Personal Intervention:
Personal Intervention: Reflect on this week’s lecture and, based on your limited knowledge,
would you say that you are a D, I, S, or C? Write that down, then follow the link, and take a free
DiSC assessment. DiSC.. Once you complete the assessment, compare it to your initial
observation based on the lecture. Read your results and notice the % in the pie chart of your
results. The highest percentage will be your dominant or default style. Keep in mind we all have
all of the DiSC components in our behaviors and adapt when necessary. Based on your results,
how do you feel this information could benefit your personal and professional life?
Your initial post should be at least 250 words in length. Utilize the required reading material to
support your claims.
Link to DiSC assessment:
https://www.123test.com/disc-personality-test/
7
Individual Interventions
Steve Debenport/E+/Getty Images
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• Describe learning and development interventions, including reflective practice; T-groups; training, education, and development; and action learning.
• Identify when management and leadership development is indicated and discuss values clarification and
coaching interventions.
• Distinguish three types of assessments and explain why it is essential that they be administered by certified professionals, effectively debriefed, and used ethically.
• Discuss various ways individual careers can be supported through performance management, career plan
development, assessments, and developmental relationships.
• Explain how jobs can be better developed with the use of job design, job descriptions, and policy development.
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Lindsey was laid off from her job in a financial institution during an economic downturn.
Although it was difficult for her to be without an income, she had not liked her work; she was
often unfulfilled and unchallenged. The layoff gave her an opportunity to think hard about
what she wanted to do next. She had no dependents, little debt, and enough savings to cover the
transition, so she had some flexibility in her next steps.
To begin exploring her options, Lindsey made an appointment with a consultant, Jennifer, who
specialized in career counseling. Prior to their first meeting, the consultant gave her a couple of
assessments to identify her personality preferences and key interests. During their first meeting,
Jennifer shared the results of the assessments and asked Lindsey several challenging questions
such as: “Where do you want to be in five years?” What excites you?” “What is your biggest
challenge?” They also worked on a values clarification exercise to identify Lindsey’s key values.
After each counseling session, Lindsey was given homework that prompted her to explore what
opportunities might interest her.
After much soul searching, Lindsey decided to return to school for an accelerated master’s
degree in instructional design; this would merge her interests in technology and education.
Upon graduation, she was hired by a consumer products company to develop learning and
development programs.
When Lindsey started her new position, she underwent an intensive training program that included
an orientation and an introduction to the organization’s training and technology platforms. Her direct
supervisor worked with her to develop a career
plan within the company. Lindsey joined a national
professional organization that had a regional chapter
in her metropolitan area. She began attending
meetings and developed relationships with several
of her peers and seniors in her field. She struck up a
conversation with the keynote speaker, Jo, at one of
the events who was a vice president of learning and
development at a technology company. They continued
corresponding after the meeting and developed an
informal mentoring relationship.
Lindsey’s mentor, Jo, was a good sounding board
not only for some of the technical problems she
encountered, but also for political issues. Jo recommended books, conferences, and other people from
whom to seek advice about issues and opportunities.
Wavebreak Media/Thinkstock
Jo also helped Lindsey make decisions about which
Lindsey
attends
a
training session for
opportunities and positions to pursue within her
her
new
position.
company. Lindsey received high marks during her
performance evaluations and continued to evolve
her career plan. Eventually, Jo recommended Lindsey to another company who recruited and
hired her into a managerial position.
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This book has focused on accomplishing OD using the action research model (see Table 5.1).
It has moved through the three action research phases of planning, doing, and evaluating. This
chapter is devoted to profiling several interventions that might be appropriate at the individual level of analysis. For the purposes of this chapter, it is assumed you have followed the
action research process up to the point of intervention and carefully selected an intervention
in collaboration with the client.
Interventions are generally decided during the discovery or planning that occurs in phase 1
of the action research model. They are implemented in phase 2, doing or action, and assessed
in phase 3, checking or evaluating. Chapter 5 defined OD interventions as the actions taken
on the problem or issue that is the focus of the OD process. Intervention is the culmination of
the OD process—it is what OD intends to do from the start.
The interventions covered in this chapter are not comprehensive, but rather representative of
the many options available. We could include dozens, as the range and potential of OD interventions is nearly endless. Rather than get lost in a sea of interventions, we will present the
most common individual interventions with descriptions of their definition, why consultants
use them, and how to implement them.
The three intervention chapters in this book have organized interventions according to the
levels of individual, group or team, and organization. Although these interventions have
been categorized by level for ease of understanding their scope, some interventions, such
as leadership development interventions, may fall under more than one category. A leadership development program similar to the one described in the Leadership Academy vignette
crosses all three of these levels, since potential leaders receive individual development that
impacts their interactions with groups and the whole organization.
Another example of interventions that cross all levels would be the implementation of a performance management system. Individual development and change is usually affected when
performance is appraised, and this in turn affects other people, groups, and the organization
itself. See Table 7.1 for examples of interventions according to level of analysis.
Table 7.1: Levels of OD interventions
Individual-level interventions
Group-level interventions
• Learning and development
• Leadership or management
development
• Career development
• Assessment
• Job development
• Group or team process and
development
• Diversity and inclusion
• Conflict management
• Problem solving and decision
making
Organization-level
interventions
• Vision and mission
development
• Strategic planning
• Organization design
• Culture
• Talent management
• Large-scale interactive events
(LSIEs)
The purpose of this chapter is to profile selected interventions according to the individual level. Individual interventions usually accomplish one or more of the following: learning and development, leadership and management development, assessment, career development, and job development (see
Table 7.2). Each will be discussed in this section.
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Section 7.1
Learning and Development
Table 7.2: Categories of individual OD intervention
Category
Intervention
Learning and development
•
•
•
•
Leadership or management development
Assessment
Career development
Job development
Reflective practice
Laboratory training (T-group)
Training, education, and development
Action learning
• Values clarification and integration
• Coaching
• Values clarification and integration
• Coaching
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Performance management
Career plan development
Assessments
Developmental relationships
Job design
Job descriptions
Responsibility charting
Policies
7.1 Learning and Development
Learning and development interventions ensure organization members have the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to do their jobs effectively and help the organization perform optimally. These activities ensure not only that employees are fully trained but that they
also remain engaged in ongoing learning, which helps create and sustain the organization’s
culture, enables the organization to remain competitive, and promotes employee retention.
As we have already discussed, learning and change are intricately related, and this group
of interventions helps employees implement change. Learning and development interventions also help new knowledge be shared throughout the organization. Key interventions in
this area include reflective practice; laboratory training, or T-groups; training, education, and
development activities; and action learning.
Reflective Practice
When was the last time you stopped and gave thoughtful consideration to a decision, experience, or idea? Or had a deep, engaging, and thoughtful conversation with another person?
When you engage in these pauses to contemplate, you are engaging in reflective practice.
What Is Reflective Practice?
Whenever you think critically about your experiences and actions, you are engaged in reflective practice. Donald Schön introduced reflective practice in his books The Reflective Practitioner (1983) and Educating the Reflective Practitioner (1987). Schön distinguishes two types
of reflective practice according to when they occur. Lindsey, who lost her job in the vignette,
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Section 7.1
Learning and Development
engaged in reflective practice with her career counselor, who asked her to think about what
she wanted in the next chapter of her life.
•
•
Suppose Sarah facilitates a meeting. During the meeting she might think: “I need to
be more pragmatic about keeping everyone focused and on point,” or “I didn’t manage the disagreement between team members about the best solution to the problem,” or “Maybe if I restate the issue, we can solve this problem.” These musings about
an experience while it is happening are reflection in action. That is, Sarah asses an
experience, her thoughts about the experience, actions she has taken, or actions she
might take, in the moment. Perhaps as a result, she adjusts her actions in the moment.
Once the meeting is finished and Sarah thinks about what happened and imagines
how she could have handled things better or what she will do next time, she is engaging in what Schön (1983) calls reflection on action. Sarah is using what she learned
from the experience to shape future thoughts and actions.
Why Do OD Consultants
Encourage Reflective Practice?
When OD consultants ask an organization member to change, they are putting
that person into a learning situation. A
learner’s ability to critically reflect on
and in action signals their adeptness
at learning. Reflective practice is one of
the hallmarks of adult learning (Brookfield, 1987; Merriam & Bierema, 2014)
and helps individuals adopt change
more effectively and permanently.
In the opening vignette, Lindsey engaged in reflective practice activities
Reflection helps us learn from our experiences. How
under the guidance of her career counwould you encourage reflective practice as an OD
selor. This helped her assess her situaconsultant?
tion, interests, and opportunities. Unfortunately, time to reflect is largely lacking
in the contemporary workplace, since organizations tend to be focused on action at its expense.
