boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 136 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles 5 History and Structure of American Law L I Enforcement D D E L L , The Structure of American Law Enforcement Local Policing and Its Duties County Law Enforcement State Law Enforcement Federal Law Enforcement The Department of Homeland Security Department Components Homeland Security and the FBI The War on Terrorism: An Evaluation Chapter Outline The Limited Authority of American Law Enforcement English Roots The Tithing System The Constable-Watch System The Bow Street Runners The London Metropolitan Police The Development of American Law Enforcement Early American Law Enforcement Law Enforcement in the Cities Law Enforcement in the States and on the Frontier Professionalism and Reform Conflicting Roles Community Policing CompStat History of Four Federal Law Enforcement Agencies U.S. Marshals Service The Secret Service The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) T I American Private Security F Private Security Officers F Reasons for Growth Issues Involving Private Security A N Learning Objectives Y After completing this chapter, you should be able to: 1 5 6 8 T S 1. Briefly describe the jurisdictional limitations of American law enforcement. 2. Trace the English origins of American law enforcement. 3. Discuss the early development of American law enforcement. 4. Describe the major developments that have occurred in American policing. 5. Describe the structure of American law enforcement. 6. Explain the relationship between the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Department of Homeland Security. 7. Discuss the development and growth of private security in the United States. 136 boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 137 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 5 History and Structure of American Law Enforcement CRIME STORY O n January 20, 2011, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) made the largest single-day Mob bust in U.S. history. The operation targeted New York’s five Mafia families—the Gambinos, Genoveses, Bonnanos, Lucheses, and Colombos; the DeCavalcante family in Newark, New Jersey, and the New England mafia family in Providence, Rhode Island. More than 800 local, state, and federal law enforcement officers took part in the early morning sweeps that netted 119 of the 127 mobsters charged with crimes. One suspect was arrested in Italy with the aid of the Italian National Police. Some of the “big fish” snared were Colombo family street boss Andrew Russo, 76, Colombo family acting underboss Benjamin Castellazzo, 73, Colombo family consigliere Richard Fusco, 74, Gambino consigliere Joseph Corozzo, 69, Gambino ruling panel member Bartolomeo Vernace, 61, and New England boss Luigi “Baby Shacks” Manocchio, 83 (pictured). Other mobsters arrested also had colorful nicknames such as “Tony Bagels,” “Junior Lollipops,” “Johnny Pizza,” and “Vinny Carwash.” The roster of suspects was disclosed when 16 indictments encompassing hundreds of charges were unsealed. The crimes for which the mobsters were Director Robert S. Mueller III added arrested included murder, drug traffick- that it is a myth that organized ing, gambling, extortion, loan-sharking, crime “is a thing of the past. . . . and prostitution. Some of the crimes had Unfortunately, there are still people been committed 30 years ago, including a who extort, intimidate, and victimize double murder instigated by a barroom innocent Americans.” FBI Assistant fight over a spilled drink. Attorney Director Janice Fedarcyk commented General Eric Holder, in Brooklyn to L announce the arrests, described some of I the crimes as “classic mob hits” to get rid of perceivedD rivals and others as “truly senseless Dmurders.” To make the cases, the FBI used classic investigative E techniques, such as telephone wiretaps L and wired key informants. L Holder stated, “As Attorney General we’ve seen for ,decades, Mafia operations that the arrests “made a serious dent” can negatively impact our economy— involved in cybercrime and health not only through a wide array of fraud fraud, for example. Experts claim that schemes but also through the illegal arresting La Cosa Nostra suspects will T I “taxes” at our ports, in imposition of mob our construction Findustries, and on our small businesses. The violence outlined F in these indictments, and perpetrated A across decades, shows the lengths to N which these individuals are willing to go to control theirY criminal enterprises and in organized crime’s leadership and strength. However, she cautioned, “Arresting and convicting the hierarchies of the five families several times over has not eradicated the problem. . . . As one generation of Mob leaders is wiped out by arrests or internal battles, a new generation takes over.” Organized crime evolves. Today, it is do little to curb crimes since Albanian and Russian crime organizations now rule the streets. Chapter 5 is about the history and structure of law enforcement. Among the issues examined is the FBI’s decades-long struggle against orga- intimidate others.” He noted that the nized crime. How has organized crime Mob “is probably not nation-wide in its been able to survive and flourish for so scope and impact as it once was, but it long? Should organized crime remain a 1 5 He declared, “The is an ongoing threat.” Department of 6 Justice and our partners are determined to eradicate these crimi8 nal enterprises once and for all, and to T bring their members to justice.” FBI S priority of law enforcement? These are important questions not only for lawmakers and law enforcement officials at all levels of government but for concerned citizens as well. The Limited Authority of American Law Enforcement The United States has more than 15,700 public law enforcement agencies at the federal, state, and local levels of government. The vast majority of those agencies, however, are local and serve municipalities, townships, villages, and 137 boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 138 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 138 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement jurisdiction The right or authority of a justice agency to act in regard to a particular subject matter, territory, or person. counties. The authority of each agency—whether it is the FBI, a state highway patrol, or a county sheriff’s department—is carefully limited by law. The territory within which an agency may operate is also restricted. The city police, for example, may not patrol or answer calls for service outside the city’s boundaries unless cooperative pacts have been developed. Jurisdiction, which is defined as a specific geographical area, also means the right or authority of a justice agency to act with regard to a particular subject matter, territory, or person. It includes the laws a particular police agency is permitted to enforce and the duties it is allowed to perform. The Oklahoma Highway Patrol, for example, has investigative and enforcement responsibilities only in traffic matters, while the Kentucky State Police have a broader jurisdiction that includes the authority to conduct criminal investigations throughout the state. Each of the 70 federal law enforcement agencies, large and small, has a specific jurisdiction, although one criminal event may involve crimes that give several federal agencies concurrent jurisdiction. For example, in a bank robbery, if mail of any sort is taken, both L the Postal Inspection Service and the FBI are likely to investigate the case. I create and direct law enforcement agencies, the Beyond the statutes that procedural law derived from D U.S. Supreme Court decisions also imposes limitations on the authority of those agencies. Giving arrested suspects the familiar Miranda warnings before D questioning is a good example of the Court’s role in limiting the authority of the police. In addition, police civilian review E and procedures, and civil liability suits against boards, departmental policies officers who have abused L their authority curtail the power of the police in the United States. Thus, there is a great L difference between law enforcement with limited authority, operating under , the rule of law in a democratic nation, and law enforcement in countries where the law is by decree and the police are simply a tool of those in power. Even in comparison with other democratic nations of the world, however, the United States has remarkably more police T agencies that operate under far more restrictions on their authority. To understand the origin ofI those unique qualities of law enforcement in the United States, it is necessary to look first at the history of law enforcement F provided the model for most of American crimin England, the nation that inal justice. F A N Y 1 5 6 8 T S The only police contact most citizens have is in a traffic situation in a local or state jurisdiction. Should citizens have more contact with the police in non-law-enforcement situations? Why or why not? boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 139 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 5 History and Structure of American Law Enforcement 139 THINKING CRITICALLY 1. Why do you think it is important that law enforcement agencies have limited authority? English Roots If you are the victim of a crime, you might expect that a uniformed patrol officer will respond quickly to your call and that a plainclothes detective will soon follow up on the investigation. Because there are thousands of police departments in local communities across the nation, you might also take for granted that the police handling your case are paid public servants employed by your city or county. Such was not always the case in the United States—or in England, where the basic concepts of American law L enforcement and criminal justice originated. The criminal justice system in England took hundreds of years to develop, but eventually the idea arose I of a locally controlled uniformed police force with follow-up plainclothes D investigators. D E THE TITHING SYSTEM L Before the twelfth century in England, justice was primarily a private matter had to pursue perpebased on revenge and retribution.1 Victims of a crime L trators without assistance from the king or his agents. Disputes were often settled by blood feuds in which families would wage , war on each other. By the twelfth century, a system of group protection had begun to develop. Often referred to as the tithing system or the frankpledge system, it afforded some improvements over past practices. Ten families, T or a tithing, were required to become a group and agree to follow the law, keep the peace in I even larger areas, ten their areas, and bring law violators to justice. Over tithings were grouped together to form a hundred, F and one or several hundred constituted a shire, which was similar to a modern American county. The shire was under the direction of the shire reeveF(later called the sheriff), the forerunner of the American sheriff. The shire reeve received some assisA tance from elected constables at the town and village levels, who organized able-bodied citizens into posses to chase and apprehend N offenders.2 County law enforcement agencies in the United States still sometimes use posses to Y apprehend law violators. The Maricopa County (Arizona) Sheriff’s Department, for example, has a 3,000-member volunteer posse, whose members are trained and often former deputies.3 1 5 THE CONSTABLE-WATCH SYSTEM 6 The Statute of Winchester, passed in 1285, formalized the constable-watch system of protection. The statute provided for one man 8 from each parish to be selected as constable, or chief peacekeeper. The statute further granted constables the power to draft citizens as watchmen and T require them to guard the city at night. Watchmen were not paid for their efforts S and, as a result, were often found sleeping or sitting in a pub rather than performing their duties. In addition, the statute required all male citizens between the ages of 15 and 60 to maintain weapons and to join in the hue and cry, meaning to come to the aid of the constable or the watchman when either called for help. If they did not come when called, the male citizens were subject to criminal