Principles of Psychology

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1. Do you get enough sleep? Do you sleep well? Sleep is very important. What happens to your body when you do not sleep enough? What stage of sleep is most Important? What can you do to improve your sleep?

2. Abraham Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1943) establishes a needs-based system for maintaining psychological health. What do you think would happen to society if everyone could get their needs met? How would this be accomplished? In your study, what would happen if the homeless and individuals with multiple disorders (including substance abuse) could get their needs met? How much does psycho-education play a part in these roles?

3. What type of parenting style do you believe is most effective and why? What type of parenting style do you believe contributes to the development of a psychological disorder? What did you find most interesting on parenting style? Do you believe parenting affects how children attach (being secure, insecure, avoidant, or disorganized) to their parents?

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John T. Cacioppo University of Chicago Laura A. Freberg California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo M I L E S , Discovering Psychology S H A N N O N The Science of Mind 1 9 0 9 T S Australia • Brazil • Japan • Korea • Mexico • Singapore • Spain • United Kingdom • United States 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. Discovering Psychology: The Science of Mind John T. Cacioppo and Laura A. Freberg © 2013 Wadsworth, Cengage Learning Publisher: Jon-David Hague ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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Locate your local office at www.cengage.com/global. 1 9 Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson Education, Ltd. 0 9 visit www.cengage.com/Wadsworth To learn more about Wadsworth, T Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred S online store www.CengageBrain.com. Printed in Canada 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 15 14 13 12 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. Taste buds contained in the papillae of the tongue are far more responsive to bitter tastes than to sweet tastes. M I L E S , S H A N N O N 1 9 0 9 T S 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. The Science of Mind The M Discipline of Psychology I L Learning Objectives E 1 Explain the subject matterS that psychologists study, addressing the meaning of mind and psychology’ss role as a hub science. psychology , 2 Analyz Analyze yzee the th respective r sp re pecti tivee contributions con ntr trib i utionss of ph phil philosophy ilossop ophy and d the the h physical physi sica call sciences s ie sc iencees as the th “roots” of mode derrn psychology. psycholog ogy. y modern 3 Comp Compare mpaare and cont contrast trast the S earlyy m movements ovem ov men nts iin n ps psychology—structuralism, sycho holo logy gy— —str trucctura ralilism m, Gestalt Gestalt Ge l psychology, functi tion onal alis ism m, behaviorism, beh ehav avio iorism m, psychodynamic hod dynami micc theory, theo th eoryy, and an humanism—in hu umaniism sm—i —in n terms term te ms of lleading e functionalism, Hpsycho figures, core principles, and contributions to modern psychology. A perspectives of modern 4 Differ Differentiate rentiate the seven major modern psychology in terms of typi typical research © Argosy Publishing, blishing, g, Inc. quest tio ons, research res esea earc rch methods, meth me thod oN s,, and and focal foc ocal al causes caausees off behavior. beh ehav avior. r. questions, 5 Analy Analyze yzee thee ways ways iin n wh whic which ich the seve seven en ma major ajo or pe perspe perspectives pectivves can can be be integrated to add address a single N O as a “hub science” allows ps Explain why psychology’s role psyc psychologists ycho holo logists to pursue a wide range of career paths with respect to professional specialties and research areas. N psychological problem psycho holo logi gica call pr prob obleem or ttopic. op pic ic. 6 1 Studying9 the science of psychology can lead you to see yourself and other people in completely new 0 ways. A lifetime of observation teaches us many things 9 our own behavior and about the behavior of others, about butTpsychological science can uncover new and exciting explanations for behavior that we otherwise might miss. S Let’s begin with a seemingly simple and familiar example: our ability to taste. We all know a lot about taste—what we like or dislike, the different qualities of taste, and so on. You might even be aware that some types of taste seem stronger than others. Most of us can taste sweetness in a solution of one part sugar in 200 parts water; this ability shows an impressive taste © Masterfile/Radius Images 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 3 Introspection n is the personal observation off o our own ur o w thoughts, wn s,, feelings, and behaviors. b haaviors. Because be we are not perfect observers erfe f ct o bser bs e vers of the operations ions off our own n minds, psychologists ologistss developed devvel e oped d other methods ds that provide truly scientificc insight into the mind. In this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan, areas of the brain that were activated when the participant was hungry are highlighted. Through technology, researchers can better understand how the brain regulates hunger. From D. Fuhrer, S. Zysset, & M. Stumvoll, “Brain Activity in Hunger and Satiety: An Exploratory Visually Stimulated fMRI Study,” in Obesity (2008) 16: 945–950. © NASA/kutay tanir/iStockphoto © Nature Publishing Group. sensitivity, to be sure. As remarkable as this sensitivity appears to be, however, people can detect one part bitter substance (like quinine) in 2 million parts water. This contrast in taste sensitivity between sweet and bitter does not reflect the actual difference between sweet and bitter substances—that is, bitter tastes are not 10,000 times stronger than sweet tastes, but that is how we experience them. Why would we have such a vast difference in sensitivity between these tastes? Our observations of taste do not help us out much in answering this question, but psychology can. As it turns out, our greater sensitivity to bitter tastes is highly adaptive: Most poisons or toxins taste bitter, and if you want to stay alive, it is more important to avoid swallowing poison than to enjoy something sweet. Being far more sensitive to tastes that are bitter is a trait that has served our species well, because it helps us avoid eating things that could potentially kill us. Psychology helps us understand why we do the thingsM we do by providing a context for understanding I behavior. To gain that understanding, psychology has to act like the zoom L feature in Google Earth. In some parts of this textbook, we will be E behaviors, like looking at the highly magnified zooming in on human S of the chapter of the tongue, which allows us image at the beginning to taste, and tracing tong , the messages about taste sent from the tongue back to the the brain. brrain in.. At A other oth ther e times, tim mes, we’ll we’l’lll zoom we zo bac ack out again agai ag ain n to t take tak akee in the why on page largerr picture, picture, to o better bet ette t r understand unde un ders r taand w hy the boyy o n th tthee pr previous pag agee is givS look. ing his hiis bitter-tasting bitter-tasstiing broccoli brocc ccolii a skeptical skep sk pti ticcall lo look k. Psychologists zoom the study of mind using Psyc ycho holo logi g stts zo zoo om iin n to t he stu u dy o f the th em ind du sing ng in-depth inn-de deptth perperr pe H we spectives, which we will be describing in this chapter. For example, w A boy’s his can look ok at the little boy y ’s reaction to h is broccoli from a developmental developmen Ns th perspective, which us taste sensitivity decreases lifeperspe ecttive,, w hich hi ch ttells ells el ls u that tas aste te sen ensittivi vity ty d ecre ec reas ases es over the life using social span. Or Or, usin ingg the h so soci ciaaN l perspective, perspec ectivve, we can can n think thi hinkk about abo bout social influences influe culture food preferences. Cottage cheese, enjoyed Amerilike cul ultu ture re on n fo od dp reffere re ott ttag agee ch cheese se, en njo joye yed by many Am Orenncess. Co cans, is viewed with disgust in some other parts off the cans the world. world Fruit bat ba N not be a popular item for a campus dining pie, a delicacy in Palau, might facility in the United States. Although single perspectives can tell us a lot about a phenomenon 1 like our sensitivity to bitter tastes, no one perspective can give us a com9 of all comes from zooming back out again by plete answer. The best view putting multiple perspectives 0 together into a whole. You can learn a lot about your house from Google Earth by zooming in, but when you see 9 how your home fits into the larger scene of city, state, country, and planet, T that viewpoint adds something special to your understanding. We’ll start by learning S more about psychology’s main perspectives, along with a little background about their origins. At that point, we’ll be in a better position to understand how these perspectives come together to give us the big picture. E 4 Chapter 1 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. What Is Psychology? The study of the mind is as fascinating as it is complex. Psychological scientists view the mind as a way of talking about the brain and its activities, including thought, emotion, and behavior. A quick look at this textbook’s table of contents will show you the variety of approaches to mind that you will encounter along this voyage, such as the thinking mind (cognitive psychology) and the troubled mind (abnormal psychology). The word psychology is a combination of two Greek words: psyche (or psuche), or “soul,” and logos, “the study of.” For the ancient Greeks, the use of the word “soul” was closer to our modern view of a spirit or mind. Logos is the source of all our “ologies,” such as biology, anthropology, and so on. Literally translated, therefore, psychology means “the study of the mind.” Contemporary definitions of psychology refine M this basic meaning. Most psychologists today define their field as the scientific study of behavior I and mental processes—that is, the scientific study of the mind. The phrase behavior and mental processes L has undergone several changes over the history of psychology. Behavior refers E to any action that we can observe. As we will see in our chapter on research methods, obserS vation has been an important tool for psychologists from the very early , days of the discipline. specify discciplin ne. Notice, too,, that our definition does not spe p cifyy whose behavior se be eha havi v or iiss to be be examined. examined d. Although Alth Al tho ough gh the the bulk bu ulk k of o psychology psy sychol olog ogy focuses focusees fo on human behavior, behavior been part disuman an b ehavvio ior, r, aanimal nima m l beha havvior has b een an eessential ssen ss enti t al par art of tthe h dis he is-S cipline, human ne,, both both for its own ow sake saake and nd ffor or tthe h ssake he ake of ccomparison ompaari r son n wi with h uman um an H behavior. vior. vi The study on the dy of mental m ntal processess has me has been highly dependent th methA ods availa available abl b e to t psychologists. psychol ologists. Early Eaarlly efforts effor orts ts to study stud st udyy mental ment me ntal al processes pro roceess ssess were wer eree N generally unsatisfactory, on the off introspection, rally u nsaatisffac acto tory, as theyy rrelied elied ed o n th he us use o in ntrospe pecttio on, or the personal observation of you your own ur o wn tthoughts, houg ho ught hts, s, feelings, fN eeelingss, and nd behaviors. beh hav aviorrs.. Because introspections, use it is difficult for others to confirm an individual’s O this subjective approach does not lend itself well to the scientific method. If N you say that you are feeling hungry, how can anyone else really know if your observation is accurate or not? In the last 30 years, however, revolutions in the methods used to observe brain activity have allowed psychologists to 1 revisit the question of mental processes with much9greater objectivity and success. 