2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 1/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 2/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 3/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 4/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 5/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 6/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 7/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 8/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 9/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 10/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 11/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 12/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 13/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 14/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 15/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 16/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 17/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 18/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 19/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 20/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 21/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 22/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 23/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 24/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 25/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 26/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 27/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 28/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 29/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 30/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Creating
Print Version
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co…
31/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Creating Print Version
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 32/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 1/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 2/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 3/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 4/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 5/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 6/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 7/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 8/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Con… 9/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 10/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 11/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 12/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 13/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 14/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 15/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 16/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 17/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 18/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 19/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 20/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 21/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 22/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 23/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 24/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 25/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 26/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 27/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 28/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 29/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 30/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Creating
Print Version
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co…
31/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Creating Print Version
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Co… 32/32
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Cont… 1/7
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Cont… 2/7
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Cont… 3/7
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Cont… 4/7
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Cont… 5/7
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Copyright © Oxford University Press
Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings
Edition: 7
sumchakman3226@yahoo.com.hk
Printed from www.chegg.com
Creating
Print Version
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Cont…
6/7
2017529 Copyright | Oxford University Press | Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings | Edition: 7 | sumchakman3226@yahoo.…
Creating Print Version
http://reader.chegg.com/print.php?id=72cbf3340172b765790611d163b2116b&name=Introduction%20to%20Philosophy:%20Classical%20and%20Cont… 7/7
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Kant Pontificating
to the Throng
Kant’s philosophy:
• What can I know?
• Critique of Pure Reason
(1781)
• What ought I do?
• Groundwork for the
Metaphysic of Morals
(1785); Critique of Practical
Reason (1788)
• What can I hope for?
• Critique of Judgment (1790);
Religion within the Limits of
Reason Alone (1793)
Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804)
3
The Ethics of Duty
More than any other
philosopher, Kant
emphasized the way in
which the moral life was
centered on duty.
- If the moral law is truly law, it cannot be
empirical; for the empirical is never genuinely
universal and necessary
- If the human will is to follow a non-empirical
law (have a duty to do so), it must be free to
chose independently of all empirical laws
- The human will must therefore be free,
which means have a side that is outside of or
beyond the empirical
Seven Key Features of Kant’s Moral Theory
Feature 1: According to Kant, Morality (i.e. our sense of right and wrong, good and bad)
is Rooted in Common Human Reason. It is in fact often known better by the uneducated
than by so-called specialists in moral philosophy.
The job of the moral philosopher is not to discover or invent a new or better way of life.
(Contrasts with Descartes, Hobbes, Bentham; Similar to Locke)
Why then do we need a “groundwork of a metaphysics of morals” or even a
“metaphysics of morals”?
• To argue against the philosophers who confuse themselves and us. Reason has a
tendency to quibble with the law.
• To facilitate being moral by clarifying the principle that is sometimes only
confusedly understood by the common person.
This aspect of Kant’s moral philosophy is directly evident in the method of the first two
parts of the Groundwork, where his stated goal is to arrive at the “supreme principle of
morality” through nothing but an analysis of common moral thought.
Feature 2: Everything, including our actions, appears to be determined, but we must
believe for moral reasons that our actions at least are really free.
Modern science rests on the discovery of universal laws of nature such as the Law of
Gravitation, the Laws of Elastic and Inelastic Collisions of Physical Bodies, the Laws of
Reflection and Refraction, and various Conservation Laws (think of the Conservation of
Energy, for instance).
The underlying idea of this physics is that whatever happens is determined to happen in
such a way that if one knew the state of the world at any previous time and the laws of
nature, then one could in principle have predicted with certainty that this would happen.
BUT: We are parts of nature, and all our actions and choices correspond to events in
physical nature.
THEREFORE: It seems to follow that all our actions are determined and thus we
necessarily do whatever we actually do.
Feature 2, Continued…
All philosophers of Kant’s time are therefore faced with this dilemma: Accept physics and
deny freedom, or deny freedom and accept physics.
