories, beliefs, and
assumptions to help us understand how people interact in their social systems
and how those systems help or block health and well-being. A conceptual
framework gives social workers a basis from which to view situations with clients and provides guidance for the assessment, intervention, and evaluation
process.
Most of the theories used by social workers today developed from a central
theoretical framework, the general systems theory developed by biologist Ludwig
von Bertalanffy (1971). Von Bertalanffy described the functioning of living systems,
including the human body. Scientists have long realized that the systems within the
human body are connected to each other. The failure of one human system often
affects the functioning of other systems and of the body as a whole. Since its development, von Bertalanffy’s framework has been applied to systems in many fields,
including social work.
A system is a group of separate but interrelated units, or elements, that form
an identifiable whole. Each of the parts in a system interacts with other parts in
some way, and the various parts are dependent on each other to create the larger
whole. The various parts of a system affect and are affected by one another. Social
workers are most interested in social systems—the interactions and interdependence
among people that together make up society. Interacting groups can be as varied as
a family, residents of a group home, employees in a business, and residents in a
neighborhood.
Jane’s family is the point of focus for the social worker’s micro interventions.
Figure 1.1, Jane’s System, illustrates that Jane’s family system contains the subsystems of Jane, her son, and her daughter. The family is itself a subsystem within
the neighborhood system or social environment. The focal system interacts with
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WHAT IS SOCIAL WORK?
FIGURE 1.1
9
JANE’S SYSTEM
Social Environment
Public Social Service System
Social Environment
Jane’s Neighborhood
Unemployment
Insurance
Family
Service
Agency
Jane’s
Former
Workplace
Medicaid
Focal System
Jane’s Family
Jane’s
Son
Jane
Jane’s
Daughter
TANF
© Cengage Learning®
Jane’s
Neighbors
Local
School
and is affected by all the subsystems in the social environment of the neighborhood, including the families of Jane’s neighbors, the local school, and the family
service agency. The neighborhood is a subsystem within an even larger social environment, the public social service system. If Jane is participating in such social service programs as TANF, Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and
Medicaid, those national programs are part of her social system.
The focal system is determined by the social worker’s point of focus. If the
social worker’s macro intervention is focused on encouraging the passage of legislation that will make it easier for women like Jane to get unemployment insurance,
then the unemployment insurance program is the focal system. If the social worker
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10
CHAPTER 1
is developing an after-school program that could benefit Jane’s children, the school
is the focal system.
Changes in the focal system or in a related subsystem or social environment
will affect the systems and subsystems with which it interacts. For example, if Jane
completes a job-training program at the local family service agency and secures
new employment, her children will be affected by her new job and the additional
income. The children’s school will be affected by any positive or negative changes
in the children. Likewise, any change in the school system will affect the children,
which in turn will affect their mother.
Because of the fluidity and mutuality of the relationships between systems and
subsystems, systems theory explains a person’s behavior in terms of circular or
mutual causality. In other words, Jane influences her environment, and Jane’s environment influences her. Closely related to mutual causality is the concept of wholeness: “Every part of a system is so related to its fellow parts that a change in one
part will cause a change in all of them and in the total system” (Watzlawick,
Bavelas, & Jackson, 1967, p. 123).
All systems have boundaries, which make it possible to distinguish the parts
that belong in the system from those that do not belong. The boundaries of some
systems are very clear; for example, the physical boundary of a human being—the
skin—clearly separates that person from other people. Boundaries of social systems are often less clear. For example, the boundaries of Jane’s family might
depend on the situation. If a social worker were working with Jane’s daughter,
who was struggling in school, the relevant system members might include only
Jane and her son.
Yet if Jane’s family were trying to care for an aging grandparent, relevant system
members might include Jane’s parents, siblings, aunts, uncles, and cousins as well.
