Chapter Summary
Section Summaries
2.1 Theories in Psychology Theories attempt to organize observations, explain them, and predict future
outcomes. Good theories reflect "facts" and are understandable, useful for explaining and predicting
events, practical, internally consistent, and stimulating. Models on which they might be based include
the mechanistic, organismic, and contextual.
2.2 Psychoanalytic and Psychosocial Approaches In Freud's psychoanalytic theory, the causes of
behavior are deep-seated, unconscious, primarily sexual (libido) and aggressive forces (the id). The
second level of personality, the ego, is reality-based and typically in conflict with the id; the third, the
superego, reflects conscience. Freud describes five developmental stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency,
and genital) differentiated in terms of main sources of sexual gratification. Erikson's psychosocial theory
is concerned more with healthy adjustment to social requirements. His childhood stages, each identified
by a basic conflict, the resolution of which results in the manifestation of some new social competence,
include trust versus mistrust (birth to 18 months); autonomy versus shame and doubt (18 months to 2
or 3 years); initiative versus guilt (2 or 3 to about 6 years); and industry versus inferiority(around 6 to 11
years).
2.3 Behavioristic Approaches Behavioristic theories focus on actual behavior. Classical conditioning
(Pavlov and Watson) describes how repeated pairing of stimulus or response events leads to learning.
Operant conditioning (Skinner) explains how the probability of a response changes as a function of its
consequences (reinforcement or punishment), and how outcomes shape behavior. Observational
learning theory (Bandura) describes how imitation leads to new learning (the modeling effect), the
suppression or appearance of deviant responses (inhibitory or disinhibitory effect), or to behaviors
related to that of a model (eliciting effect). We are agents of our actions whose sense of competence
(self-efficacy) is important in determining how we affect and are affected by our environments.
2.4 Cognitive Approaches Piaget's theory of cognitive development describes adaptation through
balancing (equilibrating), assimilation (using already-learned activities), and accommodation (changing
behavior). The four major stages of cognitive development are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operations, and formal operations. Information processing approaches are concerned less with whether
and when a child develops some capability, but more on how the capability is put into play. They are
especially concerned with topics such as remembering, problem solving, perceiving, and concept
formation.
2.5 Biological and Ecological Approaches Ethologists are biologically oriented scientists who study
behavior in natural situations. Bowlby uses principles of ethology to explain attachment bonds. Vygotsky
emphasizes the importance of culture and especially language. Vygotsky's zone of proximal growth is
the child's potential for development reflected in what the child can accomplish with guidance from
more competent peers and adults. Bronfenbrenner looks at interactions between children and various
systems (micro-, exo-, meso-, macro-, and chrono-) with which they interact directly or indirectly.
2.6 Dynamic Systems Theory This approach views development as the product of an open system, which
can be understood only in terms of complex, continuous interactions at all levels of the system over
both very brief and very long periods of time.
2.7 A Humanistic Approach: Abraham Maslow Humanistic theory is concerned with the whole, unique
individual motivated by two sets of needs: deficiency (basic) needs, which are psychological (safety,
esteem, love) and physical (food, drink); and metaneeds (growth) needs, such as the drive toward selfactualization—a never-ending process tending toward the development of "full humanness." Peak
experiences (monumental, life-changing events) may be an important part of self-actualization.
Focus Questions: Applications
What are the purposes and characteristics of good theories in child development? Describe what an
ideal theory of child development might tell us.
How does Erikson's theory relate to child development? Give examples of children's behavior that
illustrate each of Erikson's psychosocial stages.
What are the main assumptions and explanations of behaviorism? Devise a classroom procedure that
applies some principles of conditioning theory for reducing a behavior problem in a kindergarten class.
What do children learn through imitation? Identify examples in children's behavior of each of the three
principal effects of imitation.
What are the basic ideas underlying Piaget's theory? Illustrate the twin processes of assimilation and
accommodation in a preschooler's behavior.
What is self-actualization? Analyze your own life in terms of the extent to which you think you are on
your way to self-actualizing.
Study Terms
Click on each study term to see the definition.
Accommodation
The modification of an activity or an ability that a child has already learned, to conform to
environmental demands. Piaget's description of development holds that assimilation and
accommodation are the means by which an individual interacts with the world and adapts to it.