0 As you learn more about psychology, some conclusions will seem obvious to you. After all, we already know a great deal about the mind from our 9 own experiences. In other cases, the conclusions ofTpsychological research might challenge your firmly held beliefs. You may be surprised to learn S that having a “good cry” can make you feel worse instead of better, or that people are less likely to come to another person’s aid when they are part of a crowd of observers than when they are the only ones available to help. Sometimes, we even believe ideas that contradict each other. Everyone knows that opposites attract and that birds of a feather flock together. It takes the science of psychology to determine when and under what conditions these beliefs are actually correct. mind The brain and its activities, including thought, emotion, and behavior. psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. introspection Personal observation of your own thoughts, feelings, and behavior. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 5 What Are Psychology’s Roots? Psychology is a relatively young discipline, dating back only to the 1870s. However, topics that interest modern psychologists go back much farther in the history of human thought. People living as long ago as 6000–5000 bce in Assyria described their dreams (Restak, 1988). Among these accounts are descriptions of being chased, which are still among the most common dreams experienced by people (Nielsen et al., 2003). See ● Figure 1.1 for common dream themes that many people experience. The psychology family tree includes two major roots: philosophy and the physical sciences. Psychologists answer questions traditionally posed by philosophers by borrowing the methods of the physical sciences. We examine scientific methods in detail in our next chapter. Philosophers and psychologists share an interest in questions regarding M the nature of the self, the effects of early experience, the existence of free I will, and the origin of knowledge. Both disciplines consider the relative balL (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in ance of biological factors the resulting human behavior. Both attempt to determine the relationships E between self-interest and the welfare of the community, between body and S mind, and between humans and the other species with whom we share the planet. Although we typically typi p, cally consider questions questions of the unconscious mind m philosophy The discipline that systematically examines basic concepts, including the source of knowledge. physical science Any science that studies nonliving matter, including physics, onomy, and geology. geollogy. chemistry, astronomy, S H A N N O N ased or pu p rsued, not injured inju n red d Being chased pursued, Being ng phy physicall physically ly attacked atta ttacke ck d Being frozen with frightt Eating delicious food Arriving too late, e.g., for a train 1 9 0 9 T S Swimming Being locked up Seeing snakes Finding money 0 10 20 30 © Cengage Learning 2013 Themes in dreams Try ying again ag and d ag a gain n Trying again 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percentage of participants reporting theme Figure 1.1 Many People Report Dreams With the Same Themes. Although we don’t understand why we dream about certain things, many people report similar themes in their dreams. Source: Adapted from Nielsen et al. (2003). 6 Chapter 1 | THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. and abnormal behavior to be the realm of the psychologist, philosophers investigated these issues thousands of years before the first psychologist was born. y/Ala Libra r Arts Photo and cht M usic © Le bre © SuperStock SuperSttock ck introductory textbook like this one, but we can provide you with a small sample of this heritage. The point we would like you to take away from this discussion is that many of the questions you will read about in this textbook are not unique to psychology, but have fascinated thinkers for thousands of years. What is the mind? What is the relationship between the body and mind? Is the mind inborn or is it formed through experience? The ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427–347 bce) was one of the earliest thinkers to tackle the question M “What is the mind?” Plato’s version of the mind featured threeI parts that must be in balance: reason, spirit, and appetite. HeLcompared these parts to a team of horses (spirit and appetite) guided by a driver (reason). Plato’s division of the mind isE echoed in the SFreud also divided the more modern work of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). mind parts: d into threee part ts: the id (inborn aggressive and , sexual impulses), the ego (the and (conscience). Later the self ), an nd thee superego (co cons nsci cieence). ). L a er iin at n this textbook, teextb boo ook, k, we we will ll see that hat Freud’s Freud d’s concept conceept of the ego eggo serves the thee role rol o e of Plato’s Pla lato o’s driver, dri rivver,, overseeoverseeeing and nd balancing the th two tw horses: h rsess: the ho t e impulses th impu ulsses of the th hS e id d and and the he restrictions restr tricction onss imposed superego. might driver ose sed by b the sup perego. o. You m ight ig ht rrelate elat atee to theeHdilemma dilem mma of of the the dr driv iver (reason/ego) on/ n/eego) when you u aare re faced with an opportunity to indulge an impulse A (id) whilee hearing (superego) heaaring ng that tha hatt little l ttle voicee in li in the back of yo yyour ur head (sup perrego) tellN ing you that this ou th hat th his really re ly isn’t a veryy good good d idea. ide deaa. ancient about the Another question with anc cieent roots root ro ots asks asks N abo bout th he rrelationship ellattio onshiip between een body and mind, a topic that tha hatt we will wil illl explore exxpl plor ore further furthe herr in n our our chapter cha hapter er Ofu on biological iological psychology. psychology On one side of the question were thinkers who Nare quite different and believed in dualism, or the idea that body and mind separate. To the dualist, our bodies are physical, but our minds are something nonphysical and somewhat more mysterious. Arguing against this 1 point of view were the proponents of monism, the idea that mind and body 9 are not separate. Another way of thinking about monism is to assume that the mind is the result of activity in the brain. Does0 one of these positions seem closer to your own way of thinking than the other? 9 The ancient Greek philosophers were nearly evenly split between monism T and dualism. Democritus (460–370 bce) and Aristotle (384–322 bce) argued in favor of monism, while Pythagoras (580–500 bce), Socrates S (469–399 bce), and Plato believed in dualism. As the classical world of Greece and Rome gave way, monism moved to the background while medieval Christian thinkers wrote about a dualism between body and soul. Dualism continued to dominate discussion during the Renaissance. The French philosopher René Descartes (1596–1650) was a vocal proponent of dualism. He saw the body as mechanical but the mind as a nonphysical entity not suitable for scientific inquiry. my The Philosophers’ A comprehensive survey of the philosophical roots of psychology is beyond the scope of an Questions Plato P latto vviewed iewed the mind as a charioteer (reason) horses (spirit and (r rea easo s n) driving two horse aappetite). ap peetitte). WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 7 © Be au xA rts /A lam y René Descartes (1596–1650) believed in mind-body dualism, or the separation of the physical body from the nonphysical mind. Contemporary scientists studying the brain support monism, but they agree with Descartes’ belief that the mind and body influence one another. In our biological psychology chapter, we emphasize the reciprocal relationships between biology and behavior. Our biology clearly impacts our behavior, as when hormones released during times of stress increase our heart rate and make our palms sweaty, but our behavior also affects our biology, as the situations we choose to enter (e.g., skydiving) influence the release of stress hormones. This reciprocal influence between biology and behavior can be seen in social situations, too. We know that among primates, males’ testosterone levels predict their amount of sexual activity. At the same time, however, the males’ testosterone levels increase in the presence of larger numbers of available and receptive females (Cacioppo & Berntson, 1992). That is, the social context affects the physiology of the male primates. M Just as philosophers disagreed about the relationship of mind and body, I the mind’s knowledge was inborn or the product they argued about whether Psychology L E S , as a Hub Science S H A N ine Psychology olog gy C Connects onnects to Other Oth her Disciplines Discipli es N considering how people sychology is all about peoO respond to crowding. An attorney cannot crossple, and there are very few N examine a witness without an underoccupations that do not P require an understanding of people and their behavior. An architect cannot design a functional space without Psychology Political Science Law International Relations History Sociology SOCIAL SOCIAL Geography SCIENCES SCIENCES Communications Psychiat PSYCHOLOGYY PSYCHOLOGY Ophthalmology Computer Science Management Library and Information Sciences Statistics Psychology Education Public Health Economics MATHEMATICS MATHEMATICS Robotics Electrical Engineering Astronomy and Astrophysics Biomedical Engineering Neurology Radiology Emergency Medicine Cardiology Applied Mathematics Construction Neuroscience Nuclear Anthropology Mechanical Engineering Geoscience Meteorology Toxocology Paleontology Condensed Otorhinolaryngology Matter Material General Gastroenterology Genetics Fuels Marine Surgery Medicine Sciences Zoology Biology Geoscience Physical Pharmacology Obstetrics/ Chemistry Gynocology Fish Ecology Environmental Polymers Pediatrics Respiratory Soil Endocrinology Chemical Analytical Hematology Agriculture Urology Engineering Chemistry Rheumatology Physical Plant Biochemistry Chemistry Sciences Oncology Dairy Urology Nutrition Biochemistry Immunology Entomology General/ Organic Dermatology Sports Sciences MEDICINE MEDICINE Pathology PHYSICS PHYSICS EARTH EARTH SCIENCES SCIENCES CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY Virology Microbiology Dentistry Veterinary Medicine Plant Food Sciences Biotechnology standing of memory, motivation, emotion, and stress. A teacher can1 not encourage students to reach their 9 potential without an understanding of child development. The study of 0 psychology, then, provides you with better insight into and9understanding of many different occupations and T fields of study. You have probablySseen applications that allow you to map your friendship networks on social media, with shorter links indicating greater connectivity than longer links and with larger bubbles indicating more overlapping friendships with another person. Kevin Boyack and his colleagues generated a similar map of the sciences (see ● Figure 1.2), but used reference lists in journal articles instead of friendship networks (Boyack, Klavans, & Börner, 2005). The resulting analysis shows that psychology is one of the major “hub” sciences, with strong connections to the medical sciences, the social sciences, and education. In our upcoming chapters, we will highlight these connections with examples that are relevant to each particular chapter. E Pharmacology Parasitology 8 Chapter 1 | THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. © www.BibleLandPictures.com/Alamy of experience. Some philosophers, including Descartes, argued that ideas and emotions were innate or inborn. More commonly, philosophers beginning with Aristotle believed that all knowledge is gained through sensory experience. Beginning in the 17th century, this idea flourished in the British philosophical school of empiricism. The empiricists viewed the mind as a “blank slate” at birth that was filled with ideas gained by observing the world. As one of the major empiricists, John Locke (1632–1704), wrote in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding: Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper void of all characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be furnished? . . . To this I answer, in one word, from EXPERIENCE. (Locke, 1690, II.1.2) © National Trust Photo Library/ Art Resource, NY Empiricism contributed two important ideas that continue to influence contemporary psyM chologists. First, empiricism is the foundation for science itself, Iwhich allows us to gain knowledge through careful and systematic L observation, resulting in “empirical” results. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) argued in favor of monism and believed that we gain knowledge through our senses. E S , John Locke (1632–1704) and other empiricist emp piricist philosophers that mind “blank p hilo osop ophe hers believed believe ved tha at the m ind in d wa wass a “bla ank slate”” aatt bi birt birth r h an and nd th that at kn knowledge nowled edg ge w was as g gained a ned ai d through throu ugh h experience. experieencce. S H A N N O N Law International Inter Internatio nternatioonal nal Relations R Relat e ionss History oryy Sociology SOCIAL SOC SO OCIA AL AL SCIENCES Psychiatry Gerontology EEconomics Computer C Science Geography Communications Education Nursing Ophthalmology Sports Sciences Urology Astronomy and Astrophysics Neuroscience Anthropology Geoscience Meteorology Toxocology Paleontology Otorhinolaryngology General Genetics Medicine Pharmacology Obstetrics/ Gynocology Pediatrics Respiratory Endocrinology Hematology Rheumatology Robotics Surgery Fish Marine Biology Ecology EARTH SCIENCES MEDICINE Biochemistry Oncology Urology Zoology Nutrition Entomology Virology Microbiology Dentistry Veterinary Medicine Chemical Engineering CHEMISTRY Biochemistry Plant Food Sciences Material Sciences Polymers Analytical Chemistry General/ Organic Dermatology Pathology Condensed Matter Physical Chemistry Environmental Dairy Immunology Mechanical Engineering Geoscience Plant Sciences Construction Nuclear Fuels Soil Agriculture Applied Mathematics 1 9 PHYSICS0 9 T S Electrical Engineering Public Health Biomedical Engineering Neurology Radiology Emergency Medicine Cardiology Gastroenterology MATHEMATICS Management Library and Information Sciences Statistics Psychology PSYCHOLOGY Figure 1.2 Biotechnology Pharmacology Physical Chemistry Psychology Psyc Ps ycho hology as a Hub S ie Sc ienc nce. This map of scie Science. science was generated by comparing citations from over 1 million papers published in more than 7,000 journals since 2000. Psychology appears among the seven major areas of science, indicated in the map by large fonts. The other six major areas are social sciences, mathematics, physics, chemistry, earth sciences, and medicine. Source: Adapted from “Mapping the Backbone of Science,” by Kevin W. Boyack et al., 2005, Scientometrics, 64(3). With kind permission from Springer Science+Business Media. Parasitology WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 9 Second, empiricism guided the 20th-century behaviorists, psychologists who examined behaviors that were the result of experience and that could be directly observed. The behaviorists’ contributions to psychology will be discussed in detail in our chapter on learning. The philosophical debate about the source of knowledge is echoed in psychology as researchers consider the relative contributions of inborn or innate factors (nature) and experience (nurture) to particular behaviors. You might have heard people debate the importance of genes (nature) or good schools (nurture) on shaping the intelligence of children, a topic we discuss in a later chapter on cognition and intelligence. Contemporary psychology no longer views the question of nature and nurture as either/or. Instead, we see M the mind as a result of complex interactions I between inborn characteristics and experiences. L We might have a genetic predisposition for intelligent behavior, but intelligence depends on E experience, too. During the 1970s, children in S Romanian orphanages experienced extremely f , deprived social conditions due to a lack of fundfew opporing for fo their th hei eirr care. carre. The children ca childre ren n ha had d fe ew op tunities tuniti tu ties to to interact with wit ith h other otther people p oplle or pe or with S th the environment. most their he en envi iro ronmen ent. Th They ey sspent p nt mos pe ost of the heir days cots surrounded by sheets, preventing in c ots ot su u rrou rr ound nded ed sheets sh ts, , prev pr even n ting ti ng tthem H from even seeing other children. Children who A were adopted orphanages ed from these orph p anages at young ph y N ag ages were wer ere able ab blee to to recover, recove re verr, but butt the the children who years off d deprivation ad endured endu ured d ye ears o epri ep rivation experienced experie N hhad permanent perman nen entt cognitive co ogn gnit itivee deficits defi de ficit (A Ames, s 1997). 199 997) 7). In In our our chapters cha hapt pters on genetics and Oits (Ames, development, we will revisit these debates in dept depth. development th N If philosophers and psychologists ask the same questions, what makes these two fields different from each other? As we noted earlier, the structure and operations of the mind are not always obvious, even to the most 1 brilliant philosopher, and the scientific methods of the psychologist helped 9 of the mind and behavior. The branching of develop additional theories psychology from philosophy was gradual. Nineteenth-century philoso0 phers began to argue for the experimental study of human behavior, and 9 some, like Alexander Bain (1818–1903), wrote psychology textbooks and T founded psychology journals. As philosophical ideas were tested scientifically, new explanations for S the mind and behavior began to emerge, and the march toward psychological science as an independent discipline became irreversible. ©C Cynthia ynthia Jo Johns Johnson/Getty hnson/ on/Get Getty ty Ima IImages g The empiricists had a profound influence on the foundations of American political thought—All of us are created equal. For generations, Europe had been ruled by people who were born into positions of power instead of earning the privilege of leading through hard work and education. If knowledge is not innate or inborn, any of us can learn enough to grow up to be President. Desperate conditions nditions in Romanian n the 1970s left many orphanages in children without the experiences they needed for optimum cognitive or social development. Running along a parallel track to the early philosophers, ancient physicians were laying the foundation of our biological knowledge of the brain and nervous system, discussed in greater detail in our chapter on biological psychology. During this pursuit, physicians helped The Physical Scientists’ Methods 10 Chapter 1 | THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. © San Diego Museum of Man develop the scientific methods that would become central to contemporary psychology and previewed the application of the knowledge they gained to the improvement of individual well-being. Although some confusion occurred along the way, as in Aristotle’s belief that the mind was located in the heart, ancient people had a rudimentary understanding that the head and later the brain were important for mental life. As long as 7,000 years ago, healers using a technique known as trepanation drilled holes in a person’s skull to cure some unspecified conditions, possibly headache or hallucination. Subsequent growth of the skull bones indicates that some patients actually survived this procedure. The early Egyptians correctly understood that paralysis of a part of the body wasM due I to brain damage and that such damage was permanent (Breasted, 1930). L As early as 500 bce, Greek physicians began to systematically dissect E that the brain was the human bodies. Not only did they correctly conclude S they noticed the conorgan of memory, thinking, and understanding, but nection on of the brain brain to the sense organs, such as the , eyes, and recognized that the brain is the source source of many ny emotional emo motion onal al problems. probl blem e s. Later Laterr Greek Gre reek ek phyphyysicians popular ns offered offered ed a rudimentary rudim mentary theory the heo ory of personality peerso sona n lityy that tha hat rremained emaain ned p opular ar S until the 19th 19 9th century. centuryy. According Accordin Ac ng to this approach, ap pproacch, personality pers pe rso onal alitty would wou wo uld be affected relative different body fluids: bile ted te d by the relat tiv ive amounts am mounts of ffour ourr diffe ou ffere rent n bo oHdy flu uid ids: yellow yel ello low wb ile le (a type o off gastric gastric fluid), black bla lack bile, blood, and phlegm. For example, a person A with a sad disposition ad d ispo osi siti tion on suffered from fro om excess black bile, whereas a person person with a lot o off bl blood would cheerful. Medical practices such “bleeding” bloo od wou uld be chee erfful. M edic ed icall p raccN tices es suc uch h as “bl bleeedi ding ng”” a patient ient were applications of this theory. theo ory ry. N For whole medicine primitive busior many centuries, the whol le of med edic iciinee remained rema re main rimi miti tive b ussiOined a pri ness. Beginning in the 17th and 18th centuries, centuries scientists armed with new ● Figure 1.3), began to technologies, including the light microscope (seeN make a series of important new discoveries about the human body and mind. For example, they demonstrated that a single sensory nerve carried 1 one type of information, instead of multiple types. You might have already 9 sleepy eyes—you see duplicated this research yourself while rubbing your a flash of light. The nerves serving the retina of the 0 eye do not know how to process information about touch or pressure. When stimulated, they 9 are capable of one and only one type of message—light. These types of T convinced scientists discoveries about the physical aspects of the mind that, contrary to Descartes’ conclusions, the mindSreally could be studied scientifically. The work of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) on the speed of nerve signaling provided further evidence that the mind had a physical basis. Von Helmholtz asked his participants to push a button when they felt a touch. If a thigh were touched, participants reacted faster than when the toe was touched. Because the toe is farther from the brain than the thigh, signals from the toe required more time to reach the brain. Von Helmholtz used these differences in reaction time to show that voluntary behavior did © Photos.com Ancient people might have attempted to cure headaches, seizures, or psychological disorders by drilling holes in the skull. Bone growth around the hole indicates that some of these procedure. patients survived the proc The traditional red-and-white barber’s pole has its roots in the practice of bloodletting to treat diseases, which was often carried out in barber shops. The red-and-white stripes represent bloody bandages wrapped around a pole. WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 11 Figure 1.3 © bilwissedition Ltd. & Co. KG/Alamy S HA D C B A N Ny as ppreviously not oc occur ccu ur in inst instantaneously stan anta tane neo ously reviiousslyy th thou thought. ught. t. The Th fact that behavior beh system physical is not instantaneous, butOrequires time for the sys ysttem m tto o process phy signals, mystical i l contributed ib d to a more scientific, i ifi less l i l view i off the h nervous N system. The work of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) on reaction time helped establish the mind as something that could be studied scientifically. 