Your clients may have a difficult time slowing down to reflect; they may feel it is a waste of time. On
the contrary, reflection can help clients accept change and be more mindful as they implement it.
The more consultants can help their clients think critically, avoid error, and learn from experience,
the more effective the intervention.
Thomas Barwick/Iconica/Getty Images
How Is Reflective Practice Done?
Brookfield (1987) pointed out how critical reflection is used in strategic planning, effective
decision making, creative problem solving, situational leadership, entrepreneurial risk taking,
research and development activities, and organizational team building. OD consultants that foster reflective practice in their clients on these and other organizational processes will more
effectively help them understand the assumptions that underlie their own thoughts and actions.
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Section 7.1
Learning and Development
A key way to get clients to reflect is to help them recognize contradictions between thought
and action. For example, a manager may claim to treat all employees fairly but show favoritism toward certain people. This behavior is what Argyris and Schön (1974) call espoused
theory versus theory in use. The familiar adage “Do as I say, not as I do” aptly captures
these kinds of inconsistencies, which are usually rampant in organizations. Helping clients
recognize these discrepancies is the first step toward helping them make their behavior more
consistent with their espoused values.
OD consultants might ask an individual to reflect on the impending change, a career move, or
feedback; they might also build in structured reflection time when planning for other interventions such as training. Consultants can also send clients on an individual retreat with
reflection assignments. Reflection is also a key component of coaching and T-groups.
Who Invented That? The Left-Hand Column Exercise
Organization theorists Chris Argyris and Donald Schön (1974) developed the left-hand
column (LHC) exercise as part of their work in action science (a process of action research
that generates useful information about practical problems in organizations, usually by
examining contradictions between what people say and what they actually do). Steps to
creating an LHC include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Pick an important conversation you have recently had.
Use the following worksheet to document the conversation.
Write down the actual words you and your conversant used in the right-hand
column.
Write down what you were actually thinking and feeling during the conversation
as the words were being said.
Compare both columns.
What differences, if any, exist between what you said and what you thought?
a. If there were discrepancies, how can you begin to productively raise some of
your left-hand column thoughts?
b. How can you prompt your conversant to be more forthright about some of
their left-hand column thoughts?
Directions: Recall a conversation you recently had that involved a conflict or
misunderstanding. In the right-hand column, write what you and the other person
actually said. In the left-hand column, write what you really thought. Share your incident
with a partner.
LEFT: What I really thought
RIGHT: What I really said
I was hoping he wouldn’t notice we were late.
YOUR BOSS: Let’s meet this week. We are
behind with the budget and we need to get
these items finalized. Jim, I’d like to come
down there next week. We’re a few weeks
behind, and I think we might all benefit from
a meeting at your office.
(continued)
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Section 7.1
Learning and Development
Who Invented That? The Left-Hand Column Exercise
(continued)
LEFT: What I really thought
RIGHT: What I really said
I need to make it clear that I’m willing to take
responsibility for this, but some of this is out
of my control.
ME: Yes, the deadlines are of concern. As you
know, some of the estimates we need to complete the budget have not come in on a timely
basis, although we are working as hard as we
can to get them. When do you want to meet?
He always seems to offer help after the crisis
has already occurred, not when I really need
it. Now it is too late to do anything but wait.
The changes he keeps making to the renovation plans are the real reason we’re late.
Getting estimates takes time.
I wish I could just level with him that he’s the
reason we are delayed. If we can just get him
to hold off a bit longer, we should be able to
get the estimates.
YOUR BOSS: It seems to me that we could
have better communication and coordination
between the two of us as we establish the
budget. I might be able to help.
ME: I’m always open to better ways to build
the mousetrap.
YOUR BOSS: I hope you have some better
ideas about what we can do here.
ME: If we can push off our meeting until next
week, I think we can have the budget by then
and also brainstorm improved processes.
Your Turn . . .
LEFT: What I really thought
RIGHT: What I really said
Laboratory Training and T-Groups
Laboratory training, or T-groups, provides opportunities for individuals to reflect on their
own behavior and how it affects the group.
What Are Laboratory Training and T-Groups?
We introduced T-groups in Chapter 1. Also known as laboratory training or training groups,
T-groups are small groups of organization members that provide in-depth feedback to
one another about perceptions and how individual behaviors affect the group. Recall that
T-groups stimulated the creation of OD and grew in popularity through the 1960s and 1970s.
They are less popular today because of the risk of being unable to maintain amicable work
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Learning and Development
Section 7.1
relationships after significant self-disclosure and sharing. Also, their results can be difficult to
transfer back to the work context. Frank disclosure may also put employees at risk with their
organizations if management were to retaliate. Refer back to Chapter 1 for a full description
of T-groups.
Why Do OD Consultants Do Laboratory Training and T-Groups?
T-groups are beneficial interventions because they provide fodder for reflective practice,
as discussed in the previous section. Specifically, they help group members reflect on their
interpersonal interactions and thereby deepen their self-awareness. Often, individuals fail to
consider where their assumptions come from or how their behaviors and comments affect
others. T-groups provide a platform for reflection and disclosure that leads to deeper levels
of consciousness.
How Are Laboratory Training and T-Groups Done?
A T-group is rather fluid, usually lacking an explicit agenda beyond enhanced awareness
and understanding. The goals of a T-group include increasing members’ self-awareness and
improving their understanding of how their individual interactions affect the group. T-groups
usually yield useful insights about oneself, others, and the group. T-groups may use the conversation to solve problems, share feedback, or role-play.
T-groups require 8 to 15 participants. The consultant’s role is to guide the group and encourage participants to share emotional reactions (e.g., anger, fear, warmth, or envy) to the other
participants’ actions and statements. The group should focus on sharing emotions rather
than making judgments or drawing conclusions. The T-group helps participants see how their
words and actions trigger emotional responses in the other individuals and ideally makes
participants more mindful of how they behave in group settings.
T-groups can be uncomfortable for members because significant self-disclosure and openness are required. Moreover, participants’ feelings may be hurt because of the feedback’s
highly personal nature. Experienced facilitators help mitigate these risky dynamics.
Training, Education, and Development
A key individual intervention is to ensure that employees have the necessary knowledge,
skills, and attitudes to effectively do their jobs. Training, education, and development make
that possible.
What Are Training, Education, and Development?
Training, education, and development are appropriate interventions when new skills, knowledge, or attitudes are needed in areas such as new technology implementation, diversity and
inclusion initiatives, machine operation, product safety, and new employee orientation. In
the opening vignette, Lindsey pursued all three of these. In this text these three interventions
will be referred to as training. You will recall that Lindsey elected to pursue higher education
training and then received further training when she joined her new company.
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Learning and Development
Section 7.1
Davis and Davis (1998) offer a comprehensive definition of training. Among their key points
are:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Training is always a process, rather than a program to be completed.
Training develops skills, shares information, and nurtures attitudes.
Training helps the organization.
Training usually contributes to workers’ overall development.
Training helps workers qualify for a job, do the job, or advance to a new job.
Training is essential for enhancing and transforming a job.
Training facilitates learning.
Learning is not only a formal activity, it is also a universal activity, and many types of
people facilitate it formally and informally.
Training should always hold forth the promise of maximizing learning.
Why Do OD Consultants Do Training, Education, and Development?
It is easy to associate OD interventions exclusively with training programs, but not all OD
problems require a training solution. When training programs are required, it is important
that they be well designed and facilitated in ways that meet the intended goals. Training is
most effective when it is explicitly linked to organizational strategy and when it targets a
problem that can be resolved by training. Thus, training may be used to improve current
employee job performance, such as by teaching employees new skills, software, or processes
that help them do their jobs with more speed and accuracy. Or it may be a means of orienting
new employees to the policies and expectations of the company. In the opening vignette, Lindsey went through extensive orientation training. Training may also be used to prepare employees for advancement. For instance, leadership training may be offered to develop management potential, or tuition reimbursement programs may be provided to help employees build
technical and administrative skills.
Tips and Wisdom
As well as promoting both professional and personal growth, training helps the organization
enhance its performance. To learn more about training, see Caffarella and Daffron’s (2013)
Planning Programs for Adult Learners: A Practical Guide, Lawson’s (2006) The Trainer’s
Handbook, or Silberman’s (1998) Active Training: A Handbook of Techniques, Designs, Case
Examples, and Tips.
How Is Training, Education, and Development Done?
