‘Epic Duck Challenge’ shows
drones can outdo people at
surveying wildlife
Jarrod Hodgson
February 13, 2018 8.11am EST
Ecologists are increasingly using drones to gather data. Scientists have used
remotely piloted aircraft to estimate the health of fragile polar mosses, to
measure and predict the mass of leopard seals, and even to collect whale snot.
Drones have also been labelled as game-changers for wildlife population
monitoring.
But once the take-off dust settles, how do we know if drones produce accurate
data? Perhaps even more importantly, how do the data compare to those
gathered using a traditional ground-based approach?
To answer these questions we created the #EpicDuckChallenge, which
involved deploying thousands of plastic replica ducks on an Adelaide beach,
and then testing various methods of tallying them up.
As we report today in the journal Methods in Ecology and Evolution, drones
do indeed generate accurate wildlife population data – even more accurate, in
fact, than those collected the old-fashioned way.
Jarrod Hodgson standing in one of the replica colonies of seabirds constructed for the #EpicDuckChallenge. S.
Andriolo
Assessing the accuracy of wildlife count data is hard. We can’t be sure of the
true number of animals present in a group of wild animals. So, to overcome
this uncertainty, we created life-sized, replica seabird colonies, each with a
known number of individuals.
From the optimum vantage and in ideal weather conditions, experienced
wildlife spotters independently counted the colonies from the ground using
binoculars and telescopes. At the same time, a drone captured photographs of
each colony from a range of heights. Citizen scientists then used these images
to tally the number of animals they could see.
Counts of birds in drone-derived imagery were better than those made by
wildlife observers on the ground. The drone approach was more precise and
more accurate – it produced counts that were consistently closer to the true
number of individuals.
Comparing the vantages: drone-derived photographs and the ground counter’s view. J. Hodgson
The difference between the results was not trivial. Drone-derived data were
between 43% and 96% more accurate than ground counts. The variation was
due to how many pixels represented each bird, which in turn is related to the
height that the drone was flown and the resolution of the camera.
This wasn’t a surprise. The experienced ground counters did well, but the
drone’s vantage point was superior. Observing photos taken from above
meant the citizen scientists did not have to contend with obscured birds that
often occur during ground counts. The imagery also benefited the citizen
scientists as they could digitally review their counts as many times as they
needed. This reduced the likelihood of both missing an individual and
counting an individual more than once.
The scientists were assisted by many volunteers, without whom the #EpicDuckChallenge would not have been
possible. J. Hodgson
However, even though it proved to be more accurate, making manual digital
counts is still tedious and time-consuming. To address this, we developed a
computer algorithm in the hope that it could further improve efficiency
without diminishing data quality. And it did.
We delineated a proportion of birds in each colony to train the algorithm to
recognise how the animal of interest appeared in the imagery. We found that
using 10% training data was sufficient to produce a colony count that was
comparable to that of a human reviewing the entire scene.
This computerisation can reduce the time needed to process data, providing
the opportunity to cut the costs and resources needed to survey wildlife
populations. When combined with the efficiencies drones provide for
surveying sites that are hard to access on foot, these savings may be
considerable.
Using drone monitoring in the field
Our results have important implications for a range of species. We think they
are especially relevant to aggregating birds, including seabirds like
albatrosses, surface nesting penguins and frigatebirds, as well as colonial
nesting waterbirds like pelicans.
Other types of animals that are easily seen from above, including hauled-out
seals and dugongs, are highly suited to drone monitoring. The nests or tracks
of animals, such as orangutans and turtles, can also be used to infer presence.
Additional experiments will be useful to assess the ability of drones to survey
animals that prefer to stay hidden and those within complex habitats. Such
assessments are of interest to us, and researchers around the globe, with
current investigations focused on wildlife such as arboreal mammals and
cetaceans.
