Psychology term paper

User Generated

khlhasrv567

Writing

Description

B. TERM PAPER (15%)

1. Select a topic of interest regarding the study of memory and find at least 6 academic journal articles on the topic. To do so, go to the SMU library or SMU library website to find out about online academic search engines, which allow you to research a topic for academic, peer-reviewed journal articles.

2. Combine the information from the articles to answer these questions:

Purpose: Why is the topic that you chose important to study?

Research Methods: How is the topic studied? Results: What are the results of the research studies?

Discussion/Conclusion: What are the future directions of the research?

Limitations: What are the limitations of the findings and how can future research overcome them?

3. Complete your paper in Microsoft Word. The written portion of your paper is to be at least 10 doublespaced pages, plus a title page and reference page. You are to use 12 point font, 1 inch borders, double spacing, normal line and character spacing, and headings/subheadings. There is to be no extra/unnecessary space between paragraphs/sections. Do not use quotes. You must reference information within the paper and include a reference list at the end of the paper. Properly reference your selected articles using APA formatting.

Unformatted Attachment Preview

Chapter 8 Memory, Brain, and Amnesia Methods of Investigation There are 2 techniques for investigating how memory is stored in the brain: Invasive – Damage/lesions to brain areas Noninvasive – Measuring activity (electrical, blood) of the brain with minimal risk to subjects Invasive Techniques Lesion studies provide most of the data about brain functioning. ◼ Use of animals versus humans ◼ Hippocampus and memory ◼ Sophisticated invasive techniques Noninvasive Techniques ◼ ◼ ◼ ◼ CT Scans PET Scans MRI Methods EEG Methods Behavioral Tests Stimuli can be presented to be processed either by the left or the right hemisphere to differentiate hemispheric functioning An extreme example for demonstrating hemispheric differences are split-brain patients Often, to understand functioning, data from noninvasive, invasive, and behavioral studies must be combined Amnesia There are two types of amnesia: ◼ Retrograde Amnesia ◼ Anterograde Amnesia Patients are classified by cause, damage, or functional deficit The major problem with studying amnesia is its classification H.M. Case Study Most often cited case of amnesia Suffered from severe epileptic seizures Removed portions of the brain to control seizures, which was successful The surgery led to permanent and severe consequences on his memory H.M. Case Study The H.M. Case Study supports: ◼ the role of the hippocampus in memory, ◼ the long-term short-term memory distinction, and ◼ the distinction between procedural and declarative memory Explanations of Amnesia Failure to encode – not conclusive Faster forgetting – not conclusive Interference causes retrieval problems Conscious recollection and NOT perceptions of familiarity is impaired Alzheimer’s Disease It only can be diagnosed conclusively upon postmortem analysis of the brain. ◼ Amyloid Plaques ◼ Neurofibrillary Tangles ◼ Prognosis is 4-8 years after diagnosis Alzheimer’s Disease ◼ Memory Span ◼ Working Memory ◼ Incidental versus Conscious Learning ◼ Autobiographic Memory ◼ Semantic Memory ◼ Implicit Memory The Frontal Lobe A variety of imaging techniques has shown that the frontal lobe is important for memory Hemispheric Encoding/Retrieval Asymmetry (HERA) Model – The two prefrontal cortices play different roles when encoding and retrieving episodic memory Views of Memory Storage Localized View – Assumes specialized memory structures in the brain Distributed View – Mental activity is due to integrated activity of many structures It is not adaptive from a survival standpoint for the brain to rely on a single structure for memory. Why? Biology of Memory Garrett Handout Visit http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/chmodel.html for a fun and easy way to learn more about brain functions. Brain Cells Neurons and Glial Cells Soma Cell Parts: Axon Dendrites Synapse About Neurons Sensory Neurons Types of Neurons: Motor Neurons Inter-neurons Projection Neurons Neural membrane is… ◼ ◼ ◼ ◼ made of lipid and protein created by orienting heads and tails selectively permeable polarized Cross-section of a Neuron’s Cell Membrane How Neurons Work Resting Potential Action Potential Neural Communication Terminating Synaptic Activity How Neurons Work ▪ Long-term Potentiation ▪ Long-term Depression ▪ Synaptic Changes Chapter 5 Perspectives on Processing Levels of Processing Craik and Lockhart (1972) were the first to suggest that type of processing is more important than underlying structure. ◼ Memory is the result of a series of analyses. ◼ The deeper the level