Training, education, and development are achieved through formal knowledge-building
efforts (McLean, 2006; Nadler, 1970):
•
OD consultants provide or arrange for training via on-site demonstrations, classes,
courses, and programs that help employees accrue job-related knowledge. For example, you may have attended computer class or conflict resolution training. New technical and interpersonal skills help you do your job more effectively. Consultants get
asked to provide training most often as it is often selected as an intervention.
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Learning and Development
•
•
Section 7.1
When you learn how to become an analytic problem solver and use reasoning, you
are receiving education. Education is not necessarily job related. Learning how to
critique classic texts, for example, may not be specific to your job in health care or
manufacturing, but it may be helpful in carrying out your job because it sharpens
your reasoning and writing skills. Consultants do less work in this area, although
they may refer clients to higher education programs or offer programs in their own
area of expertise. For example, if a consultant were an expert writer, she might help
the client’s employees develop in this area.
When you cultivate your interests, perhaps by taking martial arts or a cooking course,
you are engaged in development. Development is sometimes considered more personal and less job related, but like education, it enhances your ability to do your job
and makes you more well rounded. Consultants might recommend development programs as part of an intervention, especially ones that are focused on organization
learning and employee satisfaction.
Action Learning
Action learning arose in the 1990s as a reaction to formal learning interventions (such as
training) that were viewed as ineffective because of the difficulty of transferring knowledge
back to the workplace.
What Is Action Learning?
Action learning deliberately accelerates people’s education about real work problems and/or
desired outcomes within the actual work context. It is a continuous cycle of learning by doing,
followed by reflecting on the doing. Action learning involves getting relevant people together
to work on organizational issues in a fashion that leads to learning throughout the process.
For example, suppose a new product is launched and a group of relevant stakeholders comes
together to ask questions raised by the launch, reflect on problems and solutions that arise
in the launch, share assumptions about the project, make necessary changes, reflect on how
the changes worked, and consider the learning that transpired in the launch process. Action
learning creates a structure for reflective practice among individuals or groups.
Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Action Learning?
Consultants favor action learning because, rather than taking people to an unnatural location
to teach them unnatural acts about abstract concepts (as training often does), it involves the
real people working with the real problem in its real setting. In other words, action learning
involves getting people who have a particular problem together in the workplace to undergo
cycles of learning and action. This makes the process relevant, timely, and completed by the
people who own the problem.
Lawrence (1991) observes that action learning is not only learning by doing, but also involves
reflection with the explicit goal of learning from experience. According to Lawrence, there are
three essential characteristics of action learning:
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Learning and Development
Section 7.1
1. Real work: Suppose a certain scheduling process creates problems for multiple
workers—there is too much overlap at times and not enough coverage at others.
2. Questioning process: The team gets together and begins to question how the schedule is being made; they suggest changes.
3. Implementation: New scheduling procedures are put in place, and the group reconvenes to evaluate how the changes are working and what was learned.
Lawrence (1991) recognizes that action learning has the following outcomes: visible progress
on solving problems, individual development, and change. Unlike some process-improvement
tools, action learning is open ended, dynamic, and fluid. Although the purpose of engaging in
action learning may be clear, the results are often unexpected. Action learning helps participants understand their internal decision and action processes and makes them aware of how
these patterns impact their environment.
How Is Action Learning Done?
Action learning is accomplished by six to eight people who come together to work on a problem. This group is known as an action learning set. There are several variations on steps
taken, but generally the process is as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Establish an action learning set.
Identify a project, task, or problem the set intends to work on.
Engage in a process of questioning, reflection, and inquiry into the problem.
Decide on and implement a course of action.
Reconvene to evaluate whether the action resulted in a satisfactory outcome and to
identify key learning.
Action learning tends to favor asking questions that prompt new thinking, learning, and new
solutions.
Take Away 7.1: Learning and Development
•
•
•
•
Reflective practice helps clients reflect critically on their thought and action by
considering reflection in action, reflection on action, and espoused theory versus
theory in use.
T-groups are small groups in which individuals receive feedback on how their
behavior affected the other members of the group. When done effectively,
T-groups facilitate deep critical reflection and self-awareness.
Training, education, and development give individual employees the requisite
knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform their jobs.
Action learning engages employees in cycles of reflection and action about real
problems they encounter in their real workplace.
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Leadership and Management Development
Section 7.2
7.2 Leadership and Management Development
Learning and development interventions are common across all levels of the organization.
They affect not only individuals, but also teams and the organization itself. A more specialized
type of development is targeted at current and potential leaders and managers of the organization and is therefore known as leadership and management development.
An Overview of Leadership and Management Development
Both leaders and managers are needed to effectively run an organization. Different approaches
are taken for developing each skill type:
•
•
Leadership development involves developing people to guide the organization,
create long-term vision, develop strategy, staff the organization, communicate, and
motivate people toward the vision (French & Bell, 1999). Leadership development is
applicable across levels (McLean, 2006). It is fairly common to send potential leaders
off to leadership development programs such as those offered by the Center for Creative Leadership http://www.ccl.org/Leadership.
Management development involves the process of equipping people to execute
day-to-day practices of organizing, staffing, planning, budgeting, controlling, directing, and problem solving. Management development tends to be position specific. For
example, the general manager of an automotive company might need to learn very
different skills than a city planning manager.
Management and leadership development programs are key ways consultants help individuals and organizations
become more effective in day-to-day
activities and problem solving. Organizations that lack strong managers and
leaders will underperform and have
difficulty responding to the challenges
that continually arise both inside and
outside the organization.
Management and leadership development can be accomplished in multiple
ways at levels ranging from the individual to the team to the organization.
©Hero Images/Corbis
Individual development involves tar- Leadership and management development progeting individuals who show manage- grams help individuals take steps to ensure effecment and/or leadership potential or tiveness in their roles.
people who are challenged in their current leadership role. These individuals
might be sent to leadership development programs, which are usually offered by consulting
firms. Organizations sometimes provide a group of individuals with a more formal leadership development program, similar to the example in the Leadership Academy vignette. The
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Leadership and Management Development
Section 7.2
organization may also take on management and leadership development on a large scale and
roll out various activities across multiple locations. Such activities could include mentoring,
formal training programs, and so forth.
Two interventions—values clarification and integration, and executive coaching—are common management and leadership development interventions. They are discussed in more
detail in the following sections.
Values Clarification and Integration
Values drive thought and action and influence the decisions people make. Providing individuals the opportunity to reflect on what they value and why can help them clarify their life and
career goals and identify areas of potential conflict with others who might prioritize different
values. In the vignette, Lindsey worked with her career counselor to clarify her own values as
she planned her next career steps.
What Is Values Clarification and Integration and Why Do OD Consultants
Do It?
Exercises that help individuals articulate their key values and incorporate them into their
thoughts and actions are known as values clarification and integration. Such exercises are
helpful at all organizational levels.
Engaging in values clarification can help leaders gain clarity around why they make certain
decisions. It can also help them understand why they experience conflict with others whose
values differ. Values clarification is particularly helpful for managers and leaders to engage in
before they have to communicate the organization vision to employees. It can help them clarify what is important about the vision, which makes it easier for them to motivate employees.
Values activities can also help build stronger teams by revealing which values are shared by
team members. Values clarification and integration can also help tie individual values to organization values.
Consultants can also help individuals explore mismatches between what they value and what
the organization values. For example, if a client highly values autonomy but works in a highly
structured environment that has little autonomy, the consultant might help the client explore
this contradiction and find ways to cope.
How Is Values Clarification and Integration Done?
Values clarification can be undertaken with individuals, groups, or organizations. An example
is profiled in the assessment box below. The exercise takes 15 minutes to an hour to complete,
depending on the size of the group and how much discussion the experience yields. The OD
consultant should provide a list of values the participant can choose from, as well as spaces
for additional values to be added. Time should be built in for the participant to talk about the
values identified and why they are significant.
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Section 7.2
Leadership and Management Development
Assessment: Values Clarification—What Is Important?
Instructions: Identify your top 10 values. Then narrow them down to 5 and write them in
the right-hand column.
Tip: Cross out the values that do not resonate with you to make narrowing the list easier.
Values
1. Accomplishment (mastery and achievement)
2. Advancement (progress up the ladder)
Prioritize
1.
3. Adventure (new and challenging experiences)
4. Competitiveness (winning, taking risks)
5. Contribution (assisting others, improving society)
6. Cooperation (teamwork, getting along)
2.
7. Economic security (steady, adequate income)
8. Family balance (family members are satisfied)
9. Freedom (independence, autonomy)
10. Friendship (close relationships with others)
3.
11. Health (physical and mental well-being)
12. Honesty (truth)
13. Integrity (sincerity, standing up for beliefs)
14. Order (tranquility, stability, conformity)
4.