We are still learning about how wildlife react to the presence of drones, and
more research is required to quantify these responses in a range of species
and environments. The results will help to refine and improve drone
monitoring protocols so that drones have minimal impact on wildlife. This is
particularly important for species that are prone to disturbance, and where
close proximity is not possible or desirable.
Read more: How drones can help fight the war on shark attacks
The world is rapidly changing, with many negative outcomes for wildlife.
Technology like drones can help scientists and managers gather data fast
enough to enable timely assessment of the implications of these changes.
When monitoring wildlife, increasing the accuracy and precision of animal
surveys gives us more confidence in our population estimates. This provides a
stronger evidence base on which to make management decisions or policy
changes. For species and ecosystems threatened with extinction or
irreparable damage, such speedy action could be a literal lifeline.
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CSE Referencing
The Council of Science Editors (CSE) publishes a style guide, Scientific Style and Format, which
defines common citation formats used by biologists, earth scientists, geneticists and other scientists.
The guide provides formatting rules that allow for consistency among references and their in-text
citations.
Scientific style and format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers, 7th edition. Reston
(VA): Council of Science Editors. 658 p. (A copy is located in the reference collection of the
Geoffrey R. Weller Library, T11.S386 2006, as well as in the Academic Success Centre.)
This handout describes the “Name-Year” system outlined in the 7th edition. For in-text citations, the
Name-Year system includes the author or authors and the year the document was published, e.g.
(Jones 2008), or Jones and Watts (2008), or Jones et al. (2008). In the reference list, cited sources are
arranged alphabetically by the name of the first author’s last name.
General Rules
List authors’ last names followed by initials for first and middle names. Do not use periods or
spaces between the initials. Also, do not use a comma between the last name and the initials (e.g.
Smith J). If a work has more than 10 authors list the first ten followed by a comma and et al.
Multiple citations by the same author: List works by the same author chronologically (older
first).
Taxonomic names: Write the Latin names or scientific names of the organisms in italics e.g.
Alces alces, Rangifer tarandus, etc.
For taxonomic grouping such as Family, Order, Class, etc., capitalize the first letter but do not
italicize.
e.g. Carnivora, Diptera, Nematoda, Excavata, Archaea, Bryophyta
Medium designator: For non-print items, a medium designator is required in the reference.
Include it on square brackets after the item title. Examples include: [Internet], [CD-ROM],
[DVD], [videocassette], [microfiche], etc.
Content designator: Also placed in square brackets; this is optional but informs the reader.
Examples include: [dissertation], [master’s thesis], [abstract], [computer program], etc.
ASC 04/14
1
Literature Cited
Books
The general format for a print book is:
Author(s). Date of publication. Title. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher. Pagination*.
The general format for a book on the internet is:
Author(s). Date of publication. Title [medium]. Edition. Place of publication: Publisher; [date updated:
date cited].
*Pagination: not required for entire book; only included if you are citing parts of a book, chapter,
tables, charts, etc.
Type of Source
Book – Single Author
Book – 2 Authors
Reference List Example
Voet D. 1990. Biochemistry. New York: J Wiley.
Thomas PA, Packham JR. 2007. Ecology of
woodlands and forests: description, dynamics, and
diversity. New York: Cambridge University Press.
In-text Citation
(Voet 1990)
(Thomas and
Packham 2007)
Book – Three or more
authors
(Gilman et al. 1990)
Book – Unnamed or
Anonymous Author
Book – with Editor
Gilman AG, Rall TW, Nies AS, Taylor P. 1990.
The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 8th ed.
New York: Pergamon. 1811 p.
The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 8th ed.
1990. New York: Pergamon. 1811 p.
Gilman AG, Rall TW, Nies AS, Taylor P, editors.
1990. The pharmacological basis of therapeutics.
8th ed. New York: Pergamon. 1811 p.
Book – with
Organization as Author
A Volume in a Series of
Books with a Separate
Title
International Organization for Standardization.