Anal stage
The second of Freud's psychosexual stages of development, beginning at approximately 8 months and
lasting until around 18 months, and characterized by children's preoccupation with physical anal
activities.
Anal-retentive
Freudian term for a personality type described as stingy, hoarding, selfish, and linked with fixation or
regression at the anal stage of development.
Assimilation
In Piaget's theory, the exercising of previously learned responses To assimilate is, in a sense, to ingest or
to use something that is previously learned. (See Accommodation.)
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
The second Erikson stage, about ages 18 months to 2 or 3, when the preschooler faces the challenge of
developing a sense of mastery and control (autonomy) but has to give up some of the security of relying
on parents.
Basic needs
Unlearned physiological requirements of the human organism; specifically, the need for food, drink, and
sex.
Behaviorism
A general term used to describe approaches to learning and development that are concerned primarily
with the observable, objective components of behavior (such as stimuli and responses).
Behavioristic theory
Theories of learning concerned primarily with the observable components of behavior (stimuli and
responses), also called S-R learning theories, exemplified in classical and operant conditioning.
Chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner's term for his recognition that important aspects of environments (of ecologies) change
over time.
Classical conditioning
Pavlovian conditioning, also called learning through stimulus substitution because it involves the
repeated pairing of two stimuli so that a previously neutral (conditioned) stimulus eventually comes to
elicit the same response (conditioned response) that was previously evoked by the first (unconditioned)
stimulus.
Cognitive
Having to do with mental processes such as thinking, knowing, remembering, and anticipating.
Conditioned response
A response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus.
Conditioned stimulus
An initially neutral stimulus that, as a result of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus and its
response, has acquired the capability of eliciting that same response. For example, a stimulus that is
always present at the time of a fear reaction may become a conditioned stimulus for fear.
Conditioning
A simple type of learning whereby certain behaviors become associated with specific situations. (See
also Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning.)
Conscience
An internalized set of rules governing an individual's behavior.
Consciousness
Awareness of one's self and surroundings; awareness of one's existence; awareness of one's awareness.
Context(s)
That which surrounds and influences; the totality of environmental and circumstantial influences on
development and behavior.
Contextual model
A developmental model that emphasizes the importance of the individual's interaction with
environmental context.
Critical period
The period during which an appropriate stimulus must be presented to an organism for imprinting
(learning) to occur.
Culture
Signifies the totality of shared customs, beliefs, achievements, art, literature, and so on, which is
particular to a distinct group of people.
Developmental theory
Psychological theory concerned with systematic changes that define human development.
Direct reinforcement
Reinforcement that occurs as a direct consequence of a behavior—like getting paid to work. (See
Vicarious reinforcement.)
Disinhibitory effect
The appearance of previously suppressed deviant behavior as a function of observing a model.
Dynamic systems theory
An approach to understanding development that emphasizes the dynamic (changing and often
unpredictable) nature of human development, and the extent to which it depends on complex
interactions among a large variety of biological, social, and cognitive factors.
Ecology
The study of the interrelationships between organisms and their environment. The social and
environmental contexts in which behavior and development occur.
Ego
Freud's rational, reality-oriented level of human personality. It serves as a damper to the id, which urges
immediate gratification of impulses whereas the ego imposes restrictions that are based on
environmental reality.
Electra complex
A Freudian stage occurring around the age of 4 or 5 years, when a girl's sexual feelings lead her to desire
her father and to become jealous of her mother.
Elementary mental functions
In Vygotsky's system, simple, unlearned behaviors such as reflexes.
Elicited response
A respondent; a response brought about by a stimulus.
Eliciting effect
That type of imitative behavior in which the observer does not copy the model's responses but simply
behaves in a related manner.
Emitted response
An operant; a response not elicited by a known stimulus but simply emitted by the organism.
Equilibration
A Piagetian term for the adaptive process by which we maintain a balance between assimilation (using
old learning) and accommodation (changing behavior; learning new things).
Ethologists
Scientists who study the behavior of animals (including humans) in their natural habitats.
Exosystem
Interactions between a system in which a child is involved (microsystem) and another system that does
not ordinarily include the child (father's relationship with employers, for example).
Fixation
A Freudian term for the arresting of development at an immature developmental stage.
Higher mental functions
In Vygotsky's system, learned behaviors such as are evident in thinking and speaking.