15. Pleasure (fun, laughter, comfort)
16. Power (control, authority, influence)
17. Recognition (respect from others, status)
18. Spirituality (strong religious or spiritual beliefs)
5.
19. Wealth (making money)
20. Wisdom (understanding life)
Source: Adapted from Corbett & Colemon, 2005–2013, pp. 2–3.
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Leadership and Management Development
Section 7.2
After the exercise, ask the client the following questions to stimulate reflection and
conversation:
•
•
•
•
•
What did you learn about yourself? About others?
Was it hard to express disagreement with another person’s values? Why or why not?
Were there times when you felt uncomfortable or unsafe? What helped you stand by
your values at that time?
Were there any times you felt unable to stand up for your values? Why do you think
that was so?
What would support people at times when they feel unable to stand up for a value
they believe in?
Executive Coaching
Coaching is becoming increasingly popular not just in organizations, but in multiple facets of
life. Although business-related coaching such as executive coaching is relatively well known,
there are also career coaches, life coaches, spiritual coaches, health and wellness coaches,
transition coaches, grief coaches, renovation coaches, team coaches, relationship coaches,
and so on. This book focuses on the business realm and examines executive coaching.
What Is Executive Coaching?
Coaching has been defined as “a personal and frequent one-on-one meeting designed to produce specific, positive changes in business behavior within a fixed time frame” (Corbett &
Colemon, 2006, p. 1). Roberts (2000) describes it as “the act of being directly concerned with
the immediate improvement of performance and development of a skill by a form of tutoring
or instruction” (p. 159).
Tips and Wisdom
The International Coach Federation (ICF) started in 1995 as a nonprofit organization to
support coaches and grow the profession. The ICF created core coaching competencies
and a code of ethics. The ICF also defined curriculum standards to ensure consistency in
coach training and developed a credentialing system for coaches. Today the organization is
global, with membership exceeding 20,000. You can find reputable information on coaching
programs and much more at: http://www.coachfederation.org.
Why Do OD Consultants Recommend Executive Coaching?
OD consultants who work as coaches take on the daunting task of integrating individual and
organization goals. That is, they help the coachee connect his or her individual work with that of
the broader organization (values clarification can also help make this connection). Consultants
who are not trained as executive coaches would be responsible for hiring a reputable one.
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Leadership and Management Development
Section 7.2
Corbett & Colemon (2006) identified specific times that individuals might need a coach.
These include when (a) a promotion is involved, (b) a job is at stake, or (c) a new perspective
is needed. Complete the assessment below to see if you need a coach.
Assessment: Do You Need a Coach?
The following questions can help you (or your client) determine if coaching is the right
intervention at this time.
I need expert consulting services to help me solve a complicated business problem.
YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, hire a business consultant.
NO Continue
I need to discuss a deeply personal matter about my sense of well-being.
YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, locate a licensed psychologist, psychiatrist, or
counselor.
NO Continue
I need to discuss the internal politics of my organization and how it affects my career path.
YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, find a trusted person who is familiar with your
organization who is willing to serve as a mentor.
NO Continue
I need to learn and practice specific new skills that I lack.
YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, find an appropriate skill development course that
offers many opportunities to practice the new skills, perhaps using videotaped
feedback.
NO Continue
I need to acquire a specific type of knowledge.
YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, consider your own learning style and purchase the
information in the form of books, tapes, or classes. Set aside time to study and
internalize the information.
NO Continue
I need to evaluate whether I am in the right career and explore options for changing my
career or profession.
YES Do not hire a coach. Instead, hire an expert in career counseling who can
administer aptitude and interest testing and who will assist you in this transition.
NO Continue
I need structured planning and support to help in the accomplishment of a new way of
leading or managing others.
YES Hire a coach!
Source: Adapted from Kirkland Miller & Hart, 2001.
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Leadership and Management Development
Section 7.2
How Is Executive Coaching Done?
Coaches should be certified by a reputable coaching institution. In addition to having credentials, the coach should also follow a process that has a beginning, middle, and end. It is
important to research a coach’s training and process before you hire him or her. You may also
want to check references. A reputable coach will:
1. Establish entry. A coach should offer a contract of services that details the cost, number of meetings, and other expectations.
2. Set expectations and describe the process initially. The first meeting between a
coach and coachee should focus on sharing information about the process, setting
expectations, and agreeing on ground rules for the encounters.
3. Establish accountability. If an organization has hired a coach to work with an
employee, the coach should regularly communicate with the person’s boss (or other
stakeholder, like a mentor) about the areas needed for development and the progress being made. Usually this contact would occur at the beginning, midpoint, and
endpoint. If an individual has hired a coach independently, it is up to the coach and
coachee to determine how accountability will be held for progress.
4. Establish a baseline. Coaches need to understand information about their coachee’s
behavior, values, interests, and performance. Most coaches use assessments, conduct
values clarification, and seek feedback from other organization members in order to
get a full picture of their coachee at the beginning of the process.
5. Identify areas to improve. Once the baseline is established, the coach and coachee
mutually agree on an area for improvement. The coach helps the coachee develop
strategies and new behaviors to make the agreed-upon improvement.
6. Help the coachee solve his or her problems. Effective coaches rarely give advice.
Rather, they use questioning and reflection exercises to help their clients solve their
own problems and build confidence and capacity in their own skill set.
7. Share blunt and direct feedback. Good coaches do not mince words and will serve
as a mirror to reflect the coachee’s behavior and challenge them. Good coaches hold
their coachees accountable.
8. End the coaching when the coachee has met the goal. Once the coachee has made
the agreed-upon improvements, the coach should move toward ending the coaching
engagement and ensure the coachee has the capacity to maintain the change. The
coach should remain available for future issues and occasionally check in with the
coachee to see that the changes have been maintained.
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Section 7.3
Assessments
Take Away 7.2: Leadership and Management Development
•
•
•
Leadership and management development targets current and potential leaders
to ensure they have the core skills to help the organization reach levels of high
performance.
Values clarification and integration helps leaders and managers articulate their
key values and integrate them into daily behaviors as they manage and lead
employees.
Coaching is an intense relationship between a coach and coachee that seeks to
create positive changes in business behavior.
7.3 Assessments
Instruments that measure myriad aspects of individual attributes are known as assessments.
Assessments are useful for helping individuals gain new insights about themselves but can
also be helpful when working with groups and teams. Assessments have great potential to
stimulate individual reflection and change when used appropriately and ethically. There are
dozens of assessments available for almost any topic. This section profiles some popular ones
and their uses.
An assessment attempts to quantify certain aspects of individual personality or behavior,
from learning styles to ethical orientation to leadership style. Assessments measure what
energizes you, how you behave in certain situations, what your colleagues think of you, how
you learn, what side of the brain you favor, and what strengths you possess. Hundreds of
assessments exist, as evidenced by the numerous results that appear from an online search
for “free personality assessment,” for example.
Consultants juggle multiple variables in their efforts to implement change. Human beings
are complex and require different approaches. Assessments yield rich data with regard to
how individuals and teams interact. They provide information on how people will engage
interpersonally, where they get their drive and motivation, what type of style they employ in
multiple situations, how they problem solve and make decisions, how they manage pressure
and stress, and how they handle and accept change.
When you ask organization members to learn and change, they need pertinent information.
There is nothing more timely and relevant than an assessment to help bridge understanding or
point out opportunities for learning and growth. That is why consultants reach for them readily.
We have included assessments in every chapter of this book precisely because they provide
immediate feedback or insight into preferences, traits, or behaviors in a way that helps people
understand themselves in relation to others. Assessments can be taken with pencil and paper,
scanned by computers, or completed electronically.
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Section 7.3
Assessments
Although assessment tools can help
both the client and consultant develop
insights, they should only be administered by a trained or certified professional. In addition, their limitations
need to be fully disclosed and their
results not taken as a definitive statement on the person. Assessments are
more helpful when used in conjunction with other interventions such as
training, feedback, coaching, and leadership development.
This section will profile three commonly
used assessments in OD: 360-degree
moodboard/Thinkstock
feedback, DiSC (dominant, influential,
Assessments help individuals gain perspective on a
large range of issues, from behavioral style to learn- steady, and conscientious), and the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI).
ing style to conflict style and more.
Like all assessments, they have limitations but offer an additional tool that
may be useful as you go about the work of OD on an individual level. Additional links to assessments are included at the end of this chapter. In the opening vignette, Lindsey’s career counselor
helped her take several assessments.
360-Degree Feedback
In simple, geometric terms, 360 degrees means “full circle.” A 360-degree feedback assessment, then, is one that seeks input from everyone in the leader’s circle. That includes direct
supervisors, mentors, peers, subordinates, customers, suppliers, and any other stakeholders
who can provide relevant input.