1979. Statistical methods. Geneva.
Cajori F. 1929. Notation mainly in higher
mathematics. Chicago: Open Court. (A history of
mathematical notations; vol. 2).
(IOS 1979)
Book – Chapter or
contribution
Kuret JA, Murad F. 1990. Adenohypophyseal
hormones and related substances. In: Gilman AG,
Rall TW, Nies AS, Taylor P, editors. The
pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 8th ed. New
York: Pergamon. 1334-1360 p.
(Kuret and Murad
1990)
Book – Internet
E-book
Griffiths AJF, Miller JH, Suzuki DT, Lewontin RC, (Griffiths et al. 2000)
Gelbart WM. c2000. Introduction to genetic
analysis [Internet]. 7th ed. New York (NY): W. H.
Freeman & Co.; [cited 2005 May 31]. Available
from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.books/bc.fcgi?call=bv.
View..Show/TOC&rid=iga. TOC
(The pharmacological
basis…c1990)
(Gilman et al. 1990)
(Cajori 1929)
2
Journal Articles
The general format of a reference for a print journal:
Author(s). Year. Article title. Journal title.* Volume (issue):pages.
The general format of a reference for a journal article on the internet is:
Author(s). Date of publication. Title of article. Title of journal [medium]*. [date updated; date
cited]; Volume (issue):pages.
*Journal titles are abbreviated according to the International Organization for Standardization 4
(ISO 4), e,g., Forest Ecol Manage. [Internet]. If the journal consists of one word there is no need to
abbreviate it.
Type of Source
Journal Article - 1
author
Use for print and PDF
documents
Reference List Example
Steiner U. 1992. Complete wetting from polymer
mixtures. Science. 258:1122-1129.
In-text Citation
(Steiner 1992)
Journal Article - 2
authors
Use for print and PDF
documents
Mahoney JM, Rood SB. 1998. Streamflow
requirements for cottonwood seedling recruitment –
an integrative model. Wetlands. 18(4): 634-645.
(Mahoney and Rood
1998)
Journal Articles – 3 to
ten authors
Use for print or PDF
Steiner U, Klein J, Eiser E, Budkowski A, Fetters LJ.
1992. Complete wetting from polymer mixtures.
Science. 258:1122-1129.
(Steiner et al. 1992)
Journal Articles – 10 or
more
Use for print or PDF
Humrich JY, Morbach H, Undeutsch R, Enghard P,
Rosenherger S, Weigert O, Kloke L, Heimann J,
Gaber T, Brandenberg S, et al. 2010. Homeostatic
imbalance of regulatory and effector T cells due to
IL-2 deprivation amplifies murine lupus. PNAS.
107(1): 204-209.
(Humrich et al.
2010)
Journal Article –
Internet
Ejournal or Html form
Savage E, Ramsay M, White J, Beard S, Lawson H,
(Savage et al. 2005)
Hunjan R, Brown D. 2005. Mumps outbreak across
England and Wales in 2004: observational study.
BMJ [Internet]. [cited 2005 May 31];
330(7500):1119-1120. Available from:
http://bmjjournals.com/cgi/reprint/330/7500/1119doi:
10.1136/bmj.330.7500.1119.
3
Reports, Thesis, and Conference Publications
Laboratory Report
Blair J. 2011. Lab 9 Genes. In: Biology 101
laboratory manual. University of Northern British
Columbia. Prince George, BC. UNBC Press. p. 98103.
(Blair 2011)
Technical or
government reports
Cooper LN (Department of Physics, Brown
University, Providence, RI). 1990. Theoretical and
experimental research into biological mechanisms
underlying learning and memory. Final progress
report 1 Aug 88-31 Jul 89. Washington (DC): Air
Force Office of Scientific Research (US). Report
No.: AFOSR-TR-90-0672. Contract No.: AROSR88-0228;2305;B4. Available from: NTIS,
Springfield, VA; AD-AD-A223615.