of processing, the more durable the resulting memory. ◼ Rehearsal improves memory only if it leads to deepening the level of processing. Levels of Processing Hyde and Jenkins (1973) provide support for Craik and Lockhart’s (1972) theory. Craik and Watkins (1973) found that maintenance rehearsal does not improve memory. Nairn (1983) replicated these results and also tested recognition. There are two major problems with the levels of processing framework. Transfer Appropriate Processing Unlike the transfer appropriate processing model, the levels of processing model includes retrieval. According to Morris et al. (1977), a process leads to better performance, not because it is deeper, but because it is appropriate for the test that will be conducted. Memory Performance Paradox? Levels of processing that focus on differences, such as distinctive cues, lead to better performance. Organization also enhances memory and is based on similarity Encoding Specificity Principle Context and Memory Context Effect – Change in performance resulting from differences between the context in which studying occurs compared to the context in which recall occurs. Context has been defined as a two-component structure: context alpha and context beta. Context alpha is the most pervasively studied context effect. Context and Memory State-dependent Memory – Similar to context dependent memory. Many view them as being one in the same. The context in which a person learns information provides cues useful for enhancing memory. These effects are larger and found more consistently under two scenarios. Contemporal Thought Contemporal Thought – An associative process that augments/embellishes perceptual experience, but is not directly part of the perceptual experience. Both context and state-dependent effects are offsets of transfer appropriate processing. Mood-dependent Memory versus Mood-congruent Effects Process Dissociation Framework Levels of processing and transfer appropriate processing views cannot distinguish which effect can be attributed to which process Jacoby (1991) created a framework to separate the various processes One major criticism is whether these processes, intentional and incidental, are truly independent What is Encoded? Is it possible that this immense amount of encoding on a variety of dimensions or attributes could occur so briefly (500ms)? ◼ Encoding depends on comparisons made ◼ Functional and nominal stimuli tend to differ Chapter 6 Forgetting Consolidation Theory Learning is not complete at the end of rehearsal. The process of perservation occurs for a while after rehearsal. ◼ ◼ ◼ Mental inactivity is more conducive to perservation, which will enhance the memory trace. If perservation is interrupted, the memory will not be stored or consolidated. Recall will be impossible if consolidation is not complete. Interference Theory John McGeoch (1932) suggested that time is not a good explanation of memory loss. He developed a three-factor theory of forgetting: ▪ Response competition ▪ Altered stimulus conditions ▪ Set Decay Versus Interference ◼ ◼ ◼ The Brown-Peterson paradigm is an investigation of the rate of decay of information in immediate memory. Proactive Interference (PI) may better explain results using the paradigm. Release from PI Relative Distinctiveness Relative distinctiveness explains the likelihood of forgetting as the extent to which any given item is different from surrounding items. ◼ ◼ Von Restorff/Isolation Effect Can time be explained based on relative distinctiveness? Any Evidence for Decay? The strongest evidence against decay is memory improvement over time. ◼ Baddeley and Scott (1971) ◼ Cowan et al. (1997) ◼ There appears to be no evidence for decay as an explanation of forgetting. Forgetting as Discrimination ▪ Another view of forgetting is that it is a discrimination problem. ▪ Do we ever forget, or are memory deficits temporary lapses? ▪ There appears to be more support for the temporary lapse position of memory. Chapter 7 Implicit Memory Implicit Versus Explicit Memory Explicit Memory – memory with awareness Implicit Memory – memory without awareness Direct versus Indirect Tests Implicit learning is not subliminal perception Implicit Learning Implicit learning is knowledge of the stimulus environment that is acquired independently of consciousness. Complex structure and patterns can be learned without awareness, and it has been suggested that implicit learning accounts for how we learn the structure of our environment. Indirect Tests and Implicit Learning ▪ Two-phased implicit learning study ▪ Use of repetition priming ▪ Experimental dissociation Experimental Dissociations Examples of experimental dissociations: ▪ Graf and Schacter (1987) ▪ However, implicit memory may NOT be immune to the effects of interference. Theoretical Accounts of Implicit Memory The Activation View