Hobbes accepts physics and denies freedom in this sense, and so does Locke.
Neither of these seem to be pleasant options, so some, including Kant, try to find a third way,
one that accepts both physics and freedom, both necessity and freedom, rendering them
“compatible.”
Kant: “One can therefore grant that … we could calculate a human being’s conduct for the
future with as much certainty as a lunar or solar eclipse and could nevertheless maintain that
the human being’s conduct is free.” (5:99)
But how?
Kant’s Solution lies in a revival and modification of an old distinction Plato made between the
world as it appears and the world as it really is…..
Phenomena and Noumena
• Phenomena:
• things as they appear to us; empirical and therefore changeable.
• Noumena:
• things-in-themselves, which can’t be known by the use of senses.
• Kant argues that if there is such a thing as moral reality, it must be
founded on the noumena, and this is because…
9
The moral law is in its character
absolute, and it can allow no
exception. And empirical
knowledge simply cannot
establish such a law.
10
Two Worlds Seen from a Scientific Point of View
Plato
Reality Itself
• Completely Knowable
• Perfect in Itself
• Unchanging
• Timeless
• Invisible
The Appearance of Reality
• Partially Knowable
• Imperfect
• Changing
• Temporal
• Visible
Kant
N
o
u
m
e
n
a
P
h
e
n
o
m
e
n
a
Reality “as it is in itself”
• Absolutely Unknowable
• Possibly a realm of free actions
• Non-sensible
The “Mere Appearance” of Reality
• Perfectly Knowable
• Here Newton’s physics is true.
• Actions and choices completely
determined by physical causes and
laws.
• Sensible
The Two Worlds as We “Know” Them to be from a Moral Point of View
Plato
Reality Itself
• Perfectly Knowable
• Perfect
• Unchanging
• Timeless
• Invisible
The Appearance of Reality
• Partially Knowable
• Imperfect
• Changing
• Temporal
• Visible
Kant
N
o
u
m
e
n
a
P
h
e
n
o
m
e
n
a
Reality “as it is in itself”
• Still Absolutely Unknowable, but:
• We must believe for moral reasons
that in it our actions and choices are
absolutely free.
The “Mere Appearance” of Reality
• Perfectly Knowable
• Here Newton’s physics is true.
• Actions and choices completely
determined by physical causes and
laws.
• Sensible
Feature 3: Freedom is a Necessary Presupposition of Responsibility.
Why does Kant need freedom so badly?
• Freedom is in his view required for moral responsibility. If we are not free, then we
cannot be held responsible for what we do.
• Excuses function by arguing that since we were in some way determined to do X, and
thus not free to not do X, then we shouldn’t be held responsible for it.
Examples: I was late for class because … My clock didn’t go off. My tire went flat. I have a
mental disorder. I went temporarily insane. I was treated badly as a child. I have a
hormonal imbalance. I have poor DNA from my parents. Someone forced me to pull the
trigger of the gun and I had to flee the police.
But if modern science is true, then it seems we all have a universal excuse, an excuse
good for every occasion: All our actions are determined inevitably to happen by the laws
of nature and the series of conditions going all the way back to the big bang. So if we
want to get technical enough in our explanations, we can make an excuse for anything
we do!
Conclusion: So if we are to admit morality (which we must!!) and not seek to make
excuses, then we must stand fast in the belief that we are completely free whenever we
are faced with a moral choice. (But still otherwise determined!)
Feature 4: Nothing is Good in itself except the Good Will, i.e. the Will whose Motive is
to do Good for its own sake.
Example: Intelligence seems like a good, but it is only good when used by someone
with a good will. If used by someone with a bad will, the same intelligence even
increases their evil. Ask yourself: Is the diabolically evil person depicted in movies as
stupid, or rather as highly intelligent? How then can intelligence be good in itself?
Consequence of Aspect 4: The Moral Quality of an Action Depends Entirely on One’s
Motive or Reason for Acting, not at all on the Consequence.
Example: The shopkeeper who gives the young boy the right change, not from
honesty, but because he knows if he is caught, no one will buy from him in the future.