(Cooper 1990)
Dissertations and
Thesis
Ritzmann RE. 1974. The snapping mechanism of
Alpheid shrimp [dissertation]. [Charlottesville
(VA)]: University of Virginia. p. 59. Available from:
UMI, Ann Arbor, MI; AAD74-23.
(Ritzmann 1974)
Conference
Publications/papers
Ferguson RM, Sommer BG, editors. 1986.
Proceedings of the Conference on the Clinical
Management of the Renal Transplant Recipient with
Cyclosporine; 1985 Nov 3-5; Palm Springs, FL.
Orlando (FL): Grune and Stratton. 216 p.
(Ferguson and
Sommer 1986)
Internet Documents
General format to reference an internet document:
Title of homepage [medium]. Date of publication. Edition. Place of publication: publisher; [date
updated; date cited]. Available from: URL
Type of Source
Web Page
Web page (personal
author)
Web page (no date of
publication)
Reference List Example
APSnet: plant pathology online [Internet]. c19442005. St Paul (MN): American Phytopathological
Association [cited 2005 Jun 20]. Available from:
http://www.apsnet.org/
Bill McKibben: author educator environmentalist
[Internet]. c2013. [cited 2012 Nov 26]. Available
from: http://www.billmckibben.com/index.html
NCBI Bovine genome resources [Internet]. [date
unknown]. Bethesda (MD): National Center for
Biotechnology Information [NCDI]; [cited 2013 Feb
4]. Available from:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/guide/cow/
In-text Citation
(APSnet 2005)
(McKibben 2013)
(NCBI)
4
Newspapers, magazines and personal communication
General format to reference a newspaper:
Author(s). Date of publication. Article title. Newspaper title (edition). Section designator: beginning
page number (column number).
Newspaper Article
Newspaper Article
(Online)
Magazine Article
Personal
Communications
Rensberger B, Specter B. 1989. Aug 7. CFCs may
be destroyed by natural process. Washington Post.
Sect. A:12 (col. 5).
McChesney R. 2014 Jan 14. Cook Inlet Beluga
research presented during local symposium.
Penninsula Clarion [Internet]. [cited 2014 Jan 16];
Available from:
http://peninsulaclarion.com/news/2014-01-14/cookinlet-beluga-research-presented-during-localsymposium
Cochran WW, Mouristen H, Wikelski M. 2004 Apr
16. Migrating songbirds recalibrate their magnetic
compass daily from twilight cues. Science. 304:405408.
CSE recommends that personal communications
such as letters, conversations, or lectures are placed
in the running text and not as formal references.
(Rensberger 1989)
(McChesney 2014)
(Cochran et al. 2004)
…. (2005 letter from
J. Smith to the
author) ….
References or Literature Cited or Cited References
This section provides a list of all sources cited in your paper. Here are some formatting rules for
this section:
Format this section by listing cited sources alphabetically by author’s surname. For each
source, maintain the original order of authors in the document. Author’s last names are
provided, followed by abbreviations of their first and middle names. There are no spaces
between first and middle name abbreviations and no “and” before the last name in the list.
Include the names of all authors in the document. If an article has more than ten authors, list
the first 10, then use “et al.” for the remaining authors.
When there is more than one work by an author, those works are organized chronologically.
Only the first letter of a book or a journal article should be capitalized. Article titles are not
italicized; however, species names are italicized.
According to CSE, journal titles are abbreviated to save space. Always check with your
course instructor to make sure whether they want journals abbreviated or not. To locate
abbreviations try:
http://library.caltech.edu/reference/abbreviations/
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/nlmcatalog/journals
http://woodward.library.ubc.ca/research-help/journal-abbreviations/
http://cassi.cas.org/search.jsp
If you cannot find an abbreviation from the above databases, ask a librarian.
Although not a recommendation by CSE, use a hanging indent to format the list of references.
This makes it easy to locate a reference by the primary author.