What Is 360-Degree Feedback?
During a 360-degree feedback process, an OD consultant seeks feedback about an individual
from multiple sources and levels, such as peers, subordinates, supervisors, self, and customers
(McLean, Sytsma, & Kerwin-Ryberg, 1995). The technique is also known as multirater feedback. The feedback gained is usually used to cultivate an organization’s leaders and managers.
Several companies, such as Personnel Decisions International and the Center for Creative
Leadership, administer electronic assessments and provide extensive documented feedback
to the individual. These assessments can cost hundreds of dollars. To save money, OD consultants may design their own 360-degree evaluation.
Why Do OD Consultants Use 360-Degree Feedback?
360-degree feedback is relevant because it helps validate what the consultant has already
observed and is trying to convey to the client. When it is confirmed in multiple other ways, it
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Assessments
Section 7.3
gives the feedback greater validity. For example, imagine you are working with a client who
does not listen. You repeatedly observe this behavior and share this feedback with the client,
who brushes it off. When lack of listening shows up in a 360-degree evaluation and is mentioned by almost everyone, it usually gives the leader pause and reason to take the feedback
more seriously.
How Is 360-Degree Feedback Done?
There are at least two approaches to 360-degree feedback. The first is low budget, although
it requires time and experience. In this method, the consultant and client identify key informants whom the consultant interviews about the client’s performance. A consultant must be
skilled and experienced enough both to identify good interview questions and manage the
interview session so that it yields rich, constructive data.
The second approach is to use a validated instrument that sends confidential questionnaires
to participants identified by the client. The instrument is scored to show how groups—such
as subordinates, peers, and so forth—rate the client. Also, feedback from the client’s boss
is identified. To use these instruments, a consultant must be certified; or a certified vendor
should be used to provide feedback. The consultant should be trained in facilitating the session, interpreting the formal feedback, and framing the feedback in a constructive manner.
DiSC
The DiSC is a popular assessment that measures behavioral tendencies. It is useful for understanding how you or others will typically behave.
What Is DiSC?
Understanding the motives behind behavior can offer valuable insight into both individuals
and teams, improving the ability to work together and resolve conflict. The DiSC assesses a
subject’s attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviors and identifies a behavioral style as either
dominant, influential, steady, or conscientious.
1. Dominant: Tends to be a direct, driving, demanding, determined, decisive doer. This
style is fiercely independent and persistent about tasks. Dominant individuals tend
to focus more on the goal or task than the people.
2. Influential: Tends to be relational, interactive, imaginative, energetic, inspiring, and
friendly. This style is highly social and relational and can be persuasive. Influential
individuals tend to focus more on the people than the task, which can cause them to
be poor time managers.
3. Steady: Tends to be submissive, stable, supportive, shy, accommodating, and peace
seeking. This style is a helper and will provide listening and support. Steady individuals may sacrifice their wishes for the good of the whole.
4. Conscientious: Tends to be cautious, compliant, careful, contemplative, and a critical
thinker. This style prefers logic, facts, and step-by-step procedures. Conscientious
individuals are very private and unemotional.
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Section 7.3
Assessments
Why Do OD Consultants Use DiSC?
The DiSC is appropriate when examining behavior, especially during coaching, leadership development, or team-building exercises. Understanding behavior helps depersonalize reactions as
individuals or groups go about problem solving, decision making, and implementing change.
How Is DiSC Done?
You can take the DiSC free here: http://www.123test.com/disc-personality-test. You can also
administer a longer, more expensive test if you become a certified vendor through Inscape
http://www.internalchange.com, which is a provider of the original instrument.
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The MBTI is a very popular assessment of personality preferences based on Jungian psychology. It is used worldwide.
What Is MBTI?
Understanding personality preferences is useful for self-introspection and interpersonal
dynamics. The MBTI measures personality preferences according to four areas, as outlined
in Table 7.3.
Table 7.3: MBTI Preferences
Description
Preference
E: Extroversion
This preference draws essential
stimulation from the environment: The outer world of people
and things.
How you accumulate energy
S: Sensing
The sensing function takes in
information by way of the 5
senses: sight, sound, touch, feel,
taste and smell.
T: Thinking
The thinking function decides
on the basis of logic and objective considerations. Usually
dispassionate.
J: Judging
A judging lifestyle is decisive,
planned, orderly, structured, and
with a strong need for closure.
How you gather data
How you make decisions
How you order life
Description
I: Introversion
This preference draws essential
stimulation from within: The
inner world of thoughts and
reflections.
N: Intuition
The intuiting function processes
information by way of a “6th
sense” or hunch. A few pieces of
data, then, a quantum leap.
F: Feeling
The feeling function decides on
the basis of personal, subjective
values. Logic is used, but the
impact of the decision on others
is added.
P: Perceiving
A perceptive lifestyle is flexible,
adaptable, and spontaneous. It is
free and flowing.
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Career Development
Section 7.4
Why Do OD Consultants Use MBTI?
Consultants use MBTI to understand how clients prefer to accumulate energy, gather data,
make decisions, and order their life. The MBTI also helps individuals see how they are similar
to and different from other colleagues. The MBTI is often used for team building, so it is a
common intervention at both individual and team levels.
As with any assessment, the administrator should be trained and certified in the use of the
MBTI. Clients should also be cautioned about the instrument’s limitations. The MBTI has been
widely critiqued. Psychologists question its validity. Another problem with the MBTI is people tend to read too much into the results and dichotomizing types, rather than stay mindful
of its limitations and applicability. This is in part due to the MBTI’s use of binaries to type
people; that is, identifying someone as either introverted or extroverted. The MBTI has also
been critiqued for its use in hiring decisions. This is considered an abuse of the instrument,
since it has also been criticized for having a short test–retest interval, meaning that the result
of the personality type might change over time, depending on the life circumstances of the
test taker. This would render its use in hiring decisions questionable at best. It can also be
inappropriately applied to work teams when types become overused to explain behavior and
enforce stereotypes about colleagues (Burnett, 2013).
How Is MBTI Done?
There are several versions of the MBTI. Official instruments cost money to administer and will
be more thorough and valid. You can access a free assessment at: http://www.16personalities
.com/free-personality-test.
Take Away 7.3: Assessments
•
•
•
•
Assessments can help individuals gain insight and self-awareness.
360-degree feedback provides the individual with feedback from supervisors,
subordinates, peers, and other stakeholders.
The DiSC measures behavioral tendencies according to dominance, influence,
steadiness, or conscientiousness.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assesses personality preferences
according to how individuals prefer to accumulate energy, gather data, make
decisions, and order their lives.
7.4 Career Development
Many of the individual interventions discussed in this chapter facilitate clients’ career progress by helping them be more effective in their current job or preparing them for advancement opportunities.
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Career Development
Section 7.4
Brown (2007) defined career development as a “lifelong process involving psychological, sociological, educational, economic, and physical factors as well as chance factors that
interact the influence the career of the individual” (p. 14). As Brown suggested, fostering this
process requires “both self-awareness and knowledge of the occupational structure” (p. 2).
Career development is heavily influenced by values and role models. This influence is visible
in how people make career decisions, how they prepare for careers, how their careers unfold,
how careers influence identity, and how people integrate their careers with their lives. Career
development interventions are intended to help people set career-related goals and make
choices. Such interventions might include developing self- and occupational awareness, refining job-searching skills, adjusting to occupational choices, and coping with job stress or loss.
People are an organization’s most important resource. Organizations that are not focused on
hiring, developing, and retaining a talented workforce will have difficulty competing. Career
development practices help ensure that people in organizations are prepared to perform at
high levels. In Career Development Interventions for the 21st Century, Niles & Harris-Bowlsbey
(2004) suggest that clients need to develop the following competencies to be most effective at
planning for and managing their careers:
1. using both rational and intuitive approaches in career decision making;
2. being clear about the importance attached to each life role and the values one seeks
to express through participating in these roles;
3. coping with ambiguity, change, and transition;
4. developing and maintaining self-awareness;
5. developing and maintaining occupational and career awareness;
6. developing and keeping one’s occupationally relevant skills and knowledge current;
7. engaging in lifelong learning;
8. searching for jobs effectively, even when one is not job seeking;
9. providing and receiving career mentoring; and
10. developing and maintaining skills in multicultural awareness and communication.
This section will profile some common career development interventions such as performance management, career plan development, and developmental relationships.