penalties for aiding the offender. This system of community law enforcement lasted well into the 1700s. Two features of this system are worthy of note. First, the people were the police, and second, the organization of the protection system was local. These two ideas were transported to the American colonies centuries later. tithing system A private self-help protection system in early medieval England, in which a group of 10 families, or a tithing, agreed to follow the law, keep the peace in their areas, and bring law violators to justice. shire reeve In medieval England, the chief law enforcement officer in a territorial area called a shire; later called the sheriff. posses Groups of able-bodied citizens of a community, called into service by a sheriff or constable to chase and apprehend offenders. constable-watch system A system of protection in early England in which citizens, under the direction of a constable, or chief peacekeeper, were required to guard the city and to pursue criminals. constable The peacekeeper in charge of protection in early English towns. boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 140 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 140 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement FYI THE BOW STREET RUNNERS Henry Fielding Henry Fielding, founder of the Bow Street Runners, is perhaps better known for his literary accomplishments. His most famous work is Tom Jones, which first appeared in 1749 and is considered by literary scholars as the first “satisfactory” novel written in English. Source: William H. McNeill, History Handbook of Western Civilization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965), 526. In 1748, Henry Fielding, a London magistrate, founded a group of professional law enforcement agents to apprehend criminals and recover stolen property in the entertainment district of London, known as Bow Street Covent Garden. This publicly funded detective force, named the Bow Street Runners, was by far the most effective official law enforcement organization of its day. Efforts to duplicate it in other parts of London proved unsuccessful, but Fielding’s work in organizing the first British detective force, and his writing addressing the shortcomings of the criminal justice system, had a great deal of influence. They helped pave the way for a more professional and better-organized response to the crime problems that were dramatically increasing in London by the end of the eighteenth century.4 THE LONDON METROPOLITAN POLICE L Because of the Industrial Revolution, urban populations in cities like London swelled with an influx ofI people from the countryside looking for work in factories. A major result of Dthis social transformation was that England began experiencing increasing poverty, public disorder, and crime. There was no clear consensus about what to D do. Several efforts to establish a central police force for London had been opposed E by people who believed that police of any kind were a throwback to the absolute power formerly wielded by English kings. L Parliament eventually responded, in 1829, with the London Metropolitan Police Act. It created a 1,000-officer police force with professional standards L to replace the patchwork of community law enforcement systems then in use. Members of the London ,Police became known as bobbies, or peelers, after Robert Peel, the British Home Secretary who had prodded Parliament to create the police force. To ensure discipline, the T London Police were organized according to military rank and structure and were under the command of two magistrates, who I were later called commissioners. According to Peel, the main function of the police was to prevent crime, not by force but by preventive patrol of the comF munity. Londoners, who resented such close scrutiny, did not at first welcome this police presence in the F community. Eventually, though, the bobbies (the term was originally derogatory) showed that the police could have a positive A N Y 1 5 6 8 T S The London Metropolitan Police discover another victim of Jack the Ripper. What do you suppose were some of the unique problems encountered by the first bobbies, or peelers? boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 141 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 5 History and Structure of American Law Enforcement 141 Table 5.1 Robert Peel’s Principles of Policing 1. The police must be stable, efficient, and organized along military lines. 2. The police must be under governmental control. 3. The absence of crime will best prove the efficiency of police. 4. The distribution of crime news is essential. 5. The deployment of police strength both by time and area is essential. 6. No quality is more indispensable to a policeman than a perfect command of temper; a quiet, determined manner has more effect than violent action. 7. Good appearance commands respect. 8. The securing and training of proper persons is at the root of efficiency. 9. Public security demands that every police officer be given a number. 10. Police headquarters should be centrally located and easily accessible to the people. L I strength. 12. Police records are necessary to the correct distribution of police D D effect on the quality of life in the community. Peel’s military approach to policE today throughout the ing and some of his other principles remain in effect world. Peel’s Principles of Policing are outlined in Table 5.1.5 L L THINKING CRITICALLY , 11. Policemen should be hired on a probationary basis. 1. Do you think any of the early English systems of law enforcement (e.g., tithing) could work today? Why or why not? T I The Development of AmericanF F Law Enforcement A The United States has more police departments than any other nation in the world. The major reason for this is that local controlN is highly regarded in the United States. Thus, like many other services, even small communities that Y can barely afford police service provide it locally. This practice is primarily Peel’s Principles of Policing A dozen standards proposed by Robert Peel, the author of the legislation resulting in the formation of the London Metropolitan Police Department. The standards are still applicable to today’s law enforcement. responsible for the disparity in the quality of American police personnel and service. The struggle to improve American law enforcement began even before 1 formal police departments came into existence. 5 EARLY AMERICAN LAW ENFORCEMENT 6 The chance for a better life free of government intervention was key in the 8 decision of many colonists to cross the Atlantic and settle in the New World. American colonists from England brought with themTthe constable-watch system with which they were familiar if not completely S satisfied. Boston estab- lished a night watch as early as 1634. Except for the military’s intervention in major disturbances, the watch system, at least in the cities, was the means of preventing crime and apprehending criminals for the next two centuries. As in England, the people were the police. Citizens could pay for watch replacements, and often the worst of the lot ended up protecting the community. In fact, Boston and other cities frequently deployed the most elderly citizens and occasionally sentenced minor offenders to serve on the watch.6 Later, in rural and southern areas of the country, the office of sheriff was established and the power of the posse was used to maintain order and apprehend offenders. In essence, two forms of protection began to evolve—the watch in the villages, FYI The “Leatherheads” In Dutch-influenced New York in the seventeenth century, the first paid officers on the night watch were known as leatherheads because they wore leather helmets similar in appearance to the helmets worn by today’s firefighters. The leatherheads were not known for their attention to duty and often spent entirely too much of their watch schedule inside. Source: Carl Sifakis, “Leatherheads: First New York Police,” in The Encyclopedia of American Crimes (New York: Smithmark Publishers, Inc., 1992). boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 142 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 142 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement towns, and cities and the sheriff in the rural areas, unincorporated areas, and counties. Communities in the North often had both systems. LAW ENFORCEMENT IN THE CITIES As had happened in England, the growth of the Industrial Revolution lured people away from the farms to cities. Large groups of newcomers, sometimes immigrants from other countries, settled near factories. Factory workers put in long days, often in unsafe and unhealthy working conditions. Some workers organized strikes, seeking better working conditions, but the strikes were quickly suppressed. As the populations of cities swelled, living conditions in some areas became overcrowded and L unhealthy. Major episodes of urban violence occurred in the Ifirst half of the nineteenth century because of the social and economic changes transforming American cities. D Racial and ethnic tensions often reached a boiling point, resulting in mob disturbances that lasted for days. D A particular source of trouble was the drinking establishE located throughout working-class districts of citments ies. Regular heavy drinking led to fights, brawls, and L even full-scale riots. Unlike L London, which organized its police force in 1829, American citizens resisted the formation of police , departments, relying instead on the constable-watch system, whose members lit streetlights, patrolled the streets to maintain order, and arrested some suspicious people. T Constables often had daytime duties, which included New York had a watch system as early as 1658. Why did the investigating health hazards, carrying out orders of the I watch system of policing last so long? court, clearing the streets of debris, and apprehending criminals F against whom complaints had been filed. Neither the night watch nor the constables tried to prevent or discover crime, nor Funiform. This weak protection system was unable did they wear any kind of to contain the increasing A level of lawlessness. Municipal Police ForcesNIn 1844, New York City combined its day and night watches to form the first paid, Y unified police force in the United States. Close ties developed between the police and local political leaders. As with the first police in London, citizens were suspicious of the constant presence of police officers in their neighborhoods. Also,1 citizens had little respect for the New York police because they thought they were political hacks appointed by local officials who 5 for their own gain. During the next several years, the wanted to control the police struggle to control the police in New York built to a fever pitch.7 6 In 1853, the New York state legislature formed the Municipal Police Department, but within 4 years8 that force was so corrupt from taking bribes to overlook crime that the legislature decided to abolish it. It was replaced by the Metropolitan Police,Twhich was administered by five commissioners appointed by the governor. S The commissioners then selected one superintendent. Each commissioner was to oversee the others, as well as the superintendent, and keep them all honest. In the minds of the legislature, the new structure was an improvement that would prevent corruption in the top level of the department. But when the Metropolitan Police Board called on Mayor Fernando Wood to abolish the Municipal Police, he refused. Even after New York’s highest court upheld a decision to disband the Municipals, the mayor refused. The Metropolitans even tried to arrest Mayor Wood, but that failed attempt resulted in a pitched battle between the two police forces. When the National Guard was called in, Mayor Wood submitted to arrest but was immediately released on bail. boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 143 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 5 History and Structure of American Law Enforcement During the summer of 1857, the two police forces often fought over whether to arrest certain criminals. A particularly troubling practice was one police force releasing from custody the criminals arrested by the other force. Lawbreakers operated freely during the dispute between the two police forces. Criminal gangs had a free hand to commit robberies and burglaries during most of that summer. The public became enraged over this neglect of duty and the increased danger on the streets of New York City. Only when another court order upheld the decision to disband the Municipal Police did Mayor Wood finally comply. Following the course charted by New York City, other large cities in the United States soon established their own police departments. In 1855, Boston combined its day and night watches to form a city police department. By the end of the decade, police departments had been L formed in many major cities east of the Mississippi. The I officers’ duties did not vary substantially from the duties of those who had served on the watch. After the Civil D War, however, peace officers began to take on the trappings of today’s police. They began to wear uniforms D and carry nightsticks and even firearms, although many citiE zens resisted giving this much authority to the police. 