Kant thinks that your intuition will be that the action is not inherently good if it is not
done for the right reason. Indeed, a good action done for a bad reason is often taken
as downright morally reprehensible: Think of someone who would save a person’s life
just in order to be on television.
Kant: Even a politically perfect, peaceful and harmonious society could be peopled
with devils looking out for nothing beyond their own self-interest. This not only
would not be a good state, but would be the worst possible. (Hobbes)
Feature 5: Moral Goodness of Will Means Doing Things Absolutely and Entirely
Because They are Good, i.e. for No Other Reason than their Inherent Goodness.
What does this mean?
• If you consider the matter, you will discover that if one were to perform an
action or make a choice for any other reason at all other than that it was “the right
thing to do” or “because it was the good thing to do” then their action would be
without moral content, i.e. it would not deserve praise.
• So to it is not possible to be or do Good from any other motive than the internal
or intrinsic Goodness of the choice itself. Thus the Good will acts from the motive
of the internal and immediately recognized goodness of the action.
• Since we have all kinds for reasons for doing or not doing something other than
that it is the right thing to do, e.g. that someone told us to do it or that we simply
want to do it, we always have a temptation not to choose our actions according to
what is good or bad. For this reason, Kant says good willing is always something
we must necessitate ourselves to do, i.e. acting rightly always has the form of an
“ought,” e.g. you ought not to lie, and the actions we “ought to perform” are what
Kant calls duties. Note that there would be no oughts and no duties if there were
no motives to do anything for any other reason than that it is good.
Feature 6: The Content of Morality (i.e. what is good, what we should do, what we
should take as the end of our actions) Must be Derived Exclusively from a Consideration
of Internal Motives and not from a Good Discovered in Some Other Way. (Kant’s socalled “Copernican Revolution” in Morality)
• Generally, one would expect that the way to be good is to find out what actions are
good and what objects are good, and then to perform these actions. In other words,
one would think being moral requires us to gain knowledge of the Good so that we
can act in accordance with it.
• BUT: Kant rejects this for two reasons.
1) As we saw in aspect 4, it is not the specific action that follows or its consequence
that makes our choice good, but rather our motive. Indeed, it is the motive that first
makes it possible for these to be good.
2) As we saw in aspect 5, morality depends on doing things for the right reason, namely
because what we do is good and for no reason whatsoever. But Kant argues that if we
were to derive our knowledge of what is good from any other source than from within a
consideration of motives, i.e. from any external object, then our reason for the choice
could never be that the choice was good.
Why? BECAUSE: To do an action simply and absolutely because it is good, requires that we have an immediate and
internal way of knowing that the choice is good. Example: It is a nice thing to visit your grandmother, but if you do
it only because your parents told you to do it, then since by the very same principle they could have told you to kill
your grandmother, all your choice is not intrinsically good. The same holds if you visit her simply because it pleases
you to do so, since it could just as well not pleased you. In either case, and indeed in all cases where one would
start from the object or from outside of oneself, the motive can never be right.
Feature 6, continued…
So, all that is left is for us to determine what it is good to do from a consideration of the
internal source of goodness immediately recognized within the will, i.e. from the idea of
a will that is properly motivated that is somehow found within ourselves.
But how can we derive a knowledge of what is good from the mere idea that a good will
wills what is good absolutely and entirely because of its immediately recognized
goodness? It would seem that we would first have to know what the good is, but Kant
rejects this. The solution lies in…
Kant’s Key Insight, the derivation of the “supreme principle of morality”: “Since I have
deprived the will of every impulse that could arise for it from obeying any particular law,
nothing is left but the conformity of actions as such with universal law, which alone is to
serve the will as its principle, that is, I ought never to act except in such a way that I could
also will that my maxim should become a universal law.” (4:402)
Put another way: Since doing the good simply because it is good is inconsistent with
doing it for any other reason, it is also inconsistent with doing it for any particular reason
deriving from my personal circumstances (e.g. my desires, my culture, my religious
beliefs). Therefore, when I have the right motive, I will by that very fact be acting in
exactly the same way that anyone else would act as long as they are willing the good for
its own sake. Therefore, it can never be right to act in a way that could not possibly be
adopted by all wills, that is to say, universally by everyone.