Using a systems perspective means looking at people in relation to all the systems in their environment that affect them. For example, a 77-year-old woman
asks a social worker in a senior center for help. She lives alone, and she is concerned about her physical abilities and financial situation. The systems perspective
dictates first gaining an understanding of all the elements that make up the
woman’s social system. A social worker would assess her physical and mental
health, her financial situation, her support system, and her living situation. He or
she would also explore the larger systems in the woman’s life: the area in which
she lives, the social services with which she may interact, and whether she is connected to a religious institution. Without examining the entire system, areas for
effective intervention might be missed.
The ecological systems framework builds on general systems theory. It goes
beyond looking at the systems that make up a client’s sphere to focus on the intersection of client systems and the larger environmental context. The ecological
framework rests on the life model, which views people and their environments as
reacting to and changing in response to each other (Germain & Gitterman, 1980).
This view requires an understanding of the nature of interactions and transactions
between people and their surroundings. The focus is on the interface, which is
what happens between people and the environment.
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WHAT IS SOCIAL WORK?
11
For example, as a result of Jane’s job loss and her residence in a neighborhood
with few employment opportunities, her life is out of balance, and the environment
is not supportive of her needs. The ecological life model emphasizes examining the
fit (or lack of fit) between Jane and her environment. The intervention goals
become trying to help Jane adapt to this situation and changing the environment
to be more supportive. One of the concerns about this approach is that adaptation
is much more manageable, so environmental change is often ignored. However,
adherence to the full ecological perspective includes addressing both the fit of the
client to the environment, and the extent of support from the environment.
The strengths perspective is a third framework used to guide social work practice. This perspective dictates building on clients’ strengths to create positive
change. It is the opposite of frameworks that encourage social workers to approach
clients from a deficit or problem base. “Social work, like so many other helping
professions, has constructed much of its theory and practice around the supposition
that clients become clients because they have deficits, problems, pathologies, and
diseases; that they are, in some critical way, flawed or weak” (Saleebey, 1992, p. 3).
The problem-based orientation of social work is not surprising, given that social
workers help solve so many problems. But although problems cannot be ignored,
the strengths perspective asserts that a problem-based approach is not the most
effective way to help clients change and grow. Focusing primarily on problems
can reinforce the negative views that clients may have of themselves and their
communities.
The strengths perspective suggests that all individuals, groups, and communities have strengths that often go unnoticed and unappreciated by the individuals,
groups, and communities themselves, as well as by the outside world. The strengths
perspective means recognizing the strengths that are inherent in individuals, groups,
and communities, and using these strengths as building blocks for change.
According to Saleebey,
A strengths perspective assumes that when people’s positive capacities are supported,
they are more likely to act on their strengths. Thus, a belief in people’s inherent
capacity for growth and well-being requires an intense attention to people’s own
resources: their talents, experiences, and aspirations. Through this active attention,
the probability for positive growth is significantly enhanced. (1992, p. 25)
When social workers first go into a neighborhood to begin bringing the residents together to work for change—a process called community organizing—they
BOX 1.4
What Do You Think?
Identify a friend or family member who is struggling with a problem. What strengths might
help this person overcome the problem? What
strengths are inherent in his or her personality?
Does this person have family or friends to turn to
for support or assistance? How has this person
dealt with adversity in the past? Can he or she
draw on those past efforts to help now?
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12
CHAPTER 1
EP 2c
often begin by noting all the things that are wrong. They might note run-down
houses, gangs, abandoned cars, and a lack of needed services. Approaching the
area with a strengths perspective, social workers might instead start by creating an
asset map of the area, pointing out all of its strengths. They might note two active
neighborhood associations, a well-attended community center, several religious
institutions, and residents who themselves have innumerable strengths. Although
the problems cannot be ignored, they do not have to be the first and only thing to
receive social work attention.