143 A street arrest in 1878 Manhattan, New York. What problems did the police of this era encounter? L L departments. Local popolitics prevented the development of professional police litical leaders understood that controlling the police was , a means of maintaining Tangle of Politics and Policing Until the 1920s in most American cities, party their own political power and of allowing criminal friends and political allies to violate the law with impunity. In fact, in some cities, the police were clearly extensions of the local party machine, which attempted to T dominate all activity in a community. If local politicians gave police applicants a job, it became the hired I F F A N Y 1 5 6 8 T S By the early 1900s, most American cities had organized, uniformed police forces similar to the police force of Newport, Rhode Island, pictured circa 1910. How do current police officers differ from those depicted in the photo? boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 144 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 144 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement officers’ job to get out the vote so the politicians could keep their positions. The system was so corrupt in some cities that police officers bought their jobs, their promotions, and their special assignments. In collaboration with local politicians, but often on their own, the police were more than willing to ignore violations of the law if the lawbreakers gave them money, valuables, or privileges. A Brief History of Blacks in Policing For most of American history, blacks who have wanted to be police officers have faced blatant discrimination and have generally been denied the opportunity.8 The first black police officers in the United States were “free men of color.” They were hired around 1805 to serve as members of the New Orleans city watch system. They were hired primarily because other people did not want the job. In addition to serving on the watch, they were responsible for catching runaway slaves and generally policing black slaves in New Orleans. By 1830, policing had become more important in New Orleans, and the “free men of color” lost their jobs L on the city police force to others who wanted them. Not until after the Civil War were black Americans allowed to be police I officers again. During Reconstruction, black Americans were elected to political office and hired as police D officers throughout the South. This did not last long. By 1877, the backlash to Reconstruction drove black Americans and their white D offices, and black police officers throughout the Republican allies from elective South lost their jobs. By 1890, E most southern cities had all-white police departments. The few black police officers in the southern cities that retained them generally could not arrestLwhite people and were limited to patrolling only areas and communities where other black Americans lived. By 1910, there were L officers in the entire United States, and most of fewer than 600 black police them were employed in northern cities. , The hiring of black police officers did not begin again in most southern cities until the 1940s and 1950s. They were hired primarily to patrol black communities, to prevent crime, T and to improve race relations. Still, few black Americans ever rose to command positions in their departments. Indeed, prior I Americans had ever been promoted to the comto the 1950s, only two black mand position of captain: Octave Rey of New Orleans and John Scott of F Chicago. Both served relatively short tenures in the position: Rey from 1868 to 1877 and Scott from 1940 F to 1946. A LAW ENFORCEMENT IN N THE STATES AND ON THE FRONTIER The development of law enforcement on the state level and in the frontier terY ritories was often peculiar to the individual location. Without large population centers that required the control of disorderly crowds, law enforcement was more likely to respond to specific situations—for example, by rounding up 1 cattle rustlers or capturing escaped slaves. Still, out of this kind of limited law enforcement activity, the 5basic organizational structure of police units with broader responsibilities was born. slave patrols The earliest form of policing in the South. They were a product of the slave codes. The plantation slave patrols have been called “the first distinctively American police system.” 6 Southern Slave Patrols In 8the South, the earliest form of policing was the plantation slave patrols.9 They have been called “the first distinctively American poT were created to enforce the infamous slave codes, lice system.”10 The slave patrols the first of which was enacted S by the South Carolina legislature in 1712. Eventually all the Southern colonies enacted slave codes. The slave codes protected the slaveholders’ property rights in human beings, while holding slaves responsible for their crimes and other acts that were not crimes if they were committed by free persons. Under some slave codes, enslaved people could not hold meetings, leave the plantation without permission from the master, travel without a pass, learn to read and write, carry a firearm, trade, or gamble. Both the slave codes and the slave patrols were created in part because of a fear of bloody slave revolts, such as had already occurred in Virginia and other parts of the South. The most publicized slave revolt was the Nat Turner Rebellion of 1831 in Virginia. Turner and five other slaves killed Joseph Travis, Turner’s owner, and boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 145 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 5 History and Structure of American Law Enforcement his family. Approximately 70 more rebels joined Turner, whose immediate plan was to capture the county seat, where munitions were stored. Turner was unsuccessful in his plan, but during the siege, he and his rebels killed 57 whites. Turner was tried, convicted, and hanged, along with 16 other rebels. In response to the revolt, white mobs lynched nearly 200 blacks, most of whom were innocent.11 Slave patrols generally consisted of three men on horseback who covered a beat of 15 square miles. They were responsible for catching runaway slaves, preventing slave uprisings, and maintaining discipline among the slaves. To maintain discipline, the patrols often whipped and terrorized black slaves who were caught after dark without passes. The slave patrols also helped enforce the laws prohibiting literacy, trade, and gambling among slaves. Although the law required that all white males L perform patrol services, the large plantation owners usuI ally hired poor, landless whites to substitute for them. The slave patrols lasted until the end of the Civil War Din 1865. After the Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan served the purpose of controlling blacks just as the slave patrols D had before the Civil War. 145 The plantation slave patrols have been called “the first distinctively American police system.” Have any elements of the slave patrols influenced contemporary American policing? If yes, what are they? E L Frontier Law Enforcement In the remote and unpopulated areas of the nation, and particularly on the expandL ing frontier, justice was often in the hands of the people in a more direct way. Vigilantism was often the only way that people could , maintain order and de12 fend themselves against renegades and thugs. Even when formal law enforcement procedures were provided by the sheriff or a marshal, courts in many communities were held only once or twice a T year, leaving many cases unresolved. This idea of self-protection remains very popular in the South and the West, where firearms laws in many statesI permit people to carry loaded weapons in a vehicle or even on their persons F if they have completed a qualification and licensing procedure. F A N Y 1 5 6 8 T S The Texas Rangers, organized in the early 1800s to fight Native Americans, patrol the Mexican border, and track down rustlers, were the first form of state police. Why and how do you think the Rangers have endured for so long? boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 146 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 146 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement CJ State Police Agencies Self-protection did not prove sufficient as populations Online Texas Rangers To learn more about the history of the Texas Rangers, visit the Texas Ranger Hall of Fame and Museum website at www .texasranger.org/index.htm. Why do you think the Texas Rangers have elite status? and their accompanying problems increased. As early as 1823, mounted militia units in Texas protected American settlers throughout that territory. Called rangers, these mounted militia fought Native Americans and Mexican bandits. The Texas Rangers were officially formed in 1835, and the organization remains in existence today as an elite and effective unit of the Texas Department of Public Safety.13 The inefficiency and unwillingness of some sheriffs and constables to control crime, along with an emerging crime problem that exceeded the local community’s ability to deal with it, prompted other states to form state law enforcement agencies. In 1905, Pennsylvania established the first modern state law enforcement organization with the authority to enforce the law statewide, an authority that made it unpopular in some communities where enforcement of state laws had been decidedly lax.14 The Pennsylvania state police officially had been created to deal with crime in rural areas, but in its early years it frequently responded to industrial discord. The event that led directly to the L formation of the state agency was the 1902 anthracite coal strike, which caused I a national crisis and the intervention of President Theodore Roosevelt. Industrialists believed municipal police departments and the state militia were too D unreliable during strikes because officers were overly sympathetic to workers D community ties and social origins. Industrialists with whom they often shared assumed that a centralized mobile force, recruited statewide with ties to no E particular community, would eliminate any sympathy between officers and 15 workers. The authority of Lstate police agencies was extended with the advent of the automobile and the addition of miles of state highways. Some form of L existed in every state by the 1930s. state law enforcement agency , PROFESSIONALISM AND REFORM T You will recall that the people themselves were once the police, as they served on the watch. Being an adult I citizen was about the only qualification. No training was required, and it was common practice for citizens who did not want F sometimes hiring sentenced offenders. Because to serve to hire replacements, of the few services and the F little order the watch provided, not much else seems to have been required. Even when organized police forces were develA in the United States, qualifications for the job oped in the 1840s and 1850s mattered little beyond the right political connections or the ability to purchase N one’s position outright. Not until the latter partYof the nineteenth century did qualifications for the position of police officer begin to evolve. In the 1880s, Cincinnati posted two qualifications to be a police officer.16 First, an applicant had to be a person of high moral character—an 1 improvement over earlier times. Three citizens had to vouch for the applicant’s character at a city council meeting. If deemed acceptable by the council,5 the applicant was immediately taken to a gymnasium and tested for the second qualification, foot speed. 