Humanist
A person with a philosophical and psychological orientation primarily concerned with the worth of
humans as individuals and with processes that augment their human qualities.
Id
The Freudian personality level defined as all the instinctual urges to which humans are heir and which
serve as the source of all human motives.
Identification
The process of assuming the goals, ambitions, mannerisms, and so on of another person—of identifying
with that person. (See Imitation.)
Identity
A clear notion of who one is—including commitment to goals, values, and beliefs—the development of
which is an important adolescent developmental task.
Imitation
The complex process of learning through observation of a model.
Imprinting
An instinct-like type of learning that occurs shortly after birth in certain species and that is seen in the
"following" behavior of young ducks or geese.
Industry versus inferiority
Erikson's label for a developmental period spanning middle childhood, characterized by emphasis on
interaction with peer.
Inhibitory effect
The suppression of deviant behavior as a result of observing a model.
Initiative versus guilt
The third of Erikson's stages (2 or 3 to 6 years), marked by a developing sense of self and of
responsibility, and a greater independence from parents.
Instincts
Unlearned tendencies.
Libido
A general Freudian term denoting sexual urges.
Macrosystem
All interactive social systems that define a culture or subculture.
Mechanistic model
A model in human developmental psychology based on the belief that it is useful to view human beings
in terms of their reactive, machinelike characteristics.
Mesosystem
Interactions among two or more microsystems (for example, family and school).
Metaneeds
Contrasted with basic needs, Maslow's term for growth needs, which are concerned not with
physiological but with psychological functions and include the need to know truth, beauty, and justice,
and to self-actualize.
Microsystem
Defined by immediate, face-to-face interactions in which everybody affects everybody (for example,
child and parent).
Modeling effect
Imitative behavior involving the learning of a novel response.
Models
Patterns for behavior that can be copied by someone else.
Needs
A lack, deficiency, or strong desire in the organism that may be unlearned (the need for food and water)
or learned (the need for money or prestige).
Negative reinforcement
A stimulus that, when it is removed from the situation, increases the probability of occurrence of the
response that precedes it.
Observational learning
Learning through imitation.
Oedipus complex
A Freudian concept denoting the developmental stage (around 4 years) when a boy's increasing
awareness of sexual feelings leads him to desire his mother and envy his father.
Open systems theory
A theory that recognizes the interactive nature of biological, psychological, and social systems, and the
impossibility of predicting final outcomes with absolute confidence (in contrast with a closed system,
which is completely predictable).
Operant
The label used by B. F. Skinner to describe a response not elicited by any known or obvious stimulus.
Operant conditioning
A type of learning, linked with B. F. Skinner, in which the probability of a response changes as a result of
reinforcement.
Oral-aggressive
Freudian label for a personality characterized as loud, obnoxious, demanding, and thought to be
associated with fixation at or regression to the oral stage of development.
Oral stage
The first stage of Freudian psycho-sexual development, characterized by preoccupation with the
immediate gratification of desires, accomplished primarily through the mouth.
Organismic model
Assumes that people are active rather than simply reactive and that they are therefore more like
biological organisms than like machines.
Peak experience
Label introduced by Maslow to describe an intensely moving and unforgettable experience that has a
profound effect on an individual's life.
Phallic stage
The third stage of Freud's theory of psychosexual development (ages 2 to 6), marked by concern with
the genitals and sometimes evident in the much-discussed complexes labeled Oedipus and Electra.
Positive reinforcement
A stimulus that increases the probability of a response recurring as a result of being added to a situation
after the response has occurred.
Psychoanalytic
Relating to Freudian theory or to clinical or therapeutic procedures based on Freudian ideas, and
especially on ideas related to the subconscious.
Psychosexual
Psychological phenomena or theories, such as Freud's, based on sexuality.
Psychosocial development
Erikson's description of human development as a sequence of stages involving the resolution of crises
that are primarily social.
Punishment
The presentation of an unpleasant stimulus or the withdrawal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence
of behavior, sometimes leading to a reduction of that behavior—not to be confused with negative
reinforcement, the effect of which is to increase the probability of a behavior.
Regression
A psychoanalytic (Freudian) phenomenon of reverting to some of the activities and preoccupations of
earlier developmental stages.
Reinforcement
The effect of a reinforcer—an increase in the probability of a response recurring.