Transfer Appropriate Processing Multiple Memory Systems Experimental dissociations using direct and indirect tests suggests that different memory systems exist. ◼ ◼ What is a memory system? What conditions must be met to support multiple memory systems? Multiple Memory Systems Based on this, Schacter and Tulving (1994) proposed five memory systems: ◼ Main division is declarative/procedural ◼ Perceptual Representation System (PRS) ◼ Primary Memory System ◼ Episodic and Semantic Systems (previously discussed) Bias View According to the Bias View, none of the previous theories actually explain the phenomena of priming. ◼ Bias with auditory and visual words ◼ Bias with objects Chapter 9 Recognition Signal Detection Theory This was developed initially to examine performance in perception experiments, where the task was to detect the presence of a tone. ◼ A normal distribution for old and new items ◼ Two-high threshold model Single Process Models Early theories of recognition are called single process theories. ◼ Tagging Model ◼ Strength Theory ◼ Are recall and recognition different processes? Generate-Recognize Models Recall has two processes: ◼ ◼ Generate set of plausible candidates for recall Confirm/recognize from the generated set what is to be retrieved Recognition has one process: ◼ Only to confirm (experimenter generates the set) Remember Versus Knowing Remember/Know Procedure – During the recognition test, subjects indicate whether they remember or know the answer. ◼ ◼ Is this similar to explicit versus implicit memory? Rajaram (1993) series of experiments Recollection and Familiarity The remember/know distinction is similar to the recollection/familiarity distinction ◼ ◼ Task dissociation Yonelinas (2002) supports a dual process model of recognition Face Recognition Face identification versus recognition: ◼ Does one tend to be more accurate than the other? ◼ Name Effect ◼ Other Face Effect ◼ Face Inversion Effect Face Recognition Identification of a well-known face occurs more quickly if an associated face is presented first. ◼ Face recognition may be a special process ◼ Holistic encoding hypothesis Chapter 12 Reconstructive Processes in Memory Schemas A schema is an organized knowledge structure that reflects an person’s knowledge, experience, and expectations about the world: ▪ Schemas represent knowledge (experience not objective knowledge). ▪ Schemas represent knowledge at all levels. ▪ Schemas can be embedded within other schemas. ▪ The information within a schema is general. ▪ Schemas are active. Schemas The Bransford and Johnson (1972) Experiment – See Page 265 ◼ Schemas can introduce errors ◼ Memories change with time Eyewitness Memory The most disturbing aspect of the reconstructive nature of memory is for eyewitness memory. “Red Datsun” Study Eyewitness Memory Is the original information permanently lost or is it temporarily inaccessible? ◼ Biased Guessing Account ◼ Attribution Errors Flashbulb Memories Flashbulb memories are considered like a photograph that preserves details of an event ◼ ◼ ◼ Is it a special process? It is suggested that they are unique because they are long-standing. However, they are susceptible to the same reconstructive processes as other memories. Flashbulb Memories A problem with studying these memories is that events that create them are unpredictable. Flashbulb memories are different from other memories based on two characteristics: ◼ Elevated confidence, and ◼ Intent/compulsion to remember the event. Hypnosis and Memory Some believe that hypnosis can unlock memory failures regarding eyewitness accounts. Memories recalled are considered more accurate than when not hypnotized. The Cognitive Interview The method involves four retrieval methods: ▪ Mentally construct the physical/emotional context. ▪ Report everything no matter how trivial. ▪ Recall the event a variety of ways to avoid “filling the gaps” due to recalling events in serial order. ▪ Recount events from a variety of perspectives. . Implanting Memories Memories can be created, such as remembering something that did not happen after completing an experiment. Deese (1959), Loftus and Coan (1993), and Roediger and McDermott (1995) provide evidence for implanted memories. Recovered Memories? ◼ ◼ ◼ Memories can be implanted, which has led to the recovered memory debate. The central concern is the validity of the discovery of past sexual abuse during psychotherapy. The “Forgot-it-all-along” Effect Memory Illusions Although perceptual illusions are studied extensively, memory illusions have not received much attention. ◼ Verbal Overshadowing ◼ Reality Monitoring ◼ Misattributions of Memory ◼ Remembering more than is seen
Purchase answer to see full attachment
User generated content is uploaded by users for the purposes of learning and should be used following Studypool's honor code & terms of service.