12 M I L E S , A = A screw for adjusting the height of the object being examined B = A metal plate serving as the body C = A skewer to impale the object and rotate it D = The lens itself, which was spherical World History/Topham/The Image Works ©W orld orl d Hist History ory/To /Topha © Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image Works Microscopes Changed the World of Science. This light microscope was used by Anton von Leeuwenhoek to discover red blood cells in 1676. Microscopes opened a whole new world to scientists interested in living things. Chapter 1 | At the same time that the philosophers began to incorporate physiological and psychological 1 concepts into their work, the physical scientists began to explore the questions asked by the philosophers. The gradual 9 merger of these approaches resulted in a series of experiments that looked 0 more and more like contemporary psychology. Scientists began to ask questions about the relationships between physical stimulation and its 9 resulting sensations. For example, Gustav Fechner (1801–1889) was able T to identify the softest sound a person could hear by randomly presenting S sounds of different intensities, to which a participant would respond “yes” or “no.” When the “yes” responses reached 50%, Fechner concluded that the sound was within the range that the human ear could detect. The stage was set for a modern science of psychology. THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. Summary 1.1 © www.BibleLandPictures.com/Alamy © San Diego Museum of Man Highlights in the Philosophical and Scientific Roots of Psychology Person or group Things to remember Ancient physicians The brain is the source of the mind. Ancient Greek philosophers Provided natural, not supernatural, explanations for their observations. B C D © bilwissedition Ltd. & Co. KG/Alamy A © Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image Works; inset: © World History/Topham/The Image Works © Nationa al TTrust rust National Photo Library/Art Librar ra y/Art r Resource, NY Y © Beaux Beau e x Arts/Alamy Arts/Ala Descartes M I L E S , S H British empiricists A N N O N physical 17th- and 18th-century scientists 1 9 0 Von Helmholtz 9 T S Mind-body dualism. Knowledge is the result of experience. expe Discoveries about sensation and movement showed that the mind was physical. Studies of reaction time reinforced the idea of the mind as physical. WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGY’S ROOTS? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 13 How Did the Science of Psychology Begin? As psychology developed from the gradual merger of philosophical questions and scientific reasoning, the young discipline struggled to determine which questions and methods were best suited to its goals. Lively debates arose among psychologists who helped to shape the field. The credit for being the first psychologist goes to Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), who conducted the first documented psychological experiment in his laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879. This Ma simple test of reaction time. How quickly after landmark experiment was hearing a ball drop ontoI a platform could a person respond by striking a telegraph key? L Wundt, trained in medicine and physiology, was one of the physical scientists who became E interested in the mind. Wundt believed that the goalSof a new science of psychology was to understand consciousness, which we discuss in a later chapter. chapte , Wundt W nd Wu dt saw w mental ment me n al experience exp xperienc ncee as a hierarchy. hie iera ra Thee mind min ind d constructs cons nsttructs an overall over ov erall perception percep pe ption (the (th thee food I’m out mSeating eati ting ng tastes tasstees good) go ou ut of building bui uildin i g blocks blo ocks ks made m up H of of separate sepa paratee sensations sen nsa satiion ons (such (ssuc uch as taste tas astte or or vision) vi and emotional responses. resp ponses. One of Wundt’s students, stud A Edward Titchenerr (1867–1923), (1867–1923)), expanded exxpa p nded on WunW dt’s dt sNviews vieews to to establish establ b ish h a theory th heo eory ry of of structuralism, structural in which mind w hich tthe he m in nd co could d bee broken bro roken down into the Nhi smallest smaalle sm lest elements ele lemeentss off mental men nta tall experience. expe ex perience. Titchener’s Titche O approach to psychology paral paralleled trends alle l lleed the general tr in N the physical sciences of his day, such as efforts in chemistry to break molecules into elements and attempts by physicists to describe matter at the level 1 of the atom. 9Both Wundt and Titchener employed introspection0 as an experimental technique, but they meant somewhat different things when they used the term. 9 Recall that we earlier defined introspection as observing your own thoughts,T feelings, and behaviors. Wundt’s approach to introspection is illustrated S by his reaction time experiment with the falling ball. This experiment is introspective in the sense that pressing a telegraph key indicates an internal state—I heard the ball fall. Titchener’s approach to introspection was more consistent with the building block approach to experience. He would instruct his research participants to describe an object, perhaps a cup, in great detail (size, color, shape, and so on), hoping that these details would serve as the building blocks for the mind’s overall perception of the cup. © INTERFOTO/Alamy Wilhelm Wundt and Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920), seated in this photo, is considered to be the first experimental psychologist. structuralism An approach in which the mind is broken into the smallest elements of mental experience. 14 Chapter 1 | THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. The structuralists’ effort to break behavior down into its essential elements was rejected by a group of early 20th-century German psychologists, including Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler, who founded Gestalt psychology. Gestalt, although lacking a clear translation into English, means “form” or “whole.” The Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking a “whole” perception into its building blocks, as advocated by the structuralists, would result in the loss of some important psychological information. For example, take a look at the middle image in ● Figure 1.4. It is the same in both the top and bottom rows, yet in the context of the first row, most people would interpret the image as the letter B. In the context of the bottom row, however, the image looks like the number 13. The structuralists would have a difficult time explaining why the same visual building blocks could lead to such different conclusions. M the Gestalt psycholoWhile largely known for their work in perception, I gists also had wide-ranging interests in learning, memory, motivation, and group dynamics. The influence of Gestalt psychologists will resurface in L our later discussions of perception and cognitive psychology, the study of E thinking and information processing. William liam James and mes a nd nctio onalism Functionalism © Bettmann/CORBIS Gestalt Psychology Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) was one of the founders of Gestalt psychology. S While the structuralists and , Gestalt psychologists continued their thei th eirr debate, deba bate te,, a new new type pe off psychology psyc ps ycho h logyy emerged,, p partly artly in response res espo p nsse to the he publication pub ublication of of Charles The Origin Char Ch a les Darwin’s Da nSoff Species Spe p ciess in in 1859 185 8 9 and and The D Descent esceent n of Man n in 1871. 187 871. Functionalism Func ncti tion onal a issm viewed vi ed beh hav avior as purposepur urpo posseH behavior ful, since ince in ce it led to survival. survi vivval. Nineteenth-century United States politics and A culture, individuality, ure, which whicch vvalued allue ued d individual ality, practicality, practicality, y and frontier survival, survival, N elvess to exploring embraced functionalism. raced d fun nctio ona nalism sm. Instead of of restricting resstr tric icti ting ng themselves the h ms msel explloring ng the the © Cengage Learning 2013 N O N 1 9 0 9 T S Figure 1.4 Gestalt psychology An approach Gestalt Psychologists Challenged Structuralism. Participants usually see the middle figure as a B when instructed to look at the first row, but see a 13 when instructed to read the second row. The structuralists, who believed that experiences could be reduced to small building blocks, would have difficulty explaining these results. In contrast, Gestalt psychologists, who emphasized the role of context or the “whole” in perception, would have no difficulties at all. to psychology that saw experience as different than the sum of its elements. functionalism An approach to psychology that saw behavior as purposeful and contributing to survival. HOW DID THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY BEGIN? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 15 © Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image Works William James (1842–1910) proposed functionalism, an approach to the mind that viewed behavior as purposeful. structure of the mind, functionalists were more interested in why behavior and mental processes worked in a particular way. To answer these questions, functionalists broadened their research techniques beyond the introspection used by Wundt and Titchener. Functionalism’s chief proponent was William James (1842–1910), whose textbook, Principles of Psychology (1890), dominated the field of psychology for 50 years. At Harvard University, James offered a course in psychology and established a laboratory in 1875, four years before Wundt’s first lab. However, James’s lab served primarily as a demonstration lab for his course rather than a research lab like Wundt’s. Because of psychology’s emphasis on research contributions, Wundt is still given credit for being the first psychologist. There are few topics in psychology that James did not address in his Principles, and many of his ideas sound thoroughly modern. For example, M of consciousness to describe the flow of ideas James coined the term stream people experience whileIawake. Throughout his discussions of mental processes and behavior, James L emphasized the role of evolution. For the functionalist, the value of an activity depended on its consequences. Behaviors E repeated, and those that are either irrelevant that enhance survival are S , Connecting to Research The Experiment xperiment That Launched Gestalt Psychology T he Gestalt movement traces its origin to a single experiment conducted by Max Wertheimer in 1912 that demonstrated the apparent movement of objects (Wertheimer, 1912). According to historians, Wertheimer was inspired to conduct his study after playing with a toy stroboscope, which he bought from a vendor at a train station (Boring, 1942). If you look through the slits in the rotating disk of a stroboscope, like the one in ● Figure 1.5, It looks like the images behind the disk are moving, somewhat like an old cartoon. Most of us would probably just enjoy 16 Chapter 1 | S H A N N O N the toy, but Wertheimer immediately 1 saw a deeper meaning, which he 9 tested in his experiment. 