Performance Management
“Loyalty. Long-term career opportunities. Corporate cultures that allow employees to speak their
mind. Senior leaders who lead by example. A new study of how high-performing companies
motivate their people shows that some old values—as in sound management practices—never
go out of style. Because they work” (Lipman, 2014). Lipman (2014) reports on a study by Towers
Watson, “Tracking People Priorities and Trends in High-Performance Companies,” that explored
trends in employee opinions over a 5-year period. The high-performing group, which was a
cross-section of diverse industry sectors, included 26 organizations that outperformed peers in
“financial performance” and “employee opinion scores.”
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Career Development
Section 7.4
The study showed that four specific areas contributed to these organizations’ success:
1. Career development: particularly companies that put an emphasis and value on talent development and providing long-term career development opportunities and
training.
2. Empowerment: providing open, supportive cultures that cultivate innovation and
empower staff.
3. Rewards and recognition: offering compensation packages that satisfy employees,
including benefits and nonmonetary recognition. Of high importance was having a
supervisor who valued employee contributions.
4. Leadership: delivering leadership that satisfies employees, particularly with regard
to communication and making decisions that were consistent with company values.
Top organizations are high performing on multiple levels, including how they manage and
develop people, as shown by the recent study.
What Is Performance Management?
Performance management is the process of aligning organization resources, systems, and
people with business goals and strategy. Performance management can involve parts of the
organization, such as departments, people, or even products. This chapter is concerned with
performance management as it relates to individuals. It focuses on individual goal setting and
performance appraisal systems and how they are aligned with reward systems. For example, an
organization that takes a strategic approach to performance management would articulate its
key goals and ask employees to identify ways they can link achieving them to their own goals.
Why Do OD Consultants Facilitate Performance Management?
“Errors in managing people always add to the cost of a product or service” (Daniels, 1985, pp.
225–226), which is why companies use performance management to help identify performance problems, determine a baseline, make an intervention, and evaluate results. OD consultants commonly encounter performance issues; helping organizations address them can
significantly improve organization outcomes.
Daniels (1985) observed that performance can be changed when you change the consequences
of what happens to employees based on their performance. In other words, create penalties
when desired performance is not achieved and rewards for when it is. He criticized organizations for too rarely tying performance to consequences that directly impact performance,
such as salary increases, bonuses, promotions, profit sharing, or recognition. Instead, most
organizations fall into the trap of giving nonconsequential rewards that may seem related to
performance but rarely are. These include cost-of-living adjustments, seniority-based pay and
experience, and whims of the boss.
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Career Development
Section 7.4
How Is Performance Management Done?
Aubrey Daniels is credited with developing the concept of performance management in the
1970s. He wrote that approaches to employee productivity need to answer the following
questions: “What should employees be doing? And precisely how can they be motivated to do
it?” (Daniels, 1985, p. 225). Performance management has three components: positive reinforcement, measurement, and feedback (Daniels, 1985).
Positive reinforcement helps employees achieve maximum performance. Daniels (1985) considered it the opposite of the “do it or else” mentality that threatens negative consequences
when employees fail to perform, and instead advocated a “do it and else!” philosophy where
the employee performs well and then something “distinctly pleasant” (p. 228) happens to
them. Positive reinforcement has proved more effective at eliciting high performance than
other methods. Organizations need to be clear about what the positive consequences are and
ensure they are awarded soon after the positive performance.
Measurement is the second aspect of fac-ilitating performance management. Daniels (1985)
believed that any behavior could be measured according to its frequency and quality. A problem with creating behavioral measurements in most organizations is that employees expect
negative consequences when they do not make their numbers. Instead, Daniels advocated
measurement as a tool “not to justify punishment, but to recognize improvement” (p. 231). Measurement is important, since it is the only accurate way to gauge whether desirable behaviors
are occurring.
Tips and Wisdom
Check out performance appraisal examples and tips at this website: http://www.businessballs
.com/performanceappraisals.htm.
Here you will find a plethora of information on performance appraisals, such as examples
and templates of appraisals, tips for making them easier and more effective, resources for
engaging in your own self-appraisal, and more.
The third element of performance management is feedback. Feedback provides information
about the employee’s performance that helps improve future performance. As Daniels (1985)
put it, “The sole purpose of measurement and feedback is to create opportunities for positive
reinforcement” (p. 232).
Deming (1982, 1986), father of the total quality management movement discussed in Chapters 1 and 8, opposed individual performance appraisals, arguing they only encourage shortterm goals and undermined teamwork. They also tend to focus on negative reinforcement
and fail to account for issues beyond the control of individual employees, such as systemic
organization problems (problematic equipment, processes, and management). Performance
management offers an alternative to ineffective feedback and appraisal.
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Career Development
Section 7.4
Case Study: Piloting and Evaluating a New Performance
Appraisal Process
The Health Defender Insurance Company of Georgia is in trouble. The company’s
salespeople spend most of their time fielding complaints about poor customer service.
As one sales rep complained, “All we hear about is how slow our claims processing is and
how we don’t respond to the customer.” Sales of new contracts have dropped dramatically
over the past few years, and something has to be done.
The company’s new president, Julie Goodrow, is distressed at the company’s state.
Dwindling accounts, stressed employees, and frustrated management seem to be
the norm. She explains the predicament to an OD consultant, Dan Rock, with whom
she worked at her former institution. She and Dan work through the action research
process to develop an OD intervention. A year later, Health Defender is in a completely
different place. Its new contracts are at their highest rate ever, and Health Defender is
outperforming every other state division of the company in the United States.
What was behind Health Defender’s turnaround? The company made a fundamental
change to how it managed its frontline employees by implementing a performance
management process that incorporated Daniel’s (1985) key elements of positive
reinforcement, measurement, and feedback. The results were dramatic and not only
included new accounts, but also higher quality customer service and a restored corporate
image. Internally, the company also improved morale, decreased absenteeism, and
improved employee relations.
The intervention involved training 180 managers and 15 executives, including Julie
herself, in performance management. The change was met with the skepticism and
resistance that most changes induce in organizations. Health Defender had to overcome
previous failed productivity improvement initiatives and efforts to measure performance
that were viewed as punitive and threatening.
Health Defender spent a year implementing the performance management process by
incorporating regular feedback and positive reinforcement with rewards for improving. It
took some time, but eventually this new feedback-driven process became second nature
to managers. A walk through their offices reveals graphs of performance data at works
stations and a culture that is driven by measurement and healthy competition between
departments to see who has the best performance.
Health Defender’s results are impressive. The time to process health claims dropped
dramatically, backlogged claims dropped by half, and overall productivity increased.
Employee attitudes and morale also improved. People are happier, more responsive to
customers, and more satisfied with their jobs and with management.
Critical Thinking Questions
1.
2.
What types of positive reinforcement do you think would be effective for Health
Defender?
How would you manage resistance to a performance management
implementation?
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Career Development
Section 7.4
Career Plan Development
Plato (2000) said, “The beginning is the most important part of any work” (p. 365). Indeed,
good beginnings usually involve good plans. It is difficult to accomplish big goals if you do not
have a vision of what you want to do or how to get there. Career plans serve this function, and
consultants work with clients on an individual level to develop them.
What Is Career Plan Development?
A simple yet powerful intervention for individual career development is to ask the client to
complete a written plan for his or her immediate, midterm, and long-term career, including
developmental needs. This is known as career plan development. Often, it is helpful to work
in 5-year increments with shorter or longer increments, depending on the person and their
role. A typical career plan might include ideal job descriptions, assessments, work locations,
and necessary training and higher education requirements.
Why Do OD Consultants Encourage Career Plan Development?
Consultants use career paths because they help clients focus on what they want to do and
create a road map for how to get there. Career plans are developed by doing a thorough
self-assessment, often using some of the assessments we have discussed in this book. It is
also useful to research various career paths that are desirable. Articulating goals and plans
are very powerful activities that help clients imagine a desired future and create the steps
they need to achieve it. Career goals can also help clients set priorities, identify needed
resources, target potential mentors, and make changes in their current positions to get better aligned for the future.
How Is Career Plan Development Done?
Here are some steps for writing a career plan:
1. Identify goal(s)
2. Outline key action steps for the immediate and longer term
3. Determine the developmental requirements needed to meet the goal(s):
a. Skills
b. Abilities
c. Interests
d. Education
e. Experiences
4. Update your resume
5. Outline next steps
Once the plan is written, it should be shared with a supervisor or mentor and assessed and
revised as necessary.
Have you ever written a career plan? It is a very powerful exercise that helps you visualize
your future and determine how to make it a reality.