Focusing on client strengths is one way to achieve the guiding principle of client empowerment. Academics, politicians, and other people use the term empowerment to describe very different things. In relation to social work practice, it means
helping clients gain power over their lives (Lee, 2001). Mondros and Wilson
describe empowerment as “a psychological state—a sense of competence, control,
and entitlement—that allows one to pursue concrete activities aimed at becoming
powerful” (1994, p. 5). To be empowered, people must believe that they are capable of doing things for themselves, gaining increased control over their lives, and
influencing events and situations that affect their lives. Many people served by
social workers often feel relatively powerless. They have little control over their
own lives and even less over outside events that affect them. Approaching social
work practice from an empowerment perspective means finding ways to help clients take control by making their own decisions and determining the best course
of action for themselves.
The diversity perspective is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the incredible diversity of social workers and their clients. Social workers and the people with
whom they work come from a wide range of ethnic, racial, cultural, and religious
backgrounds; are of different ages, genders, sexual orientations, and classes; and
have different physical and mental abilities. Social workers must understand cultural differences to work effectively with diverse client populations. This means
understanding themselves and their biases, as well as knowing a great deal about
those with whom they are working. It also means understanding the dynamics of
oppression and discrimination. Social work with diverse populations requires practitioners to be sensitive to differences between people and to develop interventions
that are appropriate for specific client groups. The topics of oppression, discrimination, and work with diverse populations are discussed throughout the book and are
covered in detail in Chapters 4 and 5.
To guide effective social work practice with diverse populations, NASW
developed the Standards for Cultural Competence in Social Work Practice
(NASW, 2001). Cultural competence refers to the behaviors, knowledge, skills,
and attitudes that allow social workers to respond effectively across cultures.
The 10 standards aim to provide clear guidelines about what is necessary to
achieve cultural competence. They include practicing in accordance with social
work values and ethics, development of self-awareness about issues of diversity,
development of cross-cultural knowledge and skills, a focus on empowerment
and advocacy, and the encouragement of cross-cultural leadership. Box 1.5 outlines the 10 standards.
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WHAT IS SOCIAL WORK?
BOX 1.5
13
More About … NASW Standards for Cultural
Competence in Social Work Practice
Standard 1 – Ethics and Values
Social workers shall function in accordance with
the values, ethics, and standards of the profession, recognizing how personal and professional
values may conflict with or accommodate the
needs of diverse clients.
Standard 2 – Self-Awareness
Social workers shall seek to develop an understanding of their own personal and cultural
values and beliefs as one way of appreciating
the importance of multicultural identities in the
lives of people.
Standard 3 – Cross-Cultural Knowledge
Social workers shall have and continue to
develop specialized knowledge and understanding about the history, traditions, values, family
systems, and artistic expressions of major client
groups that they serve.
Standard 4 – Cross-Cultural Skills
Social workers shall use appropriate methodological approaches, skills, and techniques that
reflect the workers’ understanding of the role of
culture in the helping process.
Standard 5 – Service Delivery
Social workers shall be knowledgeable about and
skillful in the use of services available in the community and broader society and be able to make
appropriate referrals for their diverse clients.
Standard 6 – Empowerment and Advocacy
Social workers shall be aware of the effect of
social policies and programs on diverse client
populations, advocating for and with clients
whenever appropriate.
Standard 7 – Diverse Workforce
Social workers shall support and advocate for
recruitment, admissions and hiring, and retention
efforts in social work programs and agencies that
ensure diversity within the profession.
Standard 8 – Professional Education
Social workers shall advocate for and participate in educational and training programs that
help advance cultural competence within the
profession.
Standard 9 – Language Diversity
Social workers shall seek to provide or advocate
for the provision of information, referrals, and
services in the language appropriate to the client,
which may include use of interpreters.
Standard 10 – Cross-Cultural Leadership
Social workers shall be able to communicate
information about diverse client groups to other
professionals.
Prepared by the NASW National Committee
on Racial and Ethnic Diversity.
Adopted by the NASW Board of Directors
June 23, 2001.