This is therefore the first negative test of moral goodness: Can I will that the way I
act be the way everyone else does too? If not, then you must be doing it for some
reason particular to yourself, and by that fact cannot be doing it simply because it
is good.
But, because there can be no other condition on what is Good, Kant is able to turn
this into a positive definition of the Good: The Good positively expressed is
whatever one would will (i.e. rationally want) if one were to will independently
from everything particular to themselves.
Now, since freedom for Kant is nothing but willing independently of all external
determining causes, and when we will the Good simply because it is good, it turns
out we at the same time must be willing for reasons independent of all external
determining causes, when we have the right motive we are choosing freely, and
thus we have a final formulation: The Good positively expressed is whatever one
would do were one to will freely, i.e. independently of all desires and external
personal circumstances. Now if we adopt this as the object of our will simply
because of this consideration, then we do it for the right reason, and our actions
have moral content.
Example of the Moral Principle at Work: May I lie? (4:403)
The moral worth
• On Kant’s view, the moral worth of an action is not determined by its
consequences because:
19
1. It is possible that someone does something out of evil
intention, but ends up bringing good consequences to
society.
2. It is also possible that someone does something out of
good intention, but ends up bringing about bad
consequences.
3. The consequences of an action are not under our control.
4. We can only control our motives when acting as a moral
person.
5. Therefore the moral worth of an action is given by our
good will.
Are Whales Moral?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YWkaGmUeqfc
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-lw8_SAtX8o
20
Feature 7: Genuine Morality is Autonomy or Self-Rule (not Heteronomy, i.e. Rule by
Another). Kant claims to be the first to formulate a truly autonomous moral
principle, which makes him able to claim to be the foremost of modern moralists.
• What is “autonomy”?
“auto” = Greek for “self”
“nomos” = Greek for “rule” or “law”
• So auto-nomy is “self-rule,” just as auto-mobile (self + movable thing), means a
thing that can move itself.
• Kant contrasts Autonomy with Heteronomy, i.e. rule by a “heteros” or “other.”
• Kant claims his is the only truly autonomous moral theory, and so all other
previous moral theories were theories of heteronomy.
• He can maintain this because he shows the moral law to be nothing but the law
of my own free will. It only looks like a “law,” as something I must obey, because
I have strong temptations to enslave myself to external things by deriving the
rule of my action from my desires and personal circumstances.
The Goal and Method of the Groundwork
Goal: “The present groundwork is, however, nothing more than the search for and establishment of the supreme
principle of morality ...” (4:392)
Method: “I have adopted in this work the method … to proceed analytically from common cognition to the
determination of its supreme principle, and in turn synthetically from the examination of this principle and its sources
back to the common cognition in which it we find it used.” (4:392)
Section I: Here Kant moves by analysis, i.e. by conceptual dissection and separation, from “common moral cognition,”
i.e. the moral views of the man on the street, to a clear and distinct idea of its basic principle, i.e. the principle by use of
which common people determine if a given action is right or wrong, good or bad. Kant also says this is a transition from
common moral cognition to “philosophic moral cognition.”
Section II: In this section Kant provides a purely conceptual clarification of the supreme principle isolated in Section I.
This means he clarifies the basic moral principle without any reference to the specific character of human beings that
we can only learn empirically in sciences like anthropology, psychology, biology, history, etc. He is able to do this
because the moral principle does not concern what is or actually happens in the world, but what ought to happen even
if it never does.
Note 1: Such a pure conceptual explanation of the moral principle and of the moral agent that could follow it is what
Kant calls metaphysical knowledge. So Section II is said to be a transition from philosophic moral cognition to the
metaphysics of morals.