Reinforcer
A reinforcing stimulus.
Releaser
A biological term for the stimulus that first gives rise to instinct-like behaviors such as the "following"
behavior of newly hatched chicks.
Replicability
A crucial quality of scientific or experimental procedures reflected in the extent to which they can be
repeated and lead to identical (or highly similar) results.
Respondent
Skinnerian term for a response elicited by a known specific stimulus—as opposed to an operant.
Response
Any organic, muscular, glandular, or psychic process that results from stimulation.
Response cost
A form of punishment involving the loss of a previously earned reward.
Rewards
Objects, stimuli, events, or outcomes that are perceived as pleasant and may therefore be reinforcing.
Role Confusion
Conflict and doubt over choice of identity.
Scaffolding
A Vygotskian concept to describe the various types of support that teachers need to provide for children
if they are to learn.
Science
An approach and an attitude toward knowledge that emphasize objectivity, precision, and replicability.
Also, one of several related bodies of knowledge.
Self-actualization
A central humanistic concept referring to the process or act of becoming oneself, developing one's
potentiality, achieving an awareness of one's identity, fulfilling oneself.
Self-efficacy
Estimates of personal effectiveness in dealing with a variety of situations, especially those that are
ambiguous or stressful.
Sensitive period
A period during which specific experiences have their most pronounced effects—for example, the first
six months of life during which an infant forms strong attachment bonds to the mother or caregiver.
Sexual latency
A Freudian developmental period, from about ages 6 to 11, during which sexual interest is dormant
(latent).
Shaping
A Skinnerian technique whereby animals and people are taught to perform complex behaviors by
systematically reinforcing responses that are increasingly closer approximations to the desired behavior.
Stimulus
(plural stimuli) Any change in the physical environment capable of exciting a sense organ.
Superego
The third Freudian level of personality, reflecting the moral or ethical aspects of personality and
therefore in constant conflict with the id.
Symbolic model
Nonhuman models such as movies, television programs, oral and written instructions, or religious,
literary, musical, or folk heroes.
Theory
An organized, systematic account of observations useful for explaining and for predicting.
Time-out
A form of punishment in which the transgressor is removed from ongoing (and presumably rewarding)
activities.
Triadic reciprocal determinism
Bandura's notion that personal characteristics, behavior, and the environment all affect each other
reciprocally and that individuals are both products and producers of their environments.
Trust versus mistrust
The first of Erikson's stages (to age 2), marked by a conflict between the infant's need to develop trust
and an urge to remain dependent.
Unconditioned response
A response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus (such as food) that elicits a response (such as salivation) prior to learning.
Vicarious reinforcement
A second-hand type of reinforcement often seen in imitative behavior, where the reinforcement
observers assume the model is receiving serves to reinforce their own behavior.
Zone of proximal development
Vygotsky's phrase for tasks which the individual cannot initially accomplish alone but is capable of with
assistance from others.
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Chapters
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toggleCover and Front Matter
Copyright
About the Author
Preface
Part I: Starting Out
toggleCh. 1: Studying the Child: Ma…
1.1 Organization of Children'…
1.2 Children's Rights
1.3 Developmental Psycholo…
1.4 Methods of Studying Chil…
1.5 Evaluating Developmenta…
Ch. 1 Summary
toggleCh. 2: Theories of Developm…
2.1 Theories in Psychology
2.2 Psychoanalytic and Psyc…
2.3 Behavioristic Approaches
2.4 Cognitive Approaches
2.5 Biological and Ecological…
2.6 Dynamic Systems Theory
2.7 A Humanistic Approach:…
2.8 A Final Word about Theo…
Ch. 2 Summary
toggleCh. 3: Conception, Heredity,…