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Section 7.4
Career Development
Tips and Wisdom
There are dozens of assessments and resources available related to careers. O*NET is a
U.S. Department of Labor resource (http://www.onetonline.org) that brings access to job
information, assessments, and salary information together in one place and is “the primary
source of occupational information in the United States” (Brown, 2007, p. 213). Other
assessments that may be useful include the Strong Interest Inventory, Skills Confidence
Inventory, Myers-Briggs Type Inventory, Self-Directed Search, and Career Key (Brown, 2007).
Developmental Relationships
The adage “It isn’t what you know, it’s who you know” is often used to describe the way in
which opportunities and advancement may be less a function of specialized training and more
a matter of networks that connect us to people who can help us advance. These relationships
are known as developmental relationships.
What Is a Developmental Relationship?
A relationship that helps advance someone’s career is likely a developmental relationship.
This term encompasses a range of relationships that “contribute to individual growth and
career advancement” (Crosby, 1999, p. 7). These include mentoring as well as less intense
relationships such as sponsorship, networks, and peer support:
•
•
•
•
When a senior person takes
interest in the learning, advancement, and career development
of a junior person, this relationship is mentoring.
When someone supports you
for a particular assignment,
recognition, or promotion,
this relationship is known as
sponsorship.
When you belong to a group
that shares a particular affinity for challenges unique to
that group—such as women,
people of color, or LGBTQ—
you belong to a network.
When you provide mentoring
or coaching to a person at your
same rank or position, you are
offering peer support.
SOMOS/SuperStock
Mentoring is a developmental relationship in which
a senior person helps a more junior person navigate
career issues, challenges, and opportunities.
If you in a developmental relationship, how would you classify it?
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Career Development
Section 7.4
Why Do OD Consultants Encourage Developmental Relationships?
Developmental relationships can be rich opportunities for learning, increased visibility, exposure to role models, developmental experiences, and promotional opportunities. Although
developmental relationships depend on the right chemistry, consultants can encourage organization members to forge them.
How Are Developmental Relationships Developed?
As a consultant, you may not be able to direct people to form developmental relationships,
because they depend on timing and chemistry. However, you can help individuals develop
skills to build effective developmental relationships. In seeking a developmental relationship,
you will want to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Observe how your colleagues and superiors interact and learn from them.
a. What do they do well?
b. How could they improve?
c. What do you want to emulate?
d. With whom do you want to build a relationship?
Talk about your career plan with your supervisor, colleagues, and others with whom
you might like to develop a developmental relationship.
Ask past and present colleagues, supervisors, professional contacts, mentors,
coaches, family, or friends for feedback on your key strengths and growth areas.
Reach out to people with whom you would like to build a developmental relationship. Share your career aspirations and ask for their help.
Join professional associations and get involved.
Thank the people who help you and pay it forward.
Tips for being in the more senior role in a developmental relationship include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Be a positive role model. Conduct yourself in ways you want to see your protégés
emulate—they are watching you.
Show genuine interest and learn about your protégé. This means following through
on your commitment to provide support and guidance when needed and make time
for the person.
Share your experiences, insights, and mistakes, and model reflective practice.
Listen. Be patient.
Be open-minded and compassionate.
Ask questions and avoid giving answers.
Provide a fresh, objective perspective.
Give constructive feedback and positive reinforcement.
Help your protégé network.
Celebrate your protégé’s achievements and give public recognition.
Continue to seek mentoring yourself to keep your edge.
Comentor with a peer—mentor each other.
You can see from this section that Lindsey, from the opening vignette, underwent several career
development interventions, beginning with her career counselor. She also had training and
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Job Development
Section 7.5
experience (via higher education and corporate-sponsored programs) that boosted her career.
She had a developmental relationship through her mentor, while her new work supervisor
encouraged her to write a career plan and gave her feedback through performance appraisal.
Take Away 7.4: Career Development
•
•
•
•
Career development is a process of lifelong learning that influences individual
career choices according to psychological, sociological, educational, economic,
and physical factors.
Performance management involves elements of positive reinforcement,
measurements, and feedback to achieve optimal organization performance.
Career plan development is the process of helping the client document career goals
and values and create a road map for the present, near- and long-term future.
Developmental relationships are ones that help individuals advance their careers,
such as mentoring, sponsorship, networking, peer support, and coaching.
7.5 Job Development
Sometimes the intervention is less about the individual and more about the job. For example,
key responsibilities of a secretary once included tasks like taking dictation, composing correspondence, and scheduling meetings. Today technology makes it possible for most of us to
do these things ourselves. Thus, the secretary of yesteryear is today’s administrative professional, whose duties have dramatically changed to include project management, purchasing,
meeting and event planning, writing and editing, creating and delivering presentations, maintaining multiple schedules and calendars, and electronic record keeping, all using multiple
computer software applications (International Association of Administrative Professionals,
2014). The evolution of the administrative professional role is but one example of how a job
has changed. Organizations have the challenge of helping employees evolve with the changing
needs of the job. This can be particularly challenging for workers who have been in a job for
many years.
When we make interventions that are job specific, we are undertaking job development. The
interventions that may be used include redesigning jobs, writing job descriptions, and creating policy.
Consultants make job development interventions when certain jobs no longer meet the needs
of the organization and must be restructured to better respond to organization needs, market
shifts, or customer demands. For example, airport check-in areas today are peppered with
self-service kiosks. Employees working the registration area need to be able to help customers troubleshoot as they check in for their flights.
Job development can be accomplished through job redesign, job description writing, and policy development.
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Job Development
Section 7.5
Redesigning a Job
A job design is the way a job is organized in terms of its tasks or overall purpose (McLean,
2006). Redesigning a job requires identifying the tasks of the job, how to do them, how many
to do, and in what order. More broadly, it involves assessing the current work practices, conducting a task analysis, designing or redesigning the job, implementing the new design gradually, and evaluating the design on a regular basis (McLean, 2006).
OD consultants are frequently hired to redesign jobs in order to “heighten skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback from the job” (French & Bell, 1999, p. 236).
Another common reason for job redesign is to accommodate advances in or problems arising
from technology. The traditional secretarial job, for example, was redesigned to keep pace
with advances in communication and information technology. A manufacturing process may
be changed when repetitive hand movements begin to cause physical problems for workers,
such as carpal tunnel syndrome.
McLean (2006) noted that a job redesign is more likely to succeed when the plan considers not
only the individual job but also how it interacts within the complex context of the organization.
If we return to the example of airline registration employees, they are required not just to help
customers learn how to use the self-service kiosks, but also to negotiate an increasingly global,
diverse traveling population and help travelers with any problems they encounter.
Like any change, job redesign will be most effective when employees participate in the process. Employees know the precise details of the job as well as its challenges and stressors,
making them best equipped to identify new designs.
Job Descriptions
Job development can also be aided by having a clear, current job description; that is, a document identifying the key aspects of the position. Essential elements of a job description
include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Job title
Start date
Job location
Contact information
Number of available positions
Number of hours per week
Required years of experience
Required education
Required license, certificate, or registration
Starting salary
Benefits. (McLean, 2006, pp. 146–147)
Job descriptions exist in most organizations, although their quality and accuracy depend on
the human resource function that is usually responsible for overseeing them. Accurate job
descriptions serve several purposes. First, they identify the job’s key responsibilities and
qualifications. Prospective employees need this information to gauge whether they want to
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Section 7.5
Job Development
apply. Job descriptions can help managers set expectations for employees and determine key
measures of performance. Job descriptions are also useful when evaluating employee performance. They also help determine equity across positions in large organizations because they
allow job characteristics and requirements to be compared.
Figure 7.1: Job description and job specification
A job description details key aspects of a position, such as its title, grade, payroll status, and expectations.
GROCERIES FOR LESS
Job Description
Job Identification
Job title:
Store Manager
Job Grade:
5
Status:
Exempt
Department: Operations
Reports to:
Operations Manager
Supervises: Grade 6–8
Job Summary
Planning, organizing, leading, and controlling all store staff, resources, and
operations to ensure efficiency, safety, and quality customer service
Tasks, Duties, and Responsibilities
• Supervises shift supervisors, customer service managers and representatives,
cashiers, cleaning crew, and other personnel
• Performs inventory controls, including working closely with suppliers and
stocking staff to ensure timely restocking and replacement of perishables, and
maintaining physical controls to minimize spoilage and shrinkage
• Designs, coordinates, and communicates schedules on a weekly basis to
ensure adequate staffing of all shifts
• Works with head office personnel to plan and implement marketing strategies,
advertising campaigns, weekly sales, seasonal specials, and other store
functions
• Leads the process of staffing and training all store personnel
• Conducts annual performance reviews for all store personnel, and makes salary
and promotion recommendations
• Investigates and resolves customer complaints brought to his or her attention
• Enforces sanitary practices for food handling and general store cleanliness
• Complies with all health and safety regulations
• Reports accurate and timely store-level financial statements
• Performs other duties as assigned by management
Job Specification
Minimum Qualifications
• Bachelor’s degree in Business Administration or related field
• Three years of managerial experience, preferably in retail
• Excellent communication, organization, leadership, time- and
conflict-management skills
• Ability to multitask, work independently, and operate under pressure
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Job Development
Section 7.5
Tips and Wisdom
There are several resources for writing effective job descriptions. Check out these resources:
U.S. Small Business Administration: Writing Effective Job Descriptions: http://www.sba.gov
/content/writing-effective-job-descriptions
O-NET OnLine (Occupational Network): http://www.onetonline.org
Monster.com: Sample Job Descriptions: http://hiring.monster.com/hr/hr-best-practices
/recruiting-hiring-advice/job-descriptions/sample-job-descriptions.aspx
Policies
Corporate policy statements offer the organization a blueprint for operating. Many companies have policy statements that describe legal obligations, compensation, work rules,
grievance procedures, and leave guidelines, to name a few.