6 Both Cincinnati and New York began police academies in the 1880s, but the curriculum was meager and 8 recruits were not required to pass any examinations to prove their competence. The lack of adequate standards and training T for police officers was recognized as a major stumbling block to improved policing. A group of reformers within policing allied themselves with the S Progressives, a movement for political, social, and economic change. Among the reformers was August Vollmer, who became chief of police of Berkeley, California, in 1909. During his tenure as chief from 1909 to 1932, Vollmer attempted to create a professional model of policing. With Vollmer and a succession of internal reformers who followed, a new era of professional policing began. Vollmer and his followers advocated training and education as two of the key ingredients of professionalism in policing. He also believed strongly that the police should stay out of politics and that politics should stay out of policing. Vollmer believed that the major function of the police was fighting crime, and he saw great promise in professionalizing law enforcement by emphasizing boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 147 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 5 History and Structure of American Law Enforcement 147 that role.17 He began to hire college graduates for the Berkeley Police Department, and he held college classes on police administration. Within a few decades, this professional model, sometimes called the reform model, had taken root in police departments across the country. To eliminate political influences, gain control of officers, and establish crime-fighting priorities, departments made major changes in organization and operation. Those changes included the following: • Narrowing of the police function from social service and the maintenance of order to law enforcement only. • Centralization of authority, with the power of precinct captains and commanders checked. • Creation of specialized, centrally based crime-fighting units, as for burglary. • A shift from neighborhood foot patrol to motorized patrol. • Implementation of patrol allocation systems based on such variables as crime rates, calls for service, and response times. • Reliance on technology, such as police radios, to L both control and aid the policing function. I • Recruitment of police officers through psychological screening and civil D service testing. • Specific training in law enforcement techniques. D E gain the opportunity to Policewomen It took a long time for policewomen to perform the same roles and duties as their male counterparts. From the early L 1900s until 1972, when the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission began L to assist women police officers in obtaining equal employment status with male officers, policewomen were responsible for protection and crime prevention , work with women and juveniles, particularly with girls. The Los Angeles Police Department created the City Mother’s Bureau in 1914 and hired policewomen to work with delinquent and predelinquent children whose mothers did not want T formal intervention by a law enforcement agency. Policewomen were also used to monitor, investigate, and punish young girls whose I behavior flouted social and sexual conventions of the times. The first woman to have full police power (1905) wasFLola Baldwin of Portland, Oregon. The first uniformed policewoman was Alice F Stebbins Wells, who was hired by the Los Angeles Police Department in 1910. By 1916, 16 other police departments had hired policewomen as a result of the A success in Los Angeles.18 CONFLICTING ROLES N Y Throughout their history, Americans have never been sure precisely what role they want their police officers to play. Much of the ambivalence has to do with 1 American heritage, which makes many Americans suspicious of government 5 acted as peacekeepers, authority. At one time or another, local police have social workers, crime fighters, and public servants, completing any task that 6 was requested. Often, the police have been asked to take on all those roles simultaneously. 8 For most of the nineteenth century, distrust of government was so strong and the need to maintain order in the cities so critical that T the police operated almost exclusively as peacekeepers and social service agents,Swith little or no concern for enforcing the law beyond what was absolutely necessary to maintain tranquility.19 In this role, the police in many American cities administered the laws that provided for public relief and support of the poor. They fed the hungry and housed the homeless at the request of the politicians who controlled them. Later, other social service agents, such as social workers, began to replace them, and a reform effort developed to remove policing from the direct control of corrupt politicians. As a result, the police began to focus on crime-fighting as early as the 1920s. Having the police enforce the law fairly and objectively was thought to be a major way of professionalizing law enforcement. This approach also fit the professional model of policing advocated by Vollmer and other reformers. August Vollmer. Do you agree with Vollmer’s idea that police should focus on law enforcement and leave social services and the maintenance of order to others? Why or why not? boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 148 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 148 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement L I D D E L L Brutal tactics by some police officers to suppress civil rights protests during the 1960s led to calls for improved standards of,police conduct and training. Have new standards of conduct and training ended brutal police tactics? T I strong doubts about the role of the police emerged By the end of the 1960s, again. The role they had been F playing encouraged them to ferret out crime and criminals through such practices as aggressive patrol, undercover operations, F In some neighborhoods, the police came to be and electronic surveillance. viewed as armies of occupation. Some confrontations between police and citiA zens resulted in violence. The civil rights movement produced a series of demonstrations and civil N disorders in more than 100 cities across America, beginning in 1964. As in the labor struggles of the late nineteenth and early Y were called in to restore order. Some police twentieth centuries, the police officers suppressed the demonstrations with brutal tactics. The anti–Vietnam War movement during the 1960s sparked protests all over the country, espe1 Again, police officers were called on to maintain cially on college campuses. and sometimes to restore order. Thousands of students were sprayed with tear 5 gas, and some were beaten and even killed by police. By the end of the 1960s, 6 it was clear that police standards and training had to be improved. To many observers, fast response and proactive patrols did not 8 crime, and officers increasingly were seeing their seem effective in reducing work world through the windshield of a cruiser. The likelihood of establishing T rapport with the people they served was remote as officers dashed from one crime scene to another. S Four blue-ribbon commissions studied the police in the United States. The four commissions and the years in which they released their reports are: National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, 1967 President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice, 1967 National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, 1973 American Bar Association’s Standards Relating to Urban Police Function, 1973 boh11536_ch05_135-195.indd Page 149 14/06/11 12:50 AM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 5 History and Structure of American Law Enforcement All four reports made the same major recommendations: They pointed out the critical role police officers play in American society, called for careful selection of law enforcement officers, and recommended extensive and continuous training. The reports also recommended better police management and supervision as well as internal and external methods of maintaining integrity in police departments. In an attempt to follow many of the specific recommendations of the reform commissions’ reports, police selection became an expensive and elaborate process. It was designed to identify candidates who had the qualities to be effective law enforcement officers: integrity, intelligence, interpersonal skills, mental stability, adequate physical strength, and agility. Attempts were also made to eliminate discriminatory employment practices that had prevented minorities and women from entering and advancing in law enforcement. Finally, it became more common for police officers to attend college, and some police agencies began to set a minimum number of college credit hours as an employment qualification. L COMMUNITY POLICING I D By the 1970s, research began to show that a rapid response to crime does not necessarily lead to more arrests and that having more police officers using methD ods made popular under the professional or reform model does not significantly 20 reduce crime. What was emerging was the view that E unattended disorderly behavior in neighborhoods—such as unruly groups of youths, prostitution, vandalism, drunk and disorderly vagrants, and aggressiveLstreet people—is a signal to more serious criminals that residents do not care what L goes on in their community and that the criminals can move in and operate with impunity. , with community- and The 1970s and 1980s saw some experimentation neighborhood-based policing projects.21 Those projects got mixed results, and many were abandoned because of high costs, administrative neglect, and citizen apathy. However, higher crime rates, continued community T deterioration, and recognition of the failure to control crime caused law enforcement to again question I working well enough. It the role it was playing. The enforcer role still was not appeared senseless simply to respond to calls for service F and arrive at scenes of crime and disorder time and time again without resolving the problems or having F any lasting effect on the lives of the residents of the community. Out of this failure and frustration came the contemporary concept of community policing. A Under a community policing philosophy, the people of a community and the police form a lasting partnership in which they jointly N approach the problems of maintaining order, providing services, and fighting crime.22 If the police show they care about the minor problems associated with Y community disorder, two positive changes are likely to occur: Citizens will develop better relations with the police as they turn to them for solutions to the disorder, and criminals will see that residents and the police have a commitment1to keeping all crime out of the neighborhood. Once again, the emphasis has shifted from fighting crime 5 to keeping peace and delivering social services. The goal is eradicating the causes of crime in a community, not simply responding 6 to symptoms. In the early 1990s, many communities across the nation began implementing 8 called for a shift from community policing strategies. Community policing incident-based crime fighting to a problem-oriented approach in which police T would be prepared to handle a broad range of troublesome situations in a city’s S so that officers could neighborhoods. There was greater emphasis on foot patrol come to know and be known by the residents of a neighborhood. Those citizens would then be more willing to help the police identify and solve problems in the neighborhood. Many other aspects of community policing are discussed more fully in Chapter 6. COMPSTAT At about the same time that community policing was becoming popular in many American cities, a new policing strategy was being implemented in New York 149 MYTH Random patrol, as opposed to directed