3.1 The Mechanics of Heredit…
3.2 Studying Gene-Environm…
3.3 Inherited Abnormalities
3.4 Genetic Counseling and…
Ch. 3 Summary
toggleCh. 4: Prenatal Development…
4.1 Conception and Pregnan…
4.2 Stages of Prenatal Devel…
4.3 Drugs, Other Chemicals,…
4.4 Maternal Characteristics…
4.5 Childbirth
Ch. 4 Summary
Part II: Infancy
toggleCh. 5: Physical and Cognitive…
5.1 Nutrition, Growth, and Su…
5.2 Brain Growth and Motor…
5.3 Sensation and Perceptio…
5.4 Memory in Infants
5.5 Infant Cognitive Develop…
5.6 Early Language Develop…
5.7 From Sensation to Repre…
Ch. 5 Summary
toggleCh. 6: Social and Emotional…
6.1 The Family Context
6.2 Gender Roles
6.3 Infant Temperament
6.4 Infant Emotions
6.5 Parent-Infant Attachment…
6.6 Exceptionality in Infants
6.7 The Whole Infant
Ch. 6 Summary
Part III: Early Childhood
toggleCh. 7: Physical and Cognitive…
7.1 Physical and Motor Devel…
7.2 Cognitive Development: I…
7.3 Cognitive Development:…
7.4 Preschool Education
7.5 Challenges, Disorders, a…
Ch. 7 Summary
toggleCh. 8: Social and Emotional…
8.1 Emotional Development
8.2 Play
8.3 Television and the Media
8.4 The Changing Family
8.5 Parenting
8.6 A Last Word
Ch. 8 Summary
Glossary
References
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Cover and Front Matter
Copyright
About the Author
Preface
Part I: Starting Out
+
Ch. 1: Studying the Child: Maps and Guides
1.1 Organization of Children's Journeys: Exploring Early Childhood
1.2 Children's Rights
1.3 Developmental Psychology
1.4 Methods of Studying Children
1.5 Evaluating Developmental Research
Ch. 1 Summary
+
Ch. 2: Theories of Development: Map Makers
2.1 Theories in Psychology
2.2 Psychoanalytic and Psychosocial Approaches
2.3 Behavioristic Approaches
2.4 Cognitive Approaches
2.5 Biological and Ecological Approaches
2.6 Dynamic Systems Theory
2.7 A Humanistic Approach: Abraham Maslow
2.8 A Final Word about Theories
Ch. 2 Summary
+
Ch. 3: Conception, Heredity, and Environment: Many Paths
3.1 The Mechanics of Heredity
3.2 Studying Gene-Environment Interaction
3.3 Inherited Abnormalities
3.4 Genetic Counseling and Engineering
Ch. 3 Summary
+
Ch. 4: Prenatal Development and Birth: On the Road
4.1 Conception and Pregnancy
4.2 Stages of Prenatal Development
4.3 Drugs, Other Chemicals, and the Fetus
4.4 Maternal Characteristics and the Fetus
4.5 Childbirth
Ch. 4 Summary
Part II: Infancy
+
Ch. 5: Physical and Cognitive Development in Infancy: First Excursions
5.1 Nutrition, Growth, and Survival in Infancy
5.2 Brain Growth and Motor Development
5.3 Sensation and Perception in Infancy
5.4 Memory in Infants
5.5 Infant Cognitive Development
5.6 Early Language Development
5.7 From Sensation to Representation
Ch. 5 Summary
+
Ch. 6: Social and Emotional Development in Infancy: Little Forays
6.1 The Family Context
6.2 Gender Roles
6.3 Infant Temperament
6.4 Infant Emotions
6.5 Parent-Infant Attachments
6.6 Exceptionality in Infants
6.7 The Whole Infant
Ch. 6 Summary
Part III: Early Childhood
+
Ch. 7: Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood: Side Expeditions
7.1 Physical and Motor Development
7.2 Cognitive Development: Information Processing
7.3 Cognitive Development: Piaget's View
7.4 Preschool Education
7.5 Challenges, Disorders, and Giftedness in Early Childhood
Ch. 7 Summary
+
Ch. 8: Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood: Happy Jaunts
8.1 Emotional Development
8.2 Play
8.3 Television and the Media
8.4 The Changing Family
8.5 Parenting
8.6 A Last Word
Ch. 8 Summary
Glossary
References
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ECE332
Assignment: Theory Summary
Directions: Using the concept summary in Chapter 2 of our text, fill in the blanks for each of the
developmental theories. Provide examples from your own experience or the textbook in the last column.
Next describe your ideal theory of child development, combining the elements that you believe would
encapsulate your own beliefs and experiences
Approach
Humanistic
Behavioristic
Cognitive
Biological
Ecological
Approaches
Theorist
Underlying
Model
Theoretical
Beliefs/Assumptions
Key Terms
Example
Dynamic
Systems
Psychoanalytic
Your Ideal
Theory
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