Rhetoric What do we mean by it? What the experts say… Aristotle: “Let rhetoric be defined as the faculty of observing in any case all of the available means of persuasion.” Bizzell & Herzberg: “Rhetoric has a number of overlapping meanings…the use of language, written or spoken, to inform or persuade; the study of the persuasive effects of language; the study of the relation between language and knowledge; the classification and use of tropes and figures…Nor does this list exhaust the definitions that might be given. Rhetoric is a complex discipline with a long history.” And More… Anne Morrow Lindbergh: “I must write it all out, at any cost. Writing is thinking. It is more than living, for it is being conscious of living.” Sizer: “Writing is the litmus paper of thought…the very center of schooling.” Stephen Colbert: “My rhetoric teacher, Professor Crawley, ordered my mind. Simplicity of language, supporting ideas, synthesizing an effective conclusion—that’s what I learned from him.” Definitions The term rhetoric refers to the study, uses, and effects of written, spoken, and visual language (DRWS) the study of/ability to use language effectively Aristotle: “the faculty of observing in any case all of the available means of persuasion” Rhetorical Analysis Rhetorical analysis looks not only at what a text says, but at what it does. It includes consideration of the claims, devices and strategic “moves” an author makes in hopes of persuading an audience. Performing rhetorical analyses on texts helps us to get a better sense of how, why, and to what extent an argument is effective. Consider how a text works to convince its audience of the argument at hand. Words to Use.. Argues, appeals to authority, assumes, challenges, complicates, constructs an analogy, contrasts, presents counterexamples, defines, distinguishes (between), extends, forecasts, frames, implies, parodies, problematizes, qualifies, rebuts, ridicules, stresses, supports, synthesizes, theorizes Entry points for analysis: writer- age, experience, gender, locations, political beliefs, education, etc. purpose- to persuade, entertain, inform, educate, call to action, shock, etc. audience- age, experience, gender, locations, political beliefs, education, expectations, etc. text/subject- broad, narrow, depends on situation context- the “situation” generating need; time, location, current events, cultural significance PACES: Project Argument Claims Evidence Strategies Project An author’s project describes the kind of work she sets out to do – her purpose and the method she uses to carry it out. It is the overall activity that the writer is engaged in--researching, investigating, experimenting, interviewing, documenting, etc. Try to imagine what the author’s goals or hypotheses were as she wrote the text. To articulate a project—and to write an account— you need a verb, such as “researches,” “investigates,” “studies,” “presents,” “connects A with B,” etc. Argument In the broadest sense, an argument is any piece of written, spoken, or visual language designed to persuade an audience or bring about a change in ideas/attitudes. Less broadly, in academic writing the argument often refers to the main point, assertion or conclusion advanced by an author, along with the evidence and reasoning by which this is established. Arguments are concerned with contested issues where some degree of uncertainty exists (we don’t argue about what is self-evident or agreed upon). Claims: To make a claim is to assert that something is the case, and to provide evidence for this. Arguments may consist of numerous claims and sometimes also sub-claims. Claims in academic writing often consist of an assertion, the staking out of a position, the solution to a problem, or the resolution of some shortcoming, weakness or gap in existing research. Often comes with self-identification (“my point here is that…”) emphasis (“It must be stressed that…”) approval (“Olson makes some important and long overdue amendments to work on …”) or a problem/solution framework. Evidence: The component of the argument used as support for the claims made. Evidence is the support, reasons, data/information used to help persuade/prove an argument. To find evidence in a text, ask what the author has to go on. What is there to support this claim? Is the evidence credible? Some types of evidence: facts, historical examples/comparisons, examples, analogies, illustrations, interviews, statistics (source & date are important), expert testimony, authorities, anecdotes, witnesses, personal experiences, reasoning, etc. Strategies: Rhetorical Strategy: a particular way in which authors craft language—both consciously and subconsciously—so as to have an effect on readers. Strategies are means of persuasion, ways of gaining a readers’ attention, interest, or agreement. Strategies can be identified in the way an author organizes her text, selects evidence, addresses the reader, frames an issue, presents a definition, constructs a persona or establishes credibility, appeals to authority, deals with opposing views, uses “meta-discourse,” makes particular use of style and tone, draws on particular tropes and images, as well as many of the other textual choices that can be identified. Rebuttals Writers often try to anticipate objections to their arguments – they understand that their audience, and other authors, may not agree with them. They may thus address counterarguments and objections, and provide rebuttals to these objections/counterarguments. This is often a clever rhetorical strategy. Introducing the reader to positions opposed to your own, and showing you can deal with them can work to 'inoculate' the reader against counterarguments. It demonstrates that the author is aware of opposing views, and is not trying to 'sweep them under the table'. It is also likely to make the writer's argument seem 'balanced' or 'fair' to readers, and as a consequence be more persuasive. The Purpose Of Education by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., Morehouse College Student Paper, The Maroon Tiger, in 1947 As I engage in the so-called "bull sessions" around and about the school, I too often find that most college men have a misconception of the purpose of education. Most of the "brethren" think that education should equip them with the proper instruments of exploitation so that they can forever trample over the masses. Still others think that education should furnish them with noble ends rather than means to an end. It seems to me that education has a two-fold function to perform in the life of man and in society: the one is utility and the other is culture. Education must enable a man to become more efficient, to achieve with increasing facility the legitimate goals of his life. Education must also train one for quick, resolute and effective thinking. To think incisively and to think for one's self is very difficult. We are prone to let our mental life become invaded by legions of half truths, prejudices, and propaganda. At this point, I often wonder whether or not education is fulfilling its purpose. A great majority of the so-called educated people do not think logically and scientifically. Even the press, the classroom, the platform, and the pulpit in many instances do not give us objective and unbiased truths. To save man from the morass of propaganda, in my opinion, is one of the chief aims of education. Education must enable one to sift and weigh evidence, to discern the true from the false, the real from the unreal, and the facts from the fiction. The function of education, therefore, is to teach one to think intensively and to think critically. But education which stops with efficiency may prove the greatest menace to society. The most dangerous criminal may be the man gifted with reason, but with no morals. The late Eugene Talmadge, in my opinion, possessed one of the better minds of Georgia, or even America. Moreover, he wore the Phi Beta Kappa key. By all measuring rods, Mr. Talmadge could think critically and intensively; yet he contends that I am an inferior being. Are those the types of men we call educated? We must remember that intelligence is not enough. Intelligence plus character--that is the goal of true education. The complete education gives one not only power of concentration, but worthy objectives upon which to concentrate. The broad education will, therefore, transmit to one not only the accumulated knowledge of the race but also the accumulated experience of social living. If we are not careful, our colleges will produce a group of close-minded, unscientific, illogical propagandists, consumed with immoral acts. Be careful, "brethren!" Be careful, teachers!
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