patrol, reduces crime. It is important to have police out in patrol cars scouting neighborhoods and business districts. FAC T There is not much value to such random patrols other than perhaps helping people feel safe. They would probably feel even safer if the police were walking a beat. However, little research supports the idea that officers who ride around for 3 to 5 hours of their shifts are repressing crime. Even being available to respond to calls from the public is not a strong argument for such patrols. Only a small percentage of reported crimes and other incidents require a rapid response. community policing A contemporary approach to policing that actively involves the community in a working partnership to control and reduce crime. boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 200 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 200 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement Figure 6.1 Law Enforcement Officer Code of Ethics The purpose of the Code of Ethics is to ensure that all peace officers are fully aware of their individual responsibility to maintain their own integrity and that of their agency. Every peace officer, during basic training, or at the time of appointment, shall be administered the [following] Code of Ethics. As a law enforcement officer, my fundamental duty is to serve mankind; to safeguard lives and property; to protect the innocent against deception, the weak against oppression or intimidation, and the peaceful against violence or disorder; and to respect the constitutional rights of all men to liberty, equality, and justice. I will keep my private life unsullied as an example to all; maintain courageous calm in the face of danger, scorn, or ridicule; develop self-restraint; and be constantly mindful of the welfare of others. Honest in thought and deed in both my personal and official life, I will be exemplary in obeying the laws of the land and the regulations of my department. Whatever I see or hear of a confidential nature or that is confided to me in my official capacity will be kept ever secret unless revelation is necessary in the performance of my duty. I will never act officiously or permit personal feelings, prejudices, animosities, or friendships to influence my decisions. With no compromise for crime and with relentless prosecution of criminals, I will enforce the law courteously and appropriately without fear or favor, malice or ill will, never employing unnecessary force or violence, and never accepting gratuities. L I D D E I recognize the badge of my office as a symbol of public L faith, and I accept it as a public trust to be held so long as I am true to the ethics of the police service. I will constantly strive to achieve these objectives and ideals, dedicating myself to L my chosen profession—law enforcement. , Canons 1. The primary responsibility of police officers and organizations is the protection of citizens by upholding the law and respecting the legally expressed will of the whole community and not a particular party or clique. T I 2. Police officers should be aware of the legal limits on their authority and the “genius of F the American system,” which limits the power of individuals, groups, and institutions. F law and not only their 3. Police officers are responsible for being familiar with the responsibilities but also those of other public officials. A 4. Police officers should be mindful of the importance of using the proper means to gain proper ends. Officers should not employ illegal means, nor N should they disregard public safety or property to accomplish a goal. Y 5. Police officers will cooperate with other public officials in carrying out their duties. However, the officer shall be careful not to use his or her position in an improper or illegal manner when cooperating with other officials. 1 5 6 7. In their behavior toward members of the public, officers will provide service when possible, require compliance with the law, respond in a manner 8 that inspires confidence and trust, and will be neither overbearing nor subservient. T will follow the law; officers have 8. When dealing with violators or making arrests, officers no right to persecute individuals or punish them. And officers S should behave in such a manner so the likelihood of the use of force is minimized. 6. In their private lives, police officers will behave in such a manner that the public will “regard (the officer) as an example of stability, fidelity, and morality.” It is necessary that police officers conduct themselves in a “decent and honorable” manner. 9. Police officers should refuse to accept any gifts, favors, or gratuities that, from a public perspective, could influence the manner in which the officer discharges his or her duties. 10. Officers will present evidence in criminal cases impartially because the officer should be equally concerned with both the prosecution of criminals and the defense of innocent persons. Source: Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training, Administrative Manual (State of California: POST, 1990), c-5. boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 201 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 6 Policing: Roles, Styles, and Functions Table 6.1 Law Enforcement Officers Assaulted in the United States by Circumstance, 2009 Circumstances at Scene of Incident Total Total Disturbance calls (family quarrel, man with gun, etc.) Burglaries in progress or pursuit of burglary suspects Robberies in progress or pursuit of robbery suspects Other arrest attempts Civil disorders (mass disobedience, riot, etc.) Handling, transporting, custody of prisoners Investigation of suspicious persons and circumstances Ambush (no warning) situations Handling mentally deranged persons Traffic pursuits and stops All other 57,268 18,672 850 552 8,797 789 7,274 5,475 228 1,146 5,479 8,006 Percentage of Total 100% 32.6 1.5 0.9 15.4 1.4 12.7 9.6 0.4 2.0 9.6 14.0 L Source: United States Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, LawI Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted, www2.fbi.gov/ucr/killed/2009/data/table_68.html. D D killed in the line of duty, many fewer than the 142 officers killed feloniously in 2001, and 9 fewer than the 57 officers killed feloniously in 2007. However, E 2001 was an unusual year. Among the 142 officers feloniously killed were the L tragedy of September 72 federal, state, and local officers killed during the 11—the most officers killed in the United States on aLsingle day. In 1999, only 42 officers were feloniously killed in the line of duty, which was the lowest , recorded figure in more than 35 years.4 Of the 48 officers feloniously killed in the line of duty in 2009, 15 were ambushed by their assailants, 8 died from felonious attacks during arrest situations, 8 were killed during traffic pursuits and stops,T 6 were murdered answering disturbance calls, 5 during tactical situations (for example, barricaded I offender, hostage taking, and so on), 4 while investigating suspicious persons or circumstances, and 2 while transporting or maintaining F custody of prisoners.5 Accidents, such as automobile accidents, during the performance of official F2009, down from the 83 duties claimed the lives of an additional 47 officers in in 2007.6 A N Table 6.2 Body Armor Requirements for Field Officers in Local Police Y Departments, by Size of Population Served, 2003 and 2007 PERCENTAGE OF AGENCIES REQUIRING FIELD OFFICERS TO WEAR ARMOR WHILE ON DUTY Population Served All Sizes 1,000,000 or more 500,000–999,999 250,000–499,999 100,000–249,999 50,000–99,999 25,000–49,999 10,000–24,999 2,500–9,999 Under 2,500 Total At All Times 2003 2007 2003 2007 71% 63 79 68 68 69 74 74 80 63 75% 77 81 78 73 74 77 81 79 69 59% 44 60 56 50 52 61 63 69 52 65% 62 55 61 55 62 66 71 73 57 1 5 6 8 T S In Some Circumstances 2003 2007 12% 19 19 12 18 17 13 11 11 11 10% 15 26 17 18 12 11 11 7 12 Source: Matthew J. Hickman and Brian A. Reaves, Local Police Departments, 2003, U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, May 2006), 25, Table 56; Brian A. Reaves, Local Police Departments, 2007, U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 2010), 19, Table K, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/1pd07.pdf. 201 boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 202 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 202 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement From 1972 through 2009, 5,293 law enforcement officers were killed in the line of duty: 2,909 were feloniously killed, and 2,384 were accidentally killed. The highest number of officers killed in any one year was 218 in 2001, while the lowest number killed in any year was 95 in 2009. In general, and with few exceptions, the number of law enforcement officers killed while on duty has declined since the early 1970s.7 OPERATIONAL STYLES operational styles The different overall approaches to the police job. After police officers are trained and begin to gain experience and wisdom from their encounters with veteran police officers and citizens on the street, it is believed that they develop operational styles that characterize their overall approach to the police job. If these styles actually exist, it means that the effort of the police department to systematically train and deploy officers with the same philosophy and practical L approach to policing in the community has not been entirely successful. The research on operational styles shows that they vary both between departments and among officers of the same department. I One of the earliest scholars to report on the existence of policing styles was DWilson, who found the following three styles in a political scientist James Q. study of eight police departments: D 1. 2. 3. Legalistic Style—The E emphasis is on violations of law and the use of threats or actual arrests to solve disputes in the community. In theory, the more arrests that L are made, the safer a community will be. This style is often found in largeLmetropolitan areas. Watchman Style—The emphasis is on informal means of resolving , in a community. Keeping the peace is the disputes and problems paramount concern, and arrest is used only as a last resort to resolve any kind of disturbance of the peace. This style of policing is most commonly found in economically poorer communities. T Service Style—The emphasis is on helping in the community, as opposed to enforcing Ithe law. Referrals and diversion to community treatment agencies areFmore common than arrest and formal court action. The service style is most likely to be found in wealthy communities.8 F Sociologist John Broderick, who also studied operational styles among the Acers by their degree of commitment to maintaining police, classified police offi order and their respect forNdue process: 1. 2. 3. 4. Enforcers—The emphasis Y is on order, with little respect for due process. Idealists—The emphasis is on both social order and due process. Optimists—The emphasis is on due process, with little priority given to social order. 1 Realists—Little emphasis is given to due process or social order.9 5 Another classification is based on the way officers use their authority and power in street police work. 6 The two key ingredients of this scheme are passion and perspective. Passion is the ability to use force or the recognition that 8 of resolving conflict; perspective is the ability to force is a legitimate means understand human suffering T and to use force ethically and morally. According to political scientist William Muir’s styles of policing, police officers include: 1. 2. 3. 