THE POWER OF LANGUAGE
Language is extremely powerful. Words reveal values, attitudes, and beliefs about
other people. They can harm and degrade, or they can demonstrate respect and
support. Because language not only expresses people’s thoughts but also shapes
them, it is important to make careful word choices. Using certain terms can offend
others and therefore hinder open communication. Using the wrong term can send a
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14
CHAPTER 1
message that the speaker is not intending to send. Fear of using the wrong words
and offending others can keep people from developing relationships with members
of other groups. An open discussion of language can help build bridges between
groups.
Debate over language has been a central component of a number of civil
rights struggles in the United States. Activists in the women’s movement worked
to teach people about the importance of saying woman rather than girl or babe.
African American civil rights activists pointed out that adult males are men, not
boys. Referring to adult females as girls and to adult African American men as
boys communicates attitudes and values that members of these groups are inferior to and less important than adult women or adult white men. The appropriate use or the misuse of words by social workers can convey powerful attitudes
and values.
A variety of words refer to the diverse groups that make up U.S. society, and it
is often challenging to decide which to use. Some of the challenge comes from not
knowing enough about the group. Lack of agreement between outsiders and members of the group about which term is best increases the difficulty. Also, terminology changes over time. Following is an explanation of why the authors of this
book have chosen to use certain terms.
People who are members of oppressed groups are often referred to as minorities. One problem with this term is that not all oppressed populations make up
less than half the population. In particular, women make up more than 50 percent
of the population. Additionally, the word minority often implies “less than,” which
can reinforce the misconception that members of oppressed populations are somehow inferior to other groups. Other terms that can be used to refer to ways that
people fit into the societal structure include oppressed and oppressor groups and
dominant and subordinate or nondominant groups. Members of dominant groups
have control over many societal resources and a strong influence on societal
norms. The words oppressed, dominant, subordinate, and nondominant are used
throughout this book.
The term minority is also used to describe the many populations whose skin
color is not “white.” When referring to these groups collectively, we prefer to use
people of color and whenever possible to refer to the specific population. For
example, instead of using minority to mean African American, we prefer to be
clear and use African American. We do not use the term nonwhite because it is
Eurocentric; that is, it places the dominant population at the center and defines
people of color on the basis of how they differ.
Just as we use African American to refer to people of African descent, we use
Asian American and Pacific Islander to refer to people whose heritage is from
an Asian country or a Pacific island respectively. We refer to people whose ancestry is from South and Central America and other Spanish-speaking areas as Latino/a.
Some within the Latino/a community prefer to use Hispanic, which is most often
used by the Census Bureau and other government entities. The term Hispanic
was coined by Europeans, and it excludes people from non-Spanish-speaking
countries in Spanish-speaking regions, such as Brazil, a Portuguese-speaking
nation.
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WHAT IS SOCIAL WORK?
15
The terms Native American and American Indian are commonly used to refer
to the Indigenous Peoples of North America. Even though these are the most commonly used terms, both are misleading and inaccurate. Indian blurs the distinction
between Indigenous Peoples and people from India, and in fact the term is based
on Christopher Columbus’s mistaken belief that he had arrived in India. Native
American can refer to anyone who was born in North, Central, or South America.
There is great diversity among indigenous nations and tribes in the United States,
and tribal members use a number of terms to refer to themselves. We use First
Nations (Yellow Bird, 1999). Since the Indigenous Peoples were the first populations to settle North America, the term is accurate. We also use Indigenous
Peoples, an internationally accepted term describing the descendants of the original
inhabitants of a land.
We use the word disability rather than handicap throughout the book. A handicap is an obstacle in someone’s path; disability refers to a way in which a person’s
body functions differently than the norm. We attempt to use people-first language
throughout the book when referring to people with disabilities—language that
refers to what a person has, not what he or she is. Saying “disabled person” suggests that the disability is the individual’s primary characteristic. If we instead say
“person with a disability,” we are acknowledging that the disability is just one
aspect of the total person, not all that he or she is.