Explanation & Answer

Hi, kindly find attached

Running Head: AMNESIA

1

Amnesia
Student’s Name
Institution
Date

AMNESIA

2

Introduction
Amnesia is one of the common epidemics about psychology which affects the memory.
The condition has been associated with specific issues like excessive alcoholism, trauma, stroke,
or infection. Amnesia results in memory loss where the patient forgets the events before the
condition (Cermak, 2014). According to research, the disease may also be caused by other factors
like emotional shock. Amnesia caused by emotional shock is slightly different in that the
memories, in this case, are not entirely lost since they can be recovered through remedies like
psychotherapy. The condition may differ in times of duration from patient to patient. In most of
the cases, amnesia may take weeks, months or even years.
Even though in most of the movies amnesia is often associated with the ideology that the
patient forgets his or her identity, that is not the case. People with the condition can know who
they are but they face a significant challenge forming new memories. It is important to note that
specific treatment for amnesia has not yet been discovered. However, there are various techniques
which may be used to improve the memory and also offer psychological support to the patient. For
a researcher, there had been a significant challenge determining the effect of amnesia and future
thinking. In trying to understand the impacts, this paper focuses on the symptoms, effects and
various remedies for amnesia.
Purpose
The study of amnesia is significant to patients and the society in general. People from the
community often mistake amnesia with other mental conditions. As a result, patients experience
stigmatization since they are considered as having mental conditions. The prevailing ideology in
the minds of some individuals in the society has posed a significant challenge in dealing with the

AMNESIA

3

state. Amnesia is a condition which a lot care on the individual. Studying amnesia assists in
providing the public with a clear overview of the facts and the best psychological practices for
dealing with amnesia patients. Mental conditions require continuous monitoring of the patients.
For states which involve brain damage or memory, it is essential to look at the emotional factors
which may deteriorate the current medical situation of the patient.
Amnesia study is also essential since it provides a basis for the development of various
programs. Once the condition has been addressed well, the act will lead to the development of
multiple strategies to cope up with the epidemic. The plan can be in the form of projects designed
to rehabilitate amnesia patients. Through the projects, patients can be provided with appropriate
psychological treatment which can be a boost to their families. Handling patient suffering amnesia
can be a significant challenge to family members.
Research methods
In analyzing the best research methods, it is important to note that a combination of
different ways is attributed to the best results. Especially in analyzing behavior having various
approaches would work in the research on amnesia. The use of mixed methods in research is
known as the analysis of both qualitative and quantitive methods (Kopelman, 2015). Under the
practices, all the data is collected in a sequence. The information is then integrated into various
stages by different researchers to limit possibilities of being biased. The combination of different
methods for research purposes has been attributed to success in different projects. According to
various...


Anonymous
Great! Studypool always delivers quality work.

Studypool
4.7
Trustpilot
4.5
Sitejabber
4.4

Similar Content

Related Tags