Note 2. We can see from this that the “search for” the principle is contained in Section I, and that Section II only clarifies
this principle. Both parts together fulfill the analytical task described in the second quote above.
Note 3. All that Kant believes himself to be assuming as the basis for these first two sections is common moral
cognition. Thus everything that he says, no matter how complicated, is supposed to be contained – though in a
confused way – in every normal person’s conscience.
Method and Goal, continued…
Section III: It is here, the heart of the book, that Kant first attempts the “establishment” of this supreme principle. This
means that until this point Kant has entirely avoided the question of whether this supreme principle is genuine and
how it is possible for the human being to have such a law. This transition goes in the opposite direction of analysis, i.e.
from the basic part and its justification back to common moral cognition, and its method is the opposite of one that
separates; it is one that combines back into a whole. This is call synthesis.
Note: Such an investigation into the sources and possibility of a metaphysical principle is what Kant calls “critique.” So
the last section is a transition from the metaphysics of morals to a critique of the moral principle. Moreover, since Kant
holds that the supreme principle is in fact nothing but the expression of reason insofar as it determines our actions
purely through itself, i.e. can be practically determining, he terms this a transition from the metaphysics of morals to the
critique of pure practical reason.
Good Will
• An action has moral worth only when performed by an agent who
possesses a good will
• An agent has a good will only if moral obligation based on a
universally valid norm is the action’s sole motive
• First Section, first 3 paragraphs
Duty
• All persons must act not only in accordance with, but for the sake of,
obligation
• A person’s motive for acting must rest in a recognition that what he or
she intends is demanded by an obligation
• p. 2, second paragraph
• p. 3, last paragraph
Three Principles
1. “An act must be done from obligation in order to have moral
worth.”
2. “An action’s moral value is due to the maxim from which it is
performed, rather than to its success in realizing some desired end
or purpose.” – motive of benevolence is rejected as morally
unworthy
3. “Obligation is the necessity of an action performed from respect for
law.”
1. An action has moral worth only if a morally valid rule of obligation
determines that action
2. Even a motive of benevolence is rejected as morally unworthy,
unless there is an accompanying motive of obligation
3. Necessity comes from laws, not from mere subjective maxims.
There must be an objective principle underlying willing, one that all
rational agents would accept
Categorical Imperative
• The supreme principle or moral law.
• Every moral agent recognizes whenever accepting an action as
morally obligatory
• Why is the categorical imperative “imperative”?
• Human beings are imperfect creatures and hence need rules imposed upon
• These rules enjoin us to do or not to do something thus we conceive them as
necessitating our action
Categorical Imperative
Act only in such a way in which the maxim of action can be
rationally willed as a universal law
• It requires unconditional conformity by all rational beings, regardless of
circumstances
• Is unconditional and applicable at all times
Hypothetical Imperative
• “If I want to obtain e, then I must obtain means m.”
• E.g. “If I want to buy a house, then I must work hard to make enough money
for a down payment.”
Maxims
• Maxims, according to Kant, are subjective rules
that guide action.
• Subjective principles of volition or willing.
• The general rule in accordance with which the
agent intends to act
• All actions have maxims, such as,
• Never lie to your friends.
• Never act in a way that would make your parents
ashamed of you.
Law
• Refers to the rules of conduct that rational beings lay down for
themselves in the light of reason.
Categorical Imperatives:
Universality
• “Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed
as a universal law of humanity.”
--Immanuel Kant
Categorical Imperative:
Publicity
• Always act in such a way that you would not be embarrassed to have
your actions described on the front page of The New York Times.
Lying
• Is it possible to universalize a maxim that permits
lying?
• What is the maxim?
• It’s ok to cheat when you want/need to?
• Can this consistently be willed as a universal law?
• No, it undermines itself, destroying the rational
expectation of trust upon which it depends.
Kant on Respect
• “Act in such a way that you
always treat humanity,
whether in your own
person or in the person of
any other, never simply as
a means, but always at the
same time as an end.”
Kant on Respecting Persons
• Kant brought the notion of respect to the center of
moral philosophy for the first time.