We use the term sexual orientation rather than sexual preference. Sexual
preference suggests that people decide to be heterosexual, bisexual, or homosexual. Research has demonstrated that sexuality is not a choice, but is rather a
deeply imbedded part of who a person is (see Chapter 5). We also use the
words gay and lesbian rather than homosexual. Homosexual is a clinical term
that has negative connotations. Gay and lesbian tend to have more positive connotations. The inclusive term is lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, abbreviated
as LGBT. Sometimes you will see the abbreviation LGBTQ, with the Q standing
for “queer” or “questioning.” Adding Q is typically done by researchers, who
favor adding queer, which often reflects the category of queer studies, and by
youth organizations and advocates, who acknowledge that sexual orientation is
fluid and that many people are not sure of their sexual identity and may be
questioning. Abbreviations change over time. You may see variations such as
LGBTQ or GLBT. Gender expression and gender identity are terms that expand
the concept of sexual orientation. Gender expression is how a person physically
manifests gender identity. Gender identity reflects a person’s internal sense
rather than the sex of one’s birth. This identity is usually expressed through
behaviors, clothing, and names. People who identify as transgender usually
have a gender expression that matches their gender identity, but does not match
the sex with which they were born. In this text we follow the major advocacy
groups and use the abbreviation LGBT to include all the groups mentioned in
this section.
No one knows the correct term to use in every instance, or how another person will interpret the word. Furthermore, terms and their meanings change over
time. It is imperative to understand the importance of terminology, particularly in
relation to diversity. See the debate over terminology in Box 1.6.
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16
CHAPTER 1
BOX 1.6
Point of View
PEOPLE-FIRST LANGUAGE—YES!
Who are “the handicapped” … “the disabled”?
Society’s myths tell us they are
• People who “suffer” from the “tragedy” of
“birth defects”
ordinary, very wonderful, very typical activities
most people take for granted—then they must
talk about themselves in the very ordinary, very
wonderful, very typical language other people use
about themselves.
• Paraplegic “heroes” “struggling” to become
• Children with disabilities are children first. The
“normal”
• “Victims” of diseases “fighting” to regain their
lives
• Categorically, “the disabled, the retarded,
the autistic, the blind, the deaf, the learning
disabled,” and more
only labels they need are their names! Parents
must not talk about their children in the clinical terms used by medical practitioners. A disability label is simply a medical diagnosis!
• Adults with disabilities are adults first. The
only labels they need are their names! They
must not talk about themselves the way service providers talk about them.
Who are they really?
They are moms and dads and sons and daughters … employees and employers … scientists
(Stephen Hawking) … friends and neighbors …
movie stars (Marlee Matlin) … leaders and followers … students and teachers … they are …
people. They are people. They are people first.
Are you myopic or do you wear glasses?
Are you cancerous or do you have cancer?
Are you freckled or do you have freckles?
Are you handicapped/disabled or do you
have a disability?
People-first language describes what a person has, not what a person is! People-first language puts the person before the disability.
“Handicapped,” “disabled,” or “people with
disabilities”: Which description is more accurate?
Using “the handicapped,” and even “the disabled,” usually evokes negative feelings (sadness,
pity, fear, and more) and creates a negative stereotypical perception that people with disabilities are
all alike. All people who have brown hair are not
alike. All people who have disabilities are not
alike. Many people who have disabilities would
never think of themselves as “handicapped.”
Using people-first language is a crucial issue.
If people with disabilities are to be included
in all aspects of our communities—in the very
My son Benjamin is 11 years old. He loves
the Lone Ranger, ice cream, and playing on the
computer. He has blond hair, blue eyes, and
cerebral palsy. His disability is only one small
part of his life. For many people with disabilities,
their medical diagnoses define who they are!
When I introduce myself to people I don’t tell
them I’ll never be a prima ballerina. Like others, I
focus on my strengths, the things I do well, not
on what I can’t do. Don’t you do the same?
I don’t say, “My son can’t write with a pencil.” I
say, ...