4. S Professionals—Officers who have the necessary passion and perspective to be valuable police officers. Enforcers—Officers who have passion for the job, for enforcing the law, and for taking decisive action; their inner drive or value system allows them to be comfortable using force to solve problems. Reciprocators—Officers who lack the passion to do the job; they have a difficult time taking action, making arrests, and enforcing the law; their values make it difficult for them to use force to solve problems. Avoiders—Officers who have neither passion nor perspective, resulting in no recognition of people’s problems and no action to resolve them.10 boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 203 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 6 Policing: Roles, Styles, and Functions 203 Are there identifiable styles of policing? What value do these styles hold for us? In any area of human endeavor, classifications have been constructed. We have developed classifications for leaders, prisoners, quarterbacks, and teachers. These classifications give us a framework of analysis, a basis for discussion. But can they be substantiated when we go into a police agency to see if they actually exist? Social scientist Ellen Hochstedler examined the issue of policing styles with 1,134 Dallas, Texas, police officers and was not able to confirm the officer styles identified in the literature by Broderick, Muir, and others. Her conclusion was that it is not possible to “pigeonhole” officers into one style because the way officers think and react to street situations varies, depending on the particular situation, the time, and the officers themselves.11 THINKING CRITICALLY L I 2. Is there an operational style of policing that you think is the most effective? If so, which one? D 3. Do you think it is possible to identify styles of policing? If so, how can it be done? If not, D what obstacles prevent identification? E L L Police Functions , out is long and varies The list of functions that police are expected to carry 1. Which characteristics do you think are the most important for police officers to have? Why? from place to place. In the following sections, we look at the major operations of police departments and the services they provide. T I PATROL F backbone of the departPolice administrators have long referred to patrol as the ment. It is unquestionably the most time-consuming and resource-intensive F task of any police agency. More than half of the sworn personnel in any police department are assigned to patrol. In Houston, Chicago, A and New York City, for example, patrol officers make up more than 65% of the sworn personnel N in each department. Patrol officers respond to burglar alarms, investigate Y traffic accidents, care for injured people, try to resolve domestic disputes, and engage in a host of other duties that keep them chasing radio calls across their own beats and the entire city and county when no other cars are available to respond. Precisely 1 how to conduct patrol activities, however, is a matter of much debate in the nation today. Indeed, it seems that there are many ways 5 to police a city. 6 direction. Between their responses to radio calls, they8were told to be “systematically unsystematic” and observant in an attempt to both prevent and ferret out T as 50% of an officer’s crime on their beats. In many police departments, as much time is uncommitted and available for patrolling the beats S that make up a politiPreventive Patrol For decades, police officers patrolled the streets with little cal jurisdiction. The simultaneous increases in the official crime rate and the size of police forces beginning in the 1960s caused police managers and academics to question the usefulness of what has come to be known as preventive patrol or random patrol. To test the usefulness of preventive patrol, the now famous Kansas City (Missouri) Preventive Patrol Experiment was conducted in 1972. The Kansas City, Missouri, Police Department and the Police Foundation set up an experiment in which 15 patrol districts were divided into three matched groups according to size, record of calls for service, and demographic characteristics. In the first group, the “control beats,” the police department operated the same level of patrol used previously in those beats. In the second group preventive patrol Patrolling the streets with little direction; between responses to radio calls, officers are “systematically unsystematic” and observant in an attempt to both prevent and ferret out crime. Also known as random patrol. boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 204 13/06/11 9:44 PM user-f494 204 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement L I D D E L L Street patrol is the most resource-intensive task of any police agency. Are there acceptable alternatives to street patrol? If ,yes, what are they? MYTH Adding more police officers will reduce crime. FACT Short of having a police officer on every corner, evidence indicates no relationship between the number of police officers and the crime rate. directed patrol Patrolling under guidance or orders on how to use patrol time. of districts, the “proactive beats,” the police department doubled or even tripled the number of patrolTofficers normally deployed in the area. In the third group of districts, the “reactive beats,” the police department deployed no I officers at all on preventive patrol. Officers only responded to calls for service F own. At the end of the 1-year study, the results and did no patrolling on their showed no significant differences in crime rates among the three groups of F patrol districts. In other words, a group of districts that had no officers on preventive patrol had theAsame crime rates as groups that had several times the normal level of staffing engaged in patrol activity. The number of officers made no difference in theNnumber of burglaries, robberies, vehicle thefts, and other serious crimes experienced in the three groups of police districts. Perhaps Y even more important is that the citizens of Kansas City did not even notice that the levels of patrol in two of the three districts had been changed.12 The law enforcement community was astounded by the results of the study, 1 which showed that it made no difference whether patrol officers conducted preventive, or random, patrol. 5 The research was immediately attacked on both philosophical and methodological grounds. How could anyone say that having 6 made no difference? patrol officers on the street One of the criticisms of 8 the study was that no one in the community was told that there were no officers on patrol in reactive districts. What might have T had the community known no officers were on happened to the crime rates patrol? Moreover, during the S course of the study, marked police cars from other departments and districts crossed the reactive districts to answer calls but then left when the work was completed. Thus, there appeared to be a police presence even in the so-called reactive districts. This study has forced police executives and academics to reconsider the whole issue of how patrol is conducted, once considered a closed issue. Police administrators have begun to entertain the possibility of reducing the number of officers on patrol. Innovations in patrol methods have also been proposed. Directed Patrol In directed patrol, officers are given guidance or orders on how to use their patrol time. The guidance is often based on the results of crime boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 205 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 6 Policing: Roles, Styles, and Functions 205 analyses that identify problem areas. Evidence shows that directed patrol can reduce the incidence of targeted crimes such as thefts from autos and robberies.13 Crime Mapping One technological innovation in crime analysis that has aided directed patrol is Geographic Information Systems (GIS) crime mapping. GIS crime mapping is a technique that involves the charting of crime patterns within a geographic area. Crime mapping makes it possible to keep a closer watch on crime and criminals through the generation of crime maps capable of displaying numerous fields of information. For example, if a series of armed robberies of dry cleaning stores had been committed over a period of several weeks in three adjacent police beats, police crime analysts would be able to record, analyze, and determine a definite pattern to these robberies, and make a reasonable prediction as to when and where the next robbery in the series is likely to occur. The patrol and investigation forces could be deployed at a prescribed time to conduct surveillance of the prospective target dry cleaning store or stores with a good chance the robber can be arrested. This use of crime mappingL is referred to as “resource reallocation” and is probably the most widely used crime-mapping application. I Figure 6.2 is an example of a crime map. Crime mapping is also used as a tool to help evaluate D the ability of police departments to resolve the problems in their communities. This is the primary D purpose of the New York City Police Department’s CompStat process, for exam14 responsible for statistical ple. Begun in 1994, CompStat is a divisional unit E analysis of daily precinct crime reports frequently using crime mapping. The information produced by CompStat is used by the chief L of police to judge the performance of precinct commanders and by precinct commanders to hold L in Chapter 5). their officers accountable (see the discussion of CompStat , Figure 6.2 T Crime Map of Total Crime Index in the City of Atlanta, Georgia, 2008 I F F A N Y 1 5 6 8 T S GIS crime mapping A technique that involves the charting of crime patterns within a geographic area. CJ Online GIS Crime Mapping To learn more about GIS crime mapping and how it works, visit the GIS Lounge at http://gislounge.com/features/aa101100 .shtml. Why is crime mapping important? boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 206 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 206 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement Crime mapping is likely to be used increasingly in crime scene investigations and the forensic sciences. For example, a GIS-based system has been created that can determine the origin of gunshots through sound triangulation. Crime mapping will also be combined with other technologies such as aerial photography so that geocoded data can be superimposed on aerial photographs rather than computer-generated maps. This should aid community policing efforts by making census data, liquor license locations, drug-market data, and probationer addresses, for example, readily available in a more useful form. Another technology that will be combined with crime mapping is Global Positioning Systems (GPS) technology. It would allow beat officers to track and monitor probationers and parolees in the area, for example. It is currently used in some departments to help manage the department’s fleet of vehicles.15 Aggressive Patrol In nearly all police departments, some patrol officers have aggressive patrol The practice of having an entire patrol section make numerous traffic stops and field interrogations. field interrogation A temporary detention in which officers stop and question pedestrians and motorists they find in suspicious circumstances. used aggressive patrol tactics and have been rewarded as high performers because they made many arrests L for both minor and serious offenses. When the entire patrol section is instructed to make numerous traffic stops and field interI rogations, the practice is referred to as aggressive patrol. A field interrogation is a temporary detention in which offi cers stop and question pedestrians and moD torists they find in suspicious circumstances. Such procedures have been found to reduce crime in targetedDareas.16 At least two problems can occur as a result of aggressive patrol. First, random E traffic stops and field interrogations inconvenience innocent citizens. To avoid conflict, the police must beLcertain that those tactics are necessary, and they must explain the necessity to the public. Second, it is often difficult to get all officers L patrol division motivated to use aggressive patrol on each work shift and in each tactics. Many officers are reluctant to carry out their duties in an aggressive way. , Nevertheless, with crime rates high and research confirming that aggressive patrol can reduce crime, aggressive patrol tactics are likely to continue. T officers patrol their beats on I foot. Is there value in this practice, or is it just nostalgia for a more romantic period in law enforcement? The use of motorized F to respond rapidly to citizen calls and to cover patrols has allowed the police large geographical areas. Yet, F officers working a busy shift, perhaps responding to more than two dozen calls, come to feel as if they are seeing the world A a windshield. Moreover, it is now generally acthrough cepted N that rapid response time is useful in only a small portion of the incidents and crimes to which the police are asked Y to respond. Foot Patrol For some time, there has been renewed interest in having police Challenging conventional wisdom about rapid response, two cities—Flint, Michigan, and Newark, New Jersey—launched substantial foot patrol programs. In 1 Newark, the results of the foot patrol experiment showed that 5foot patrol had little or no effect on the level of crime. 