• To respect people is to treat them as ends in
themselves. He sees people as autonomous, i.e.,
as giving the moral law to themselves.
• The opposite of respecting people is treating them
as mere means to an end.
Using People as Mere Means
• The Tuskegee Syphilis
Experiments
• More than four hundred
African American men
infected with syphilis went
untreated for four decades
in a project sponsored by
the government
• Continued until 1972
From Kant’s “Duty” to “Rights”
• From perspective of “rights-holder” a “right” is permission to exist, to
act
• e.g., Absolute right to life
• From perspective of “rights-observer” a “right” is a claim – a duty or
obligation
• e.g., Absolute obligation to protect life
Justifications of Rights
• Declaration of Independence (1776)
We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all Men
are created equal, that they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among
these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness
[DIVINE/SELF-EVIDENT]
• Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789)
1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.
Social distinctions may be founded only on the
general good. 2. The aim of all political association is
the preservation of the natural and imprescriptable
rights of man. These are liberty, property, security,
and resistance to oppression. [NATURAL]
• UN Univeral Declaraiton of Hman Rigths (1948)
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of
the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the
human family is the foundation of freedom, justice,
and peace in the world, … [NATURAL]
What Rights Do We Possess?
• Absolute rights
• Matter of degree
Weaker
Stronger
Treating People as Ends in Themselves
•
•
•
•
Recognizing right to life
Not denying them relevant information
Allowing them freedom of choice
Permitting them resources to exercise
freedom of choice
Rights?
Who has Rights?
• Living humans?
• Future generations?
• Animals?
• The Natural World (Trees)?
Deontologists
• An act is right if, and only if, it conforms to the relevant moral
obligation; and it is wrong if, and only if, it violates the relevant moral
obligation
• They argue that the consequences of an action are irrelevant to moral
evaluation
• They emphasize that the value of an action lies in motive, especially
motives of obligation
Consequences of Kantian Ethics
• The dignity of the human being is to be found in his moral responsibility
(freedom)
• The dignity of the human being does not require another foundation, i.e.
theological or nature
• The dignity of the person is the unconditional (i.e. metaphysical) ground
• Morality reveals the ultimate metaphysical depth of the human being. To be
human is to act morally.
• One discovers the source of our humanity in the ability to act morally, i.e., to
accept the moral imperative as finite, yet grounded in an absolute source, human
freedom
Application:
Research ethics
46
Using human beings in experiments
• Stanley Milgram’s experiment
• Philip Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Study
• Main question:
• When will be wrong to use a person in academic research?
47
The doctrine of informed consent
•
The Nuremberg code:
The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential. This means that the person
involved should have the legal capacity to give consent; should be so situated as to be able to
exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit,
duress, over-reaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion; and should have
sufficient knowledge and comprehension of the subject matter involved as to enable him to
make an understanding and enlightened decision.
48
Autonomy: A Kantian interpretation
•
•
By saying that we respect persons as autonomous agents, we imply that they
are having equal statuses with us, that we cannot treat them as a means only.
Using somebody implies an imbalanced power structure, meaning that the
users are
•
•
•
in a higher rank;
have more power;
have ends in the action plan that the inferior party cannot share.
49
Autonomy thus requires that if I am to
be treated as a means, I must also be
able to recognize the experimenter’s
end as my end. If I can recognize the
promoting of collective interests as an
end that I share without contradiction, I
can say being deceived is my choice.
50
Milgram’s experiment
I am a learner. And I
have to remember the
…SNOOPY
words of the teacher
and read them back.
Teacher, give him a
punishment. A 15 volt
electric shock.
APPLE--PEACH; LEMON—
HONEY; CAR—TRASH;
DEMOCRACY—PLATO;
CHINGWA—TEDDY BEAR…
I am
a teacher now.
CHINGWA-Wrong!
Move
on to
the next word!
If
the
answer
is
you
say…
Another
In
You
If
it
the
is
are
give
experiment
incorrect…
hired
participant,
the learner