0 The Question: Can the perceived 9stimuli be movement between two explained in structuralist T terms? If Wundt and the structuralists were S could be correct and all perceptions broken down into their elements, then we would not “see” movement when viewing stationary stimuli. METHODS Wertheimer used a stroboscope to control the timing of the appearance of two black lines (one vertical and the other horizontal) against a white background. The first line would appear and then disappear, followed some time later by the appearance and disappearance of the second line. The amount of time between the disappearance of the first line and the appearance of the second, which depended on the speed with which the wheel on the stroboscope was turned, varied from trial to trial, and the observers noted whether they perceived movement or not. RESULTS When the interval between the appearance of the two lines was THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. Courtesy Courtesyy of the he Wellesley W llesle College Archives We © SSPL/Science Museum/ The Image Works With intervals longer than 60 milliseconds, observers 1 reported seeing one line that moved from a vertical 9 to horizontal orientation. 0 Figure 1.5 A Toy Stroboscope Helped Launch Gestalt Psychology. Studying a toy stroboscope, which produces a perception of movement, inspired Wertheimer to question Wundt and the structuralists. How could the perception of movement in the image be explained by basic sensations if there were no real sensations to see in the first place? CONCLUSIONS 9 that his parWertheimer realized ticipants were “seeing” T something— movement—that could not be explained by the S sensations of lines appearing and disappearing. Wundt and the structuralists must be wrong— there is more to perception than just sensing elements, like lines. An application of Wertheimer’s work can be seen in the “moving” words in scrolling electric signs, which are really just groups of lights flashing on and off. E Mary Whiton Calkins (1863–1930) (186 was a student sttud uden entt of o W ililliliam am JJames at William Harva ard, d, although she she could cou not Harvard, o offi cially register ci reg egiiste ter du ue to h officially due her gender. memory She studied Sh stud st udied m emorry and tthe self and ser se rved aass pr pres esid identt of tthe he American served president Psychological Association in 1905. © A. Vossberg/Visum/The Image Works A N Nnds (a millisecond about abou ab outt 30 milliseconds milillilise seccond millise seco ond O of a second), is one one-thousandth the observers reported that the lines N appeared and disappeared together. © Corbis Bridge/Alamy or damaging to survival are abandoned. If we dream, it must be because dreaming improves our chances of survival. If we enjoy ice cream, it must be because eating sweet, high-fat foods enhances survival—at least it did for our ancestors, for whom famine was a much more likely problem than obesity. It is difficult to overestimate the impact of William James on psychology. Although he really didn’t establish a particular “school” or train large numbers of students as did Wundt or other early psychologists, James’s ideas have become so dominant in psychology that we no longer refer to any separate “functionalist” approach. Structuralism came and went, but all contemporary psychologists are generally functionalists at heart. As described by psychology historians, “As a systematic point of view, functionalism was an overwhelming success, but largely because of this success it is no longer a distinct school of psychology. It was absorbed into the mainstream psychology. No happier fate could M await any psychological point of view” (Chaplin & Krawiec, 1979, p. 53). I James, like the Gestalt psychologists, L rejected the notion that you can study the mind by breaking it into elements or building E blocks, as this division would result in a loss of S understanding. psychology rstanding. As ps sychology entered the 20th , century, off Wi William ury, this “big ig picture” picctu t re” approach approaach o Will llia iam m Jamess eventually evventu ual a lyy broke brok ke up p into a vvariety ariety off se sepp arate perspectives, as p psychologists syych c ologgis ists attempted attem mpted d S to gain in understanding un nde d rstandin ng by limiting lim imiting their thei th eirr research reseear arch ch H to particular rtiicular aspects of the the mind and behavior. Scrolling signs take advantage of the apparent movement observed by Wertheimer. Nothing in the sign is moving at all, but perception of movement results when the lights flash on and off in sequence. HOW DID THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY BEGIN? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 17 Beginning at the dawn of the 20th century, the “mental processes” in our definition of psychology took a backseat to observable behavior for the better part of the next 50 years, as psychologists following the perspective of behaviorism concentrated on observable, measurable behaviors. As part of their effort to measure behavior carefully, many behaviorists restricted their research to studies using animals. Armed with Darwin’s evidence linking humans to animals, the behaviorists comfortably drew parallels between their observations of animals and their assumptions about human behavior. In particular, behaviorists were fascinated by learning, which we define as any persistent change in behavior due to experience. We will examine the behaviorists’ contributions to this area in depth in a later chapter on learning. M Ivan Petrovitch Pavlov (1849–1936) had a parI ticularly significant impact on the course of behaviorism L and psychology. While studying digestion in dogs, he realized that the dogs’ salivation in response E to the arrival of the handler or to being harnessed for an Sexperiment indicated that the dogs had associated, f , or linked, these signals with the arrival of food. dogs’ The d ogs’ s’ ability abili lity ty tto o use th this i learned learn rned ed aassociation s ocia ss iati tio o to anticipate ant tici cipa patee important imp mpo ortant future futur uree events even nts was a remarkable rem emar ark S tag advantage terms off su survival. Thiss type adva vant agee in te erms o surv rviv ivaal. Thi Th type of of learning lear is now nH ow referred ref efeerred d to as as classical clas assical or or Pavlovian Pav avlo lovi viaan conditioncon ondi di ing, which we will discuss in detail in our chapter chapte on A g. learning. learning NPsychology Psyycho holo logy gy textbooks teextb tboo oks would wou ould ld not not spend too much m time his tim ti mN e on on Pavlov Pa ov iiff hi is research rese searrch aapplied pplied only to salivating occurs vat ting dogs. Although Altho h ugh h classical cllassi sica call conditioning co oc O organisms, in rather primitive organism ms including including fruit flies, N and slugs, it also occurs quite frequently in snails, humans. Many of our emotional responses associated with environmental cues are the result of this 1 type of learning. If you feel especially anxious prior 9 thank classical conditioning. If you are repulsed to taking an exam, you can by the idea of eating a food 0 that you once consumed just before becoming ill, this is again a likely result 9 of classical conditioning. A war veteran who experiences distress while filling a pickup truck with diesel fuel (a common battlefield smell) is alsoTlikely to be experiencing the results of classical conditioning. S John B. Watson (1878–1958) began experimenting with learning in rats, and independently came to many of the same conclusions as Pavlov. Watson also echoed the “blank slate” approach of the British empiricist philosophers in his emphasis on the role of experience in forming human behavior. In a famous speech given in 1926, Watson made the following claim: The Behaviorists and the Cognitive Revolution © Mark Stivers The Alan Mason Chesney Medical Archives of The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions While studying digestion, Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), seated second from left, realized that his dogs could learn that certain signals meant food was on the way. behaviorism An approach to psychology that features the study and careful measurement of observable behaviors. 18 Chapter 1 | Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. © AP Photo/Noor Khan random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—a doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even into beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors. (Watson, 1925, p. 10) © Daniel Tanner/WENN.com/Newscom Ferdinand Hamburger Archives, Sheridan Libraries, John Hopkins University Later in Watson’s career, he applied his understanding of behavior to the budding American advertising industry. By 1930, Watson was earning $70,000 per year as an advertising executive, an astronomical salary for the time and quite different from the $3,000 per year he earned as a professor. After discovering that blindfolded participants couldn’t tell the difference between brands of cigarettes, Watson con- Classical conditioning helps us understand the links we cluded that to be successful, a product must be associated make between environmental cues and our emotions. with an appealing image. The advertising industryMwas never If a soldier associated the smell of diesel fuel with the same, and today’s advertisers continue to apply Watson’s traumatic experiences, smelling diesel fuel at a gas I principles. Old Spice aftershave achieved great success with its station back home can trigger distress. L ads featuring NFL wide receiver Isaiah Mustafa, implying that using Old Spice would make a man more “manly.” E Watson’s legacy in psychology was enormous. He changed the goal S of the discipline from Wundt’s desire to understand consciousness to the , prediction control psychology iction and contr rol of behavior. He also restricted psyychologgy to the studyy of observable obs bser e vaable behavior. b havior. As we be we will will see in our our section secctiion n on research res esearch h methods throughout hodss an and d thro oug ugh hout ut this text, teext xt, even those tho hose se psychologists psych chol ogissts who who are are interinter erSolog ested events, object, related d in n iinternal n ernal even nt nts ts, like ke the vvisual isua is u l re rrecognition co ogn nition of an ob object t, se seek re elat ated ed H time, or othe observable behaviors, such other similar r vab ble behaviors rs,, su uch as brain im images, reaction herr simi ilar measures. sur ures. A Like Pavlov’s, Watson’s approach psychology ike P a lo av ov’s,, Watso on’s approa ach h to ps psyc ycho holo logy gy N focused relationships between environsed on n the he rel lat atio ionships betwe ween env nviiron onN John (1878–1958) was a Jo ohn B. Watson (1878–1958 mental behaviorists tal cues and behavior. Otherr be beha havi vior oris istss strong s trong ng believer in the “blank “bla slate” were much more interested in the effects of O approach empiricist appr proach of the earlier em consequences on behavior, an idea that was N philosophers. After working as a derived from basic functionalism. Edward psychology professor, he applied his Thorndike (1874–1949) proposed a law of knowledge of human behavior to effect, which suggested that behaviors followed advertising. 