What Are Policies?
Policies are rules according to which an organization and its members act. Employee handbooks usually have information on the following organization policies:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nondisclosure agreements and conflict of interest statements
Antidiscrimination policies in compliance with the equal employment opportunity
laws prohibiting discrimination and harassment (e.g., the Americans with Disabilities
Act)
Compensation, including required deductions for federal and state taxes and any
voluntary deductions for the company’s benefits programs. Other compensation
issues include:
a. Overtime pay
b. Pay schedules
c. Performance reviews
d. Salary increases
e. Timekeeping records
f. Breaks
g. Bonuses
Wage and hour laws
Employment taxes
Workers’ compensation
Work schedules
Standards of conduct
General employment information
a. Employment eligibility
b. Job classifications
c. Employee referrals
d. Employee records
e. Job postings
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Job Development
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
f.
g.
h.
i.
Section 7.5
Probationary periods
Termination and resignation procedures
Transfers and relocation
Union information, if applicable
Grievance procedures
Employment and labor laws
Foreign workers, immigration and employee eligibility
Performing preemployment background checks
Terminating employees
Unions
Safety and security
Computers and technology
Media relations
Employee benefits
Leave policies
Why Do OD Consultants Help Organizations Develop Policies?
OD consultants might be hired to update policy statements when they are out of date, the
company merges with another, or they do not exist. Most companies will involve legal counsel
in this process to ensure they are in compliance with the law.
Policy can influence organizational culture, so it deserves ongoing attention. For example, an
organization’s maternity policy can offer some insight into how supportive the organization is
of mothers and families. Organizations can also signal how inclusive and equitable they are by
the types of policies they keep around governance and access to promotional opportunities.
As we have discussed throughout this book, employees should be involved in policy development or change to promote buy-in.
Take Away 7.5: Job Development
•
•
•
•
Job development makes interventions related to job redesign, job descriptions,
and policy development.
Job redesign is the reordering of the overall purpose or tasks of a job to ensure it
meets the organization’s needs.
Job descriptions document key aspects of a job in terms of responsibilities and
qualifications.
Policies ensure that organizations have a blueprint for operating that details legal
obligations, compensation, work rules, grievance procedures, leave guidelines,
and so forth.
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Summary and Resources
Summary and Resources
Chapter Summary
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Reflective practice helps clients reflect critically on their thoughts and action by considering reflection in action, reflection on action, and espoused theory versus theory
in use.
T-groups are small groups in which individuals receive feedback on how their behavior affected the other members of the group. When done effectively, T-groups facilitate deep critical reflection and self-awareness.
Training, education, and development help individual employees get the requisite
knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform their jobs.
Action learning engages employees in cycles of reflection and action about real problems they encounter in their real workplace.
Leadership and management development targets current and potential leaders to ensure they have the core skills to help the organization reach levels of high
performance.
Values clarification and integration helps leaders and managers articulate their
key values and integrate them into the daily behaviors as they manage and lead
employees.
Coaching is an intense relationship between a coach and coachee that seeks to create
positive changes in business behavior.
Assessments help individuals gain insight and self-awareness.
360-degree feedback provides the individual with full-circle feedback from supervisors, subordinates, peers, and other stakeholders.
The DiSC measures behavioral tendencies according to dominance, influence, steadiness, or conscientiousness.
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assesses personality preferences according to how individuals prefer to accumulate energy, gather data, make decisions, and
order their lives.
Career development is a process of lifelong learning that influences individual career
choices according to psychological, sociological, educational, economic, and physical
factors.
Performance management involves elements of positive reinforcement, measurements, and feedback to achieve optimal organization performance.
Career plan development is the process of helping the client document career goals,
values, and a road map for the immediate present, near- and long-term future.
Developmental relationships are ones that help individuals advance their careers,
such as mentoring, sponsorship, networking, peer support, or coaching.
Job development makes interventions related to job redesign, job descriptions, and
policy development.
Job redesign is the reordering of the overall purpose or tasks of a job to ensure it
meets the needs of the organization.
Job descriptions document key aspects of a job in terms of its responsibilities and
qualifications.
Policies ensure that organizations have a blueprint for operating that detail legal
obligations, compensation, work rules, grievance procedures, leave guidelines, and
so forth.
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Summary and Resources
Think About It! Reflective Exercises to Enhance Your Learning
1. Pick an assessment presented in this chapter (or book) and take it. What new
insights did you gain? Are there contradictions? Confirmations? What implications
do they have for your career?
2. When was the last time you sat down and deeply reflected on where you are in your
career and where you are going? Make some time for yourself to do some careful
thinking and determine if you are on track.
3. Have you been involved in a developmental relationship? How would you classify it?
How helpful was it?
4. Review the tips for building developmental relationships. What do you need to work
on to find a mentor or sponsor? How can you be a better mentor or sponsor?
Apply Your Learning: Activities and Experiences to Bring OD to Life
1. The chapter began with a vignette about Lindsey, who was in a career transition.
Have you ever been in a career transition or known someone who was? What types
of interventions were applied?
2. Write a career plan as outlined in this chapter.
3. Identify a position that you aspire to. Do some research and document:
a. the education and training required
b. salary
c. a city you prefer to live in, in terms of cost of living, environment, and so forth
4. Talk with people in the position you aspire to and get their advice.
5. What training, education, and development have you done in the past year? Write
down an inventory and see how well your learning has aligned with your career
plan.
6. Get a copy of your current job description. Review it for accuracy and rewrite it if it
needs updating.
7. Review the policies for your organization and note key likes and dislikes.
8. Review or write a job description for your position or desired positions.
9. Write or revise your resume.
Additional Resources
Media
360 Degree Feedback Humor
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXJkP13xACg
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Summary and Resources
Web Links
Learning, Training, and Development
The Association for Talent Development, a professional association of learning and development resources.
http://www.astd.org
Training, Development, and Education for Employees, a page that offers employee development resources, including on-the-job training, training transfer, internal training, and more.
http://humanresources.about.com/library/bltraining.htm
International Foundation for Action Learning, a charity that supports a network of action
learning practitioners and enthusiasts.
http://ifal.org.uk or http://www.ifal-usa.org
Action Science, which aims to accurately describe and efficiently demonstrate the theory
and practice of action science and to connect individuals and groups interested in working
with action science.
http://www.actionscience.com
Leadership Development
Performance, Learning, Leadership, and Knowledge, a window into learning, training, leadership, design, and all matters related to improving human performance.
http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/index.html
Coaching tips to make you a more efficient coach.
http://humanresources.about.com/od/coachingmentoring/a/coaching.htm
Career Development
National Career Development Association, which offers professional development,
resources, standards, scientific research, and advocacy.
http://www.ncda.org/aws/NCDA/pt/sp/home_page
Assessment
The Riley Guide, which offers useful self-assessment resources.
http://www.rileyguide.com/assess.html
Job Development
Job Design, an interesting management blog.
https://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-behavior/job-design-and
-motivation/defining-job-design
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Summary and Resources
Key Terms
action learning set A group of six to eight
people who come together to work on a
problem using action learning.
assessments Instruments that measure
myriad aspects of individual attributes such
as personality, learning style, or cultural
awareness.
career development The lifelong process
of balancing psychological, social, educational, economic, and physical variables in
making career decisions.
career plan development A written plan
that identifies immediate, midterm, and longterm career goals and developmental needs.
coaching A one-on-one helping relationship
focused on replacing the client’s ineffective
business behaviors with positive ones.
development The cultivation of interests,
not necessarily related to work.
developmental relationship A relationship that helps advance an individ...
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