5
References [examples]
Akyazi I, Eraslan E. 2014. Transmission of stress between cagemates: A study in rats. Physiol.
Behav. 123:114-118.
Blair J. 2011. Lab 9 Genes. In Biology 101 laboratory manual. University of Northern British
Columbia. Prince George, BC. UNBC Press. p. 98-103.
Bozi J, DiCesare J, Wells H, Abramson CI. 2007. Ethanol levels in honeybees hemolymph
resulting from alcohol ingestion. Alcohol. 41: 282-284.
Funk DT, Case PJ, Rietveld WJ, Phares RE. 1979. Effects of juglone on the growth of coniferous
seedlings. For. Sci. 25:452-454.
Hejl AM, Einhellig FA, Rasmussen JA. 1993. Effects of juglone on growth, photosynthesis, and
respiration. J. Chem. Ecol. 19:559-568.
Hejl AM, Koster KL. 2004. Juglone disrupts root plasma membrane H+-ATPase activity and
impairs water uptake, root respiration and growth in soybean (Glycine max) and Corn (Zea
mays L.). J. Chem. Ecol. 30: 453-471.
Massicotte HB, Melville LH, Peterson RL. 2003. Structure-function relationships of mycorrhizal
symbioses revealed by electron microscopy. In: Li ZR, editor. Industrial applications of
electron microscopy. New York. Marcel Dekker. p. 485–505.
McMillan VE. 2012. Writing papers in the biological sciences. 5th edition. Boston. Bedford/St
Martin’s. 241 p.
Rea RV, Hodder D, Child K. 2013. Year-round activity patterns of moose (Alces alces) at a natural
mineral lick in north central British Columbia, Canada. Can. Wildl. Biol. Manage. 2:36-41.
Ritzmann RE. 1974. The snapping mechanism of Alpheid shrimp [dissertation]. [Charlottesville
(VA)]: University of Virginia. p. 59. Available from: UMI, Ann Arbor, MI; AAD74-23.
Savage E, Ramsay M, White J, Beard S, Lawson H, Hunjan R, Brown D. 2005. Mumps outbreak
across England and Wales in 2004: observational study. BMJ [Internet]. [cited 2005 May 31];
330(7500):1119-1120. Available from: http://bmjjournals.com/cgi/reprint/330/7500/1119doi:
10.1136/bmj.330.7500.1119.
Walker BR, Soderberg S, Lindahl B, Olsson T. 2000. Independent effects of obesity and cortisol in
predicting cardiovascular risk in men and women. J. Intern. Med. 247:198-204
6
Marking Guide for Writing Assignment #1
Criteria
Title (Subject):
Clear indication of paper’s subject
Summary:
States the main issue or problem being addressed in the article
Adequately summarizes main points of article
States the conclusion reached by the article’s author
Critique:
Strengths of article described
Weaknesses of article described
Reviewer’s opinions clearly distinguished from those of the article’s
author
Reviewer’s opinions supported by external sources
Shows evidence of critical thought and analysis
Conclusion:
Overall opinion of article presented
Concluding thoughts provided about the information presented in
the article (the topic of the article)
Literature Cited:
No references listed that have not been cited in the paper
Includes full reference for all literature cited in the paper
Follows CSE formatting style
Overall
Formatting instructions followed
Reference material used appropriately
Correct grammar, punctuation, spelling used
Paper written clearly and concisely, well organized
Max.
2
2
13
5
5
3
30
7
7
5
5
6
10
5
5
10
2
3
5
20
5
5
5
5
Response to others’ article (best response)
Provided constructive comments
Shows evidence of critical thought and analysis
2.5
2.5
Response to others’ article (best response)
Provided constructive comments
Shows evidence of critical thought and analysis
2.5
2.5
Response to others’ article (best response)
Provided constructive comments
Shows evidence of critical thought and analysis
Total
5
5
5
2.5
2.5
100
Grade
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