1 by pleasant or helpful outcomes would be 9 more likely to occur in the future, whereas 0 behaviors followed by unpleasant or harmful outcomes would 9 be less likely to occur. ThornT dike based his law on obserS vations of cats’ behavior in a puzzle box he had constructed (see ● Figure 1.6). To escape Watson applied his the box, a cat was required understanding of behaviorism to to complete a sequence of advertising with great success. behaviors. Through trial-andHe believed that a product error learning, the cat would would sell better if it were escape faster and faster on paired with an appealing image. HOW DID THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY BEGIN? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 19 Figure 1.6 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 10 M I L E 20 S , 30 40 50 60 70 Trials © Nina Leen/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images S H successive trials. In other words, the cat repeated effective behaviors and A abandoned abando oned ineffective ones. Like Thorndike, F.N was Lik ke Thor ornd ndik ike, B. B. F . Skinner Skiinne Sk nerr ((1904–1990) 1904 04–199 990) 0) w as vvery eryy interested in the er off co consequences on how performed. effects o onseq que uenc nces esNo n ho ow frequently freq equ uent ntlly behaviors beh hav avio iorrs were perfor Skinner Watson’s psychology did not Skinne er shared shaared sh ed W atso at son’ n’s be hatt ps sycho hology g d id n ot benefit from any Obelieff tthat consideration of consciousness or internal mentall states. s at st a es Skinner believed beli that inner, private states N such as thinking and feeling existed, but he viewed B. F. Skinner (1904–1990) was interested in the effects of reward and punishment on future behavior. 20 © Cengage Learning 2013 Time required to escape (sec) Thorndike’s Law of Effect Emerged From Observations of Cats. If you own a cat, you probably know that cats don’t like to be enclosed in boxes. Edward Thorndike (1874–1949) studied the escape strategies of a cat to build his Law of Effect. Chapter 1 | them as behaviors that followed the same rules as public behaviors, like driving a car (Jensen & Burgess, 1997). He not only reduced his study of 1 behavior to the actions of rats and pigeons in adapted cages that came to be known as Skinner boxes,9but he was very comfortable generalizing from the behavior of rats and pigeons 0 to complex human behaviors. In spite of its strong focus on a limited set of animals and situations, Skinner’s behavior9 ism has provided a wealth of beneficial applications. Smokers attempting T engaged in self-paced continuing education to quit, doctors and nurses courses, and children receiving treatment for autism are all likely to be S benefiting from Skinner’s efforts. By the 1950s, the behaviorists’ disinterest in mental states and activity was challenged by scientists from diverse fields, including linguistics and computer science, leading to a cognitive revolution. Cognition covers the very private and internal mental processes the behaviorists avoided studying—information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Ulric Neisser (1928– ) gave the new field its name in his 1967 book, Cognitive Psychology (Neisser, 1967). THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. to this view, psychological disorders resulted from the actions of evil spirits or other external, magical forces. Although improvements in science and medicine led to more natural than supernatural explanations of psychological disorders, effective treatments were not rapidly forthcoming. Patients in the 17th and 18th centuries were often subjected to bizarre treatments, including being spun around in a chair. As recently as the 1940s, patients with schizophrenia were regularly experimented on. They were subjected to questionable techniques such as “insulin shock therapy,” Ulric Neisser (1928– ) contributed the term cognition to the emerging field that studied information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving. Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc. 1 9 With the excepClinical Roots: tion of occasional 0 Freud and the bursts of insight Humanists 9 from the ancient Egyptians and Greeks, the most common view of T psychological disorders over the course of history has been the supernatural S approach. According Courtesy of Cornell University Breakthroughs in computer technology allowed these new cognitive psychologists to use mathematical and computer models to illuminate the mental processes leading to observable behaviors. Alan Newell (1927– 1992) and Herbert Simon (1916–2001) wrote groundbreaking artificial intelligence programs using human information processing as their model. The hardware of the computer was viewed as a metaphor for the brain, and its software mirrored the brain’s activity. By the 1980s, most university psychology departments were offering courses in cognition. By the 1990s, collaborations between cognitive and biological psychologists led to the new field of cognitive neuroscience, which seeks to identify brain structures and functions involved in processing information. In a later chapter on cognition, language, and intelligence, we will explore more detail about the contributions of cognitive psychologists in more detail. To illustrate how the behaviorist and cognitive approaches differ, we M by children. Behavcan take a look at how each explains language learning I language in response iorists like Skinner believed that children acquired to feedback, such as parental approval or being understood. In contrast, L linguist Noam Chomsky proposed that human beings are born with innate mechanisms for learning language, which is exactlyEthe type of specialized internal mental processing Skinner rejected. As weSwill see in our chapters on development evelopment nt and d cognition, the cognitive approach to language learn, ing dominates understanding. ominates our our current cu urrent unders sta tand ndin ing. In behaviorist n contemporary co ontem mpo oraryy departments depa p rtment ntss of psychology, psych chol olog o y, b ehav eh a io iorist st approaches app pproachees S are represented professors and researchers specializing epresentted by b pro ofe fesssor o s an nd research herrs spec ciaalizi zing ng in in learning, leaarniing le ng, who who continue nuances in nue tto o exploree the n uancess of the the h H effects off experience on ts o on behavior. Many A of thee bigg que questions estio onss ttackled ackled by behaviorac beehaviorN ists are now no ow examined exaami mined d through the th lens leens of thee cogni cognitive itive i or biological perspective. persp spective ve. N Behavioral important vioral approaches make imp mpor orta tant nt O contributions ributions to real-world real world problems, problems N including how best to pay employees and the treatment of psychological disorders and addiction. Computers were named after the job title of the women who did most computation tasks before the machines were invented and who continued to operate them. Although these early computers were less powerful than your cell phone (not to mention much more expensive), their operation gave psychologists new ideas about how the mind might process information. HOW DID THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY BEGIN? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 21 © Jerry Cooke/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images Until about 60 years ago, no effective treatments for psychological disorders existed. The application of scientific principles to treatment has finally led to real help. in which insulin injections led to comas, and were restrained in lukewarm baths. We discuss schizophrenia and its treatment in more detail in our chapters on psychological disorders and therapies. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, supernatural explanations for psychological disorders began to give way to two scientific approaches: a medical model and a psychological model. The medical model of psychological disorder emphasized physical causes of abnormal behavior and medical treatments, such as medication. The psychological model suggested that abnormal behavior can result from life experiences, leading to fear, anxiety, and other counterproductive emotional responses. Psychological treatments take many forms, from offering support to applying cognitive and behavioral methods to help people think and problem solve in new ways. As we will see in our chapters on psychological disorders and therapies, contemporary psychologists typically combine these approaches to understand disorders M and develop effective treatments. For example, we First psychology ology laboratory laboratory: y: undt a the Uni U ve ersity Wilhelm Wundt att the University p g, Germany. German many. y of Leipzig, First st Doctorate Do ate in Psychology: Psycholo olog gy: Joseph Jastrow, Ja astrow, a student studen nt of of Hall’s at Johns Hopkins. Ho 1879 1883 1886 I L E S Mary Calkins, a student of William James, becomes the, first female president of the Ame A rican an Psycho hology ology A ssociatio ssocia c tio tion. on. American Psychology Association. S H First F irst Professor of Psychology: A Cattell, James McKeen nC attell, a student of Wundt’s, at the University Unive ersi rsity ty of o N Pennsylvania and and d Columbia Colu umbi mbia a University. Un nivers ersity ity. Founding Foundi Fou nding g of th the hN e Am America American an Psychology Association. Psycho Psy cholog logy y Asso A ssoci ciation. O 1892 1896 1898 1888 1890 N Alfred Binet and Theodore Theod Simon p the develop test. dev velo elop the IQ tes test t. IIvan va an P. P Pavlov publishes his h iss fifirst rst research on classical conditioning. classica cla assical a ssica condition 1904 1905 1906 1908 Edward Thorndike describes William James publishes Principles of Psychology. First American psychology laboratory established by G. Stanley Hall, a student of Wundt’s, at Johns Hopkins University. his Law of Effect. 1 9 0 9 T Functionalism and S Psychoanalysis are Publication of Clifford Beers’s A Mind That Found Itself leads to improved treatment of people with psychological disorders. introduced; First Psychology Clinic is opened by Lightner Witmer. Figure 1.7 Milestones in the History of Psychology. Photos, left to right: © INTERFOTO/Alamy; Library of Congress/Photo Researchers, Inc.; The APA logo is a trademark of the American Psychological Association. Reproduced with permission. No further reproduction or distribution is permitted without written permission from the American Psychological Association; © Mary Evans Picture Library/The Image Works; © Elias Goldensky, University Archives/University of Pennsylvania. Reproduced with permission; Courtesy of the Wellesley College Archives; Courtesy Special Collections & Archives, Truman State University; The Alan Mason Chesney Medical Archives of The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions; Reproduced with permission of Mental Health America 22 Chapter 1 | THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) built a bridge from his medical training as a physician to his belief in the impact of life experiences on behavior. His psychodynamic theory and its applications to the treatment of psychological disorders dominated much of psychological thinking for the first half of the 20th century. Freud managed to combine and communicate ideas about the existence of the unconscious mind, the development of sexuality, dream analysis, and psychological roots of abnormal behavior in such a way that his theories influenced not just psychology but culture. M He nearly single-handedly founded the study of personality in psychology, I L E B.F. Skinner’s The Behavior of OrganismsS contributes to the dominance of b , behaviorism. John B. Watson publishes Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It. First African African-American an-American an-A Ameri merican ican Doctorat D Doctora Doctorate octora oct orate orat t in Psychology: Francis ology: Fra F ncis i Cecil Sumner, a student of G. Stanley Hall’s, at Clark University. 