6 However, positive effects were identified: 1. 2. 3. 8Newark residents noticed whether foot patrol officers were present. T They were more satisfied with police service when foot patrol officers delivered it. S They were less afraid than citizens being served by motorized patrol.17 In Flint, Michigan, the extensive neighborhood foot patrol experiment also had positive results: Field interrogation has been found to reduce crime in targeted areas. What are some of the problems with field interrogations? 1. 2. 3. 4. Flint residents had a decreased fear of crime. Their satisfaction with police service increased. There were moderate decreases in crime. There were decreased numbers of calls for police service. boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 207 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 6 Policing: Roles, Styles, and Functions Table 6.3 Types of Regularly Scheduled Patrols Other than Automobile Used by Local Police Departments, by Size of Population Served, 2007 PERCENTAGE OF DEPARTMENTS USING EACH TYPE OF PATROL REGULARLY Population Served Foot Bicycle All sizes 1,000,000 or more 500,000–999,999 250,000–499,999 100,000–249,999 50,000–99,999 25,000–49,999 10,000–24,999 2,500–9,999 Under 2,500 55% 92% 81 78 59 56 52 50 58 54 32% 100% 100 89 71 69 58 44 36 15 Motorcycle 16% 100% 94 91 90 74 55 25 8 4 Marine 4% 69% 52 26 12 12 6 5 4 1 Transporter 2% 31% 29 24 15 6 4 2 1 — Horse 1% 77% 61 50 17 5 2 1 — 0 Air 1% 100% 71 57 14 5 1 1 0 — L I D — Less than 0.5%. Dautomobile patrols. As of 2007, all but a few local police departments surveyed reported routine use of Source: Brian A. Reaves, Local Police Departments, 2007, U.S. Department of Justice, E Bureau of Justice Statistics (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 2010), 15, Table 12, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub L /pdf/1pd07.pdf. L , Citizens would wait to talk to their neighborhood foot patrol officer about a problem instead of calling the police department through 911 and speaking with an officer they were not likely to know. One astounding result of the T Flint program was that the foot patrol officers became so popular that citizens saw them as real community leaders. They often Ibecame more influential than some elected officials. Evidence of the degree of satisfaction with the F voted three times to foot patrol program in Flint was that the community continue and expand foot patrol at a time when the F city was experiencing one of the nation’s highest unemployment rates.18 Perhaps even more important, the findings of foot patrol research provided theAseeds of a much broader concept for law enforcement: community policing, which we will discuss N later in this chapter. Table 6.3 shows the percentage of agencies, by size of population served, that used various types of patrolY(other than automobile) on a routine basis in 2007 (the latest year for which data were available). All but a few local police departments used regularly scheduled automobile patrols during 2007. 1 5 6 The role of the detective has generally been glorified by media sources in both 8 in particular, has capfiction and nonfiction accounts. Homicide investigation, tured the imagination of fiction readers worldwide. Most T police officers aspire to be investigative specialists by attaining the position of detective. But it S in a police department should be noted that detectives represent only one unit INVESTIGATION that conducts investigations. Investigators work in a variety of capacities in a police agency: 1. 2. 3. 4. Traffic homicide and hit-and-run accident investigators in the traffic section. Undercover investigators in narcotics, vice, and violent gang cases. Internal affairs investigators conducting investigations of alleged crimes by police personnel. Investigators conducting background checks of applicants to the police department. 207 boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 208 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 208 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement 5. 6. Uniformed patrol officers investigating the crimes they have been dispatched to or have encountered on their own while on patrol. Detectives of criminal investigation divisions who conduct investigations into reports of criminal activity made by patrol officers. What Is Criminal Investigation? Criminal investigation has been defined as a lawful search for people and things to reconstruct the circumstances of an illegal act, apprehend or determine the guilty party, and aid in the state’s prosecution of the offender.19 The criminal investigation process is generally divided into two parts: the preliminary, or initial, investigation and the continuing, or followup, investigation. Most of the time the preliminary investigation in both felony and misdemeanor cases is conducted by patrol officers, although for homicides and other complex, time-consuming investigations, trained investigators are dispatched to the crime scene immediately. The continuing investigation in serious crimes is ordinarily conducted by plainclothes detectives, although small and L require patrol officers or a patrol supervisor to folmedium-sized agencies may low up on serious criminalI offenses. For less serious crimes, many police departments use solvability-factor score Dto assess information collected at crime scenes. The sheets or software programs assessment, which is done by the responding officer, a case-screening officer, or D a felony-review unit, determines which cases are likely to be solved, given the initial information obtained. E Promising cases are turned over to detectives for follow-up investigation. The rest are often closed on the basis of the preliminary L only if additional information is uncovered.20 investigation and are reopened L Investigative Functions In , any type of investigation in a police agency, all in- vestigators share responsibility for a number of critical functions. They must: 1. 2. 3. 4. Locate witnesses and suspects. T Arrest criminals. Collect, preserve, and analyze evidence. I Interview witnesses. F F A N Y 1 5 6 8 T S Criminal investigation is a time-consuming task that requires much attention to detail. What aspects of criminal investigations are the most time-consuming and why? boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 209 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 6 Policing: Roles, Styles, and Functions 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 209 Interrogate suspects. Write reports. Recover stolen property. Seize contraband. Prepare cases and testify in court. The specific application and context of those functions vary considerably, depending on whether the investigation is of the theft of expensive paintings, for example, or the rape of an elderly widow living alone. The Role of the Detective At first glance, the role of the detective seems highly desirable. To a patrol officer who has been rotating work shifts for several years, seldom getting a weekend off, detectives in the police department seem to have a number of advantages: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. They do not have to wear uniforms. They have anonymity during work hours if theyLchoose it. They have steady work hours, often daytime hours I with weekends off. They have offices and desks. D They enjoy the prestige associated with the position. In many agencies, detectives receive higher compensation and hold a D higher rank. Perhaps most important, they enjoy more freedom E than patrol officers from the police radio, geographical boundaries, and close supervision. L All these advantages add up to a high-status position, both within the police L department and in the eyes of the public. , Productivity Despite all the advantages of being a detective, investigators are often faced with insurmountable obstacles and stressful work conditions. Notifying the next of kin in a homicide is one of the worst tasks: T I F F A N Y Of all the dirty tasks that go with the dirty work of chasing a killer, notifying the next of kin is the job that homicide detectives hate most. It’s worse than getting up at 3 A.M. on a February night to slog through a field of freezing mud toward a body that needed burying two days ago. Worse than staring into the flat cold eyes of a teenager who bragged about dragging a man through the streets to his death. Worse than visiting every sleazy dive in town until you finally find the one person who can put the murderer away and having that person say as cool as a debutante with a full dance card, “I don’t want to get involved.”21 Detectives have the cards stacked against them most of the time. Unless they discover, during the preliminary investigation, a named suspect or a descrip1 the chances of solving tion or other information that leads to a named suspect, the crime are low. Property crimes with no witnesses are particularly hard to 5 solve. In 2009, for example, the clearance rates for crimes against persons were 66.6% for murder and nonnegligent manslaughter, 56.8% 6 for aggravated assault, 41.2% for forcible rape, and 28.2% for robbery. In crimes against property, the clearance rates were 12.5% for burglary, 21.5% for 8 larceny-theft, and 12.4% for motor vehicle theft. Clearances for crimes against T persons are generally higher than for property crimes because crimes against persons receive more S witnesses frequently intensive investigative effort and because victims and identify the perpetrators. In 2009, for example, the nationwide clearance rate for violent crimes was 47.1% and for property crimes, 18.6%.22 Studies have found that much of what a detective does is not needed and that an investigator’s technical knowledge often does little to help solve cases.23 In one study, for example, fewer than 10% of all arrests for robbery were the result of investigative work by detectives.24 Nevertheless, police agencies retain detectives and plainclothes investigators for a number of reasons: 1. Detectives have interrogation and case presentation skills that assist in prosecution. MYTH Improvements in detective work and criminal investigation will significantly raise clearance rates or lower the crime rate. FAC T “Cleared” crimes generally solve themselves. The offender either is discovered at the scene or can be identified by the victim or a witness. Investigation rarely solves “cold” or “stranger” crimes. boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 210 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 210 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement 2. 