1913 1920 1921 1928 The first Gestalt jjournal is ished in Germany. published Jean Piaget publishes Judgment and Reasoning in the Child. 1929 1938 S H A The Bo B Boulder er Con Confer Conference ferenc ence Nuldlder establishes establ est ablishes s the scientistscie sc ienttisttpractioner off p racti ctioner model o N cclinical linic nical psy ycholo ogy y. psychology. O 1942 1949 N © Paul Van Scott/Final Score Products know that feeling depressed has both physical components (changes in the activity of chemical messengers in the brain) and experiential components (exposure to stressful situations). Treatment for depression often combines medication with efforts to change the way a person thinks about his or her situation. The work of Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) on consciousness, sexuality, abnormal behavior, and psychotherapy played a dominant role in psychology during the first half of the 20th century. Gordon Allport, a social psychologist,, p publishes The Nature of of Prejudice. Prejudice. Penfield Wilder Wil d Penfi nfield publi hes eld e ld publishes the resultss of of his his observations observati tions ons off patients pa ient patie nts undergoing undergoin und oing gs surgery urg gery for epilepsy. fo or e pile lep psy. 1 9 0 9 T Carl Rogers introduces Hans Berger invents the electroencephalogram Humanist approaches (EEG), still used today to Sto therapy. 1954 54 George Miller’s Geo Mill iller’ er’ss “The Numb umbe Seven, Plus Magical Number or Minus Minuss Two” Two” stimulates s work or Co ognitivve Psychology. Ps in C Cognitive 1956 1959 1976 Noam Chomsky’s criticism of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior also contributes to the cognitive revolution. study brain activity. Richard Dawkins’s The Selfish Gene popularizes Evolutionary Psychology. Photos, left to right: Ferdinand Hamburger Archives, Sheridan Libraries, John Hopkins University; Courtesy of the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University Archives; © Farrell Grehan/CORBIS; © VEM/Photo Researchers, Inc.; © Nina Leen/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; © Michael Rougier/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images; © Jon Roemer; Miller, George A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. doi: 10.1037/h0043158; © Dennis Van Tine/Retna Ltd./Corbis HOW DID THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY BEGIN? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 23 Courtesy of the Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University Archives In 1920, Francis Cecil Sumner (1895–1954) became the first African American to receive a PhD in psychology for his work on psychoanalysis. Sumner’s later work focused on religion and racism. and we will explore his theories more fully within that context. He developed the techniques of psychoanalysis for treating mental disorders, which we discuss in our chapter on therapies. He popularized the use of psychological principles for explaining everyday behavior, and his theories are just as likely to be discussed in your English literature course as they are in a psychology course. Our enthusiasm for Freud is tempered by a number of valid concerns. As you read and hear about Freud throughout the remainder of this course, keep in mind that he did no real experimentation. His theories are based primarily on his own introspections along with those of his patients, who as primarily upper-class Viennese housewives were not typical of the general population. Freud’s theories do not lend themselves to experimentation, an essential requirement for any scientific theory, as we discuss further in our chapter on research methods. For example, how could you possibly design M an experiment to demonstrate that dreaming about water indicates you I about sex? Finally, although psychoanalysis is have unconscious concerns still used as a therapy technique, it is rarely conducted in the strict Freudian L manner. Other techniques, discussed in our chapter on therapies, exceed E psychoanalysis in effectiveness and popularity among therapists. © Ann Kaplan/CORBIS S pri Humanistic Psychology, By the 1960s, American psychology was primar- Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) contributed a theory of motivation to the growing humanism movement. humanistic psychology An approach to psychology that saw people as inherently good and motivated to learn and improve. 24 Chapter 1 | characterized behaviorism ily char arac acte teri rized d by beh havviorism sm on n on onee side s de aand si nd Freud’s Freud ud’s ’s theories the heorie iess on the Structuralism into disfavor, other. r. S tructuralism sm had d ffallen alle al len in nto od isfa favo vor, and nd ffunctionalism uncttio ionaali lism sm and nd Gestalt Ge S di psychology no longer distinct schools p ps ycho holo logy weree n o longe ger dist stin inct sc chools l off thought. th hou ough ght. Just Ju ust ass other oth herr aspects asp American culture began against of Ame eri rica can n cu ult ltur uree bega gan eature re rrebelliousness ebeelli eb lio ousnes esss agai ains nstt ccurrent urr rren entt ways H to ffeature began to of thinking, some psychologists t push against the restrictions restrictio of A behaviorism behavi ior orism and an psychoanalysis. p yc ps ycho h anal alys ysis. Many M ny of these Ma thes th e e disenchanted dise di senc nccha h nted psycholopsych N had been psychoanalysis, gists h ad d be een ttrained raained ed iin n ps psycho hoan nalyysiis, but but were were not not seeing seeing the results re desired. they des esired d. Thi Thiss dissatisfaction diss di ssaatiiN sffacction with wiith h prevailing preva vailin ng views view vi ewss led these humanishuma new ways of thinking about the human mind. tic psychologists psych hollogiists t to propose thinki h king ng abo bou u t m O Humanistic H i ti psychologists h l gi t rejected j t d the th idea id that th t people l are innately i uncivilized and must beNtaught to be good. Freud, James, and Skinner all believed that human behavior was on a continuum with animal behavior, which led to their assumption that humans naturally shared the aggressive 1 impulses of animals. For Freud in particular, society had a civilizing func9 and aggressive human being. In contrast, the tion on the otherwise selfish humanists extended the0philosophy of Jean Jacques Rousseau and other 18th-century Romantic 9 philosophers into a belief that people are innately good, are motivated to improve themselves, and only behave badly when corrupted by society. T Instead of focusing S on what went wrong in people’s lives, humanist Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) asked interesting questions about what made a person “good.” Maslow introduced a major theory of motivation, which we describe in more detail in our chapter on motivation. According to Maslow, the pinnacle of motivation is the goal of self-actualization. The 1990s U.S. Army slogan, “Be all you can be,” captures much of the flavor of self-actualization. We will see Maslow’s emphasis on what is good about THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. © Michael Rougier/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images © Bill Fritsch/Getty Images people, as opposed to Freud’s focus on what goes wrong with people, reemerge in the form of contemporary positive psychology. Humanist therapists rebelled against Freudian approaches to treatment. One humanist therapist, Carl Rogers (1902–1987), developed a new approach to therapy, client-centered therapy. In this type of therapy, the people receiving treatment are referred to as clients rather than patients, reflecting their more equal standing with the therapist and their more active role in the therapy process. Humanistic approaches to therapy have also influenced communication, group process, parenting, and politics. The emphasis on active listening and the use of “I hear what you’re saying” reflections have M become nearly cliché in courses of leadership training I and interpersonal communication. Advice to parents to provide “unconditional” love to their childrenLis a direct application of humanist beliefs, which we discuss E in more detail in our chapter on development. Finally, S humanistic psychology continues to flavor our political and social domains. domaains. When When issues such as capital punish, mentt arise, the humanistic humaanistic contention content ntio ion n that t at there th the herre are aree no bad peop people, ople, ju just bad societies, societies, typically typ ty pically appears ap ppe pear ars ass part par art S of thee debate. debatte. The Freudians and humanists had conflicting views on human nature, with the Freudians believing that we are naturally selfish and aggressive and the humanists believing we are naturally ggood. ood. These p hilosophical diffe philosophical differences continue our discussions cont co ntin inuee tto o colorr ou ur discus ussi sion onss of topics.. Is Is the th criminal jjust usst a “bad” “ba bad” d person perrso son who wh was wass never neve verr pr prope erlyy ssocialized oc properly or a ““good” “g ood”” person peersson who wh ho was was corrupted? co orrup u ted? d? H A N N O N When Wh hen en a case of capital capi puni pu nishment occurs, we often ni punishment readd aabout read bout the priso prisoner’s tterrible ibl childhood hildh d from f one side and the need to protect society from further misdeeds by this person from the other side. Where would the Freudians and humanists line up in this debate? 1 9 0 9 T S Humanist therapists, like Carl Rogers (1902–1987), often rebelled against Freudian approaches to therapy. For example, Rogers (in the white shirt leading a group therapy session) referred to people as “clients” rather than “patients” as Freud did. HOW DID THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY BEGIN? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 25 Summary 1.2 © INTERFOTO/ Alamy Pioneering Approaches to Psychology Foundation of psychology Things to remember Structuralism Behavior can be broken down into its components. Gestalt psychology Breaking behavior into components loses meaning. © Bettmann/ CORBIS Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) © Mary Evans M Pict Picture Library/ The Image Wo Works Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) Functionalism M I L E S , Behavior is purposeful and contributes to survival. Mason The e Alan Mas M on Chesne Che s y Medi call Chesney Medical Archives of The Johns Hopkins Joh Medical d Institutions n William James Jame es (1842–1910) (184 42–19 910) Behaviorism m Ivan Pavlov vlov (1849–1936) (184 49– 9 19 1936 36)) Courtesy of Cornell University Cogn Co gnitiv ive e revolution revvolu re lutition on Cognitive © Paul Van Scott/Final Score Products Ulric Neisser (1928– ) 1 Freud’s psychodynamic 9 theory 0 9 T S Humanism © Ann Kaplan/ CORBIS Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) S H A N N O N Experience Experiien Ex ence e iss the e primary prim mar aryy source sourrce e of of beha be avio or. behavior. Prriv ivate mental ment ntal al processing pro roce c ssing can be Private scie ent ntifi ifica callllyy. studied scientifically. Ideas about the unconscious mind, the role of experience in abnormal behavior, and new approaches to therapy laid a foundation for later study in personality and therapy. People are naturally good and are motivated to improve. Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) 26 Chapter 1 | THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. The great question that has never been answered and which I have not been able to answer, despite my thirty years of research into the feminine soul, is “What does a woman want?” What Are Psychological Perspectives? Courtesy urtesyy of Scott Scott Grafton, Gr fton, UCSB Gra SB Brain B a n Imag Brai IImaging maging Lab. La Photo to © Roger Roge R r Freberg Freb F berg Like William James, the behaviorists and Freudians tried to answer the “big questions” of psychology with one single approach. However, it is difficult to build a big theory (which we discuss in our research methods chapter) without a large body of experimental data, and psychology was still a young science. To fill this gap, some psychologists began to pursue an understanding of behavior from more specific points of view, or perspectives. By specializing in only one part of the discipline, as opposed to trying to answer everything at once, these psychologists began to gain an in-depth understanding of the mind. By the second half of the 20th century, the majority of psychologists M were pursuing the perspective approach. Examining I psychological phe- —Sigmund Freud nomena from different perspectives does not imply disagreement, conflict, or a lack of awareness of alternate perspectives. In L most cases, a psychologist’s perspective simply means that he or she is examining behavior from E that point of view. For example, watching a child learn a new vocabuS lary word will have veryy different meanings develg to the biological, g , opmental, evolutionary, ental, evolu utionaary, cognitive, ssocial, ocia oc ial, or or behavioral beha be h viior o al psychologist. psy sycholog ogis ist. t. Reflecting the traditional divisions field, Refleect ctin ingg th he tra aditional divi visi sions of the he fi field d, iitt is common com ommo mon for for psychologists social hologi gist stss to rrefer efer ef er to o th tthemselves emseelvves as soci cial al psychologists, psych chol ogis istts, developdeeveelo loppSolog mental psychologists, their area specialization tall p sychologistss, and sso sy o on, iindicating ndic nd icat atingg th thei eir ar rea off sp spe ecia iali liza zati tion on H often and interest. at universities ntere resst. Departments Departtment nts of psychology psych hology l offten continue contiinue A school in psythis organization, to graduate org rgan niz izat a ion, n, and and students applying ap psychology might like choosing ogy m igh ht apply ap pply to o one particular partiicu cular area area off expertise, expe ex pertis ise, e, lik ike e choo ch oosi sing ng N an undergraduate ndergrrad adu uate major. maj ajor. To illustrate illustr trate the the distinctions dist di stin inct ctio ons among amo ong some som omee of of Nig the main perspectives, we will consider might con onsi side derr how how each each m igh ht approach appro oach h th thee question tion of human memory, discussed in detail inOa later chapter on memory, as this topic is especially important to students who wish to N perform well on their exams. 1 referred to as behavBiological psychology, also ioral neuroscience, focuses9 on the relationships between mind and behavior and their underlying 0 genetics, biochemisbiological processes, including 9 try, anatomy, and physiology. In other words, biological psychologists are interested in the physical mechanisms associated with behavior. As we will T see in our chapter on biological psychology, technological advances beginS ning in the 1970s, especially new methods for observing brain activity, initiated an explosion of knowledge about the connections between brain and behavior. Using these new technologies, biological psychologists have approached the question of storage and retrieval of memories in many different ways, ranging from observing changes in communication between nerve cells in slugs to investigating the effects of stress hormones on the ability to form memories. The focus of this perspective is on the mechanisms used to store and retrieve memories, such as changes in the structure of nerve cells or in the biochemical environment of the nervous system. Seven Perspectives of Psychology Biological psychologists explore the relationships between the mind, behavior, and their underlying biological processes, often using technology like functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). Scott Grafton of the University of California, Santa Barbara is pointing out the features of the brain of one of your authors. biological psychology The psychological perspective that focuses on the relationships between mind, behavior, and their underlying biological processes, including genetics, biochemistry, anatomy, and physiology; also known as behavioral neuroscience. WHAT ARE PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES? 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. 27 © Publiphoto/Photo Researchers, Inc. © EPA/Newscom M I L Evolutionary psychologists are interested in how our modern behaviors were shaped by our species’ history. E S A closely related perspective, evolutionary psychology, attempts attemp to , question how our physical answerr tthe he q ueest stio ion n off h ow o ur p hysi hy sica cal structure stru ruct c ure and and behavior behaavi be vior or have their contributions species’ survival. been shaped sh haped byy the heir i con ontr trib ibuttions ns tto o our spec ecie iess’ sur urvvival. Thiss perspecper ers S sound familiar you—it tive sshould hould l soun und d fa fami milliaar tto o yo you— —it iiss a modern mo rn extension exttensio of Social psychology ch hol olog olog og is important ogy imporrta tant too our William wee di discussed W Wi llia iam m James’s JameeH Ja s’s functionalism, func nction nal alis ism, m, which whi hich w isc scus usse sed d previously. prev pr evio io understanding contemporary din ng of many cont nttem mporary Earlier, we also saw evolutionary psychology at work in the A problems, includ including prejudice. uddin udi ing prej ing ejud ej udic ud ice. ic e In one shaping bitter basic principle of shap ping of our sensitivityy to ob itter tastes. The ba b sic princip evolutionary psychology that current behavior exists in evol olut utio i na narr y N psy sych cho olog ogyy is i tha hat ou our cu urren entt be b ehavior exis experiment, what t, some som me people peopl ple de ple pl ddescribing scribing wha sc at ev its present form because it provided some advantage in survival it t s p pr esen ent t f fo rm becau ause e t prov pr ovid d ed d s om m e ad sur N they heardd from other participants about utt aand nd d reproduction reprod re oduc uction ourr ancestors. anccest an sto ors. An An evolutionary evol ev olutionary psycholopsych a drawing of a White man threatening Oon too our gist might be interested in the fact that tha haat we we have a very good a Black man with a razor switched N and particularly for faces of people who have memory for faces, the races of the two men (Allport & cheated us in the past (Barclay & Lalumière, 2006). In the world Postman, 1945). They now “remembered” of the hunter-gatherer, being cheated out of one’s fair share of 1 hearing about a Black man threatening the hunt was likely to lead to starvation for you and your fam9 who could not keep track of the cheaters were a White man. Given our judicial system’s ily, and people unlikely to survive 0 and reproduce. dependence on eyewitness testimony, Cognitive understanding these social tendencies 9 psychology focuses on the process of thinking, or the processing of information. Because our ability to rememprovides important guidance. ber plays an T integral part in the processing of information, a cognitive psychologist isSlikely to have a lot to say about the storage and retrieval of memories. A cognitive psychologist might ask why processing evolutionary psychology The seems different when we are trying to remember names and dates while psychological perspective that investigates taking a history test compared to remembering how to ride a bicycle. What how physical structure and behavior have been shaped by their contributions to processes lead to the frustrating experience of “tip of the tongue,” in which survival and reproduction. you remember the first letter or a part of the word you’re trying to retrieve cognitive psychology The but not the whole thing? What strategies can we use to make our memopsychological perspective that investigates information processing, thinking, ries more efficient? We address these and similar issues in our chapters on reasoning, and problem solving. memory and cognition. 28 Chapter 1 | THE SCIENCE OF MIND: THE DISCIPLINE OF PSYCHOLOGY 9781305461994, Discovering Psychology: The Science of the Mind, Cacioppo/Freberg - © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization. Courtesy of Dr. Narender Ramnani, Royal Holloway University of London, and Dr. Joshua Balsters, Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Dublin Social psychology describes the effects of the social environment, including culture, on the behavior of individuals. Social psychologists recognize that we each construct our own realities and that the social environment influences our thoughts, feelings, and behavior. Early psychologists were limited in their understanding of the mind by their exclusive focus on their own sociocultural contexts. More recently, social psychologists have emphasized the need to explore the influences of sociocultural context and biology on our behavior. Returning to our memory example, the social psychologist might ask how being in the presence of others influences the storage and retrieval of data. When we sit comfortably in our own homes, the answers to Who Wants to Be a Millionaire questions come quite easily. In front of millions of viewers, however, we might be lucky to remember our own names. Developmental psychology explores the M normal changes in behavior that occur across the I lifespan. Using the developmental perspective, a L psychologist might look at how memory functions in people of different ages. Three-month- E old babies can retain the memory that kicking S Cognitive psychologists investigate the ways the human mind processes moves suspended es a mobilee susp pended above their crib for ,information. aboutt a month w without itho out further practice prac pr acti tice ce (Rovee(Ro Rove veeeCollier, 1997). However, er, 1 997) 7). H owevver, most of us havee difficulty diffi ifficulltyy recalling recaalllin re ng events that tha ha...
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Running head: PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Principles of Psychology
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PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY

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Question 1

As per the scientifically recommended hours of sleep, I do get enough sleep at night. I
sleep for 6-8 hours a night, and in the morning I feel refreshed and alert. I rarely need a day
time during the day, I am able to concentrate on tasks during the day, and rarely need to rely
on an alarm clock in order to wake up in time. I also sleep well because I fall asleep within
the first few minutes after going to bed, and have deep sleep periods without waking up in the
middle of the night.
Lack of sleep causes drowsiness and has other negative effects which go beyond, by
affecting judgement and brain coordination. Lack of sleep also causes fatigue which leads to
lack of motivation and increases irritability and moodiness. In addition, it impairs brain
activities, thus affecting learning and causing memory problems. The effects of lack of sleep
on the brain also reduce creativity and can lead to difficulties in decision making. Due to
unrepaired tissues, lack of sleep can cause premature skin aging, weakens immune system,
causes weight gain,...


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