3. Technical knowledge, such as knowing about burglary tools, does help in some investigations and prosecutions. Law enforcement executives can assign detectives to a major, high-profile case to demonstrate to the public that they are committing resources to the matter. The major studies of investigative effectiveness emphasize the value of improving the suspect-identification process. Once a suspect is identified by name or some other clearly distinguishing characteristic, the chances of making an arrest are increased substantially. Identification Developments in Criminal Investigation Two of the most significant advances in criminal investigation have been the development of the integrated automated fingerprint identification system (IAFIS) and DNA profiling. IAFIS has resulted in the arrest and conviction of millions of criminal suspects who otherwise might L never have been brought to justice. DNA profiling holds even greater promise. However, before examining these two investigative tools, it is instructive to consider the findings of a two-year congressionally manI dated study of forensic science and the crime lab system by the National Academy D of Sciences.25 The study, released in D 2009, discovered that the nation’s forensic science system has serious deficiencies and that it needs major reforms and new E and mandatory certification programs for forenresearch. Lacking are rigorous sic scientists and strong standards and protocols for analyzing and reporting L on evidence. Needed are more peer-reviewed, published studies establishing L and reliability of many forensic methods. In the scientific bases, accuracy, addition, many forensic science labs require greater funding, staffing, and effec, tive oversight. The study revealed that with the exception of nuclear DNA analysis, no forensic method has been rigorously shown able to consistently, and with a high degree of certainty, T demonstrate a connection between evidence and a specific individual or source. I Yet, it is precisely this type of evidence that has been used to convict criminal defendants. Of the more than 230 people exonF than 50% of the cases involved faulty or invalerated by DNA evidence, more idated forensic evidence. Highly suspect is evidence from ballistics, F handwriting, bite marks, tool marks, shoe prints, and blood spatters—to name only a few techniques. Even A fingerprint evidence is of concern. The researchers argue that zero-error-rate claims made about fingerprint analyses are not plauN guarantee that two individuals’ prints are always sible; uniqueness does not so sufficiently different that Y they could not be confused. Recommended is the accumulation of data on how much a person’s fingerprints vary from impression to impression, as well as the degree to which fingerprints vary across a population. 1 This is not to say that non-DNA forensic evidence is useless. It could, for example, provide valuable 5 information to help narrow the range of possible suspects or sources. However, before this evidence is used to “prove” that a 6 research is needed to validate basic premises defendant is guilty, substantial and techniques, assess limitations, and discern the sources and magnitude of 8 error. The panel of researchers strongly urged Congress to establish a new, independent National InstituteTof Forensic Science to help solve these problems. S DNA Profiling DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a molecule present in all forms of life. A unique genetic profile can be derived from blood, hair, semen, or other bodily substances found at the scene of a crime or on a victim. Not only can bodily substances found at a crime scene be matched with DNA samples from a suspect to give an extremely high probability of identifying the perpetrator, but it is believed that soon DNA from a sample as small as a flake of dandruff will yield a positive, unique identification with no need to consider mathematical probabilities. DNA profiling has three distinct functions: linking or eliminating identified suspects to a crime; identifying “cold hits,” whereby a sample from a crime scene boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 211 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 6 Policing: Roles, Styles, and Functions is matched against numerous cases in a DNA database and a positive match is made; and clearing convicted rapists and murderers years after they began serving their sentences. DNA profiling would be very useful, for example, in cases where a murderer’s blood was found at the scene of a crime after a deadly struggle or in a rape case where seminal fluid could be obtained from the victim. In approximately one-third of DNA examinations, the suspect’s DNA cannot be matched with biological evidence from the crime scene. Thus, potential suspects can be eliminated from consideration early in the investigative process, allowing investigators to focus their efforts more effectively on other suspects or cases. Potential suspects also can be eliminated from an investigation years after the crime occurred, as happened in the JonBenet Ramsey murder case. The then 6-year-old beauty queen was killed in 1996, and her brother and parents remained suspects for more than a decade. In 2008, based on results obtained from a new technology called “touch DNA,” the cloud of suspicion was finally removed from the Ramsey family. Touch DNA involves scraping genetic material from an object that otherwise L could not be seen. In this case, newly discovered DNA from a few minute skin cells matched DNA found earlier and was not from the Ramsey family.I Investigators will try to locate a match in the national DNA database, which at Dthe time had more than 5 million offenders’ profiles. For now, the murder remains unsolved.26 Figure 6.3 shows how DNA profiling is performed. D A serious issue at present is whether DNA databases ought to be assembled and from whom the samples should be taken. ManyEstates permit the taking of DNA samples from arrested and convicted subjects.LSome enthusiasts believe that DNA samples should be taken from all suspects in crimes, while a smaller L all people at birth. number believe the samples should be collected from Another controversial issue is how long DNA samples should be kept. In , December 2008, 17 judges on the European Court of Human Rights, Europe’s highest human-rights court, struck down a British law that allowed the government to store DNA and fingerprints of people with no criminal record. The T law had allowed the government to keep samples until an individual died or reached the age of 100. Britain’s DNA databases, with I more than 4.5 million samples, have been taken from arrestees, regardless of whether they have been charged, convicted, or acquitted and, occasionally, F from crime victims. The court unanimously ruled that Britain’s “blanket and indiscriminate” storage of F DNA samples and fingerprints of people with no criminal record violated peoA Rights Convention to ple’s right to privacy—a protection under the Human which the United Kingdom is a signatory. The ruling likely will require Britain N to destroy about 1 million samples in its DNA database.27 Currently, the most complete DNA database in theY United States, with more than 9 million samples (as of November 2010), is the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS), which is managed by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).28 CODIS comprises DNA profiles that have been 1entered into local, state, and other national databases. The profiles are from either biological evidence 5 crimes and other feloleft at crime scenes or individuals convicted of violent nies. Undoubtedly the more collected samples in a database, the more likely 6 a match is going to be found. But privacy concerns and the potential for misuse of DNA samples are likely to hinder any more intrusive measures on the 8 part of agents of the justice system. T Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems S An expensive but invaluable tool in criminal investigation are Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (IAFIS). This relatively new technology was launched in 1999, and allows investigators to sort through thousands of sets of stored fingerprints for a match with those of a crime suspect. In fact, many of the current attempts to match prints would not have been made without IAFIS because the old process would have taken thousands of hours. Today, the average response time for an electronic criminal fingerprint submission is about 10 minutes. IAFIS process an average of approximately 162,000 ten-print submissions per day. Large metropolitan police agencies use it to identify 200–500 suspects a year who would have escaped apprehension before the implementation of IAFIS. The CJ 211 Online DNA Evidence The National Commission on the Future of DNA Evidence is a program sponsored by the National Institute of Justice. Visit the program’s website at http: //permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps14610 /www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij/dna/welcome .html. How big a role should DNA play in criminal investigations? boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 212 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 212 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Part Two Law Enforcement Figure 6.3 How DNA Profiling Is Performed DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid, is the material that carries the genetic pattern that makes each person unique. Scientists in the laboratory can map DNA patterns in samples of skin, blood, semen, or other body tissues or fluids. The DNA patterns can then be analyzed and compared. There are two main DNA testing procedures used in criminal forensics. 1 Samples are taken of tissue or body fluids at crime scenes. Comparison samples are taken from victims and suspects. RFLP (Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism) PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) 2 In the laboratory, DNA is extracted from the samples. 2 In the laboratory, DNA genetic material is extracted from the samples and mixed with enzymes to cut the DNA into fragments. 3 4 5 L I The DNA fragments are put in D a special gel and exposed to an electrical charge to sort the fragments by size. D Genetic tracers are used to search E out and lock onto specific fragments of the DNA. L The tracers reveal a pattern. Each L that evidence sample will have a pattern can be compared with the sample from the , victim and the sample from the suspect. T I F Comparing the patterns in the F samples results in a DNA profile representing distinctive features A of the samples that may or N may not match. Y 3 Part of the DNA molecule is amplified in a test tube to produce billions of copies of that part. 4 The amplified DNA is analyzed. 5 The analysis of the evidence sample can be compared with the analysis of the sample from the victim and the sample from the suspect. Crime evidence Suspect Victim Suspect Victim Match Crime evidence No Match 1 5 6 8 initial and maintenance costs for an IAFIS, however, are expensive. Table 6.4 T police departments with access to IAFIS. The FBI’s shows the percentage of local Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System is the world’s largest, S with more than 66 million prints on file. The Florida Department of Law Enforcement’s system, by contrast, has only about 5 million prints on file.29 Cybercrime The use of computer technology to commit crime is of increasing cybercrime The use of computer technology to commit crime. concern to law enforcement officials. The FBI reports that the losses from cybercrime each year total about $10 billion even though two-thirds of computer crime victims fail to notify the authorities. Some of the reasons for not reporting computer crime are the fear of loss of the public’s confidence in the organization, the attention to vulnerability that a crime report would attract, and the shame of not providing adequate security to protect trusted assets. boh11536_ch06_196-238.indd Page 213 13/06/11 8:00 PM user-f494 /201/MHSF270/boh11536_disk1of10/0078111536/boh11536_pagefiles Chapter 6 Policing: Roles, Styles, and Functions 213 Table 6.4 Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems (IAFIS) in Local Police Departments, by Size of Population Served, 2007 PERCENT OF DEPARTMENTS WITH IAFIS ACCESS Population Served All Sizes 1,000,000 or more 500,000–999,999 250,000–499,999 100,000–249,999 50,000–99,999 25,000–49,999 10,000–24,999 2,500–9,999 Under 2,500 Total with Access Exclusive/ Shared Owner 70% 100% 100 100 98 94 92 79 73 58 11% 92% 87 57 62 37 35 17 8 2 Remote Terminal Access 7% 15% 13 37 22 20 14 9 5 5 Access through Other Agency 54% 15% 16 15 24 41 48 54 60 52 L I D Source: Brian A. Reaves, Local Police Departments, 2007, U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, December 2010), 39, Appendix Table D 15, http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov /content/pub/pdf/1pd07.pdf. E L L , and Internet technolA variety of offenses can be committed using computer ogy. Following are some of them. • Auction Fraud. Auction fraud involves fraud attributable to the misrepreT sentation of a product advertised for sale through an Internet auction site or the nondelivery of products purchased throughI an Internet auction site. • Child Pornography/Child Sexual Exploitation. Computer telecommunicaF tions have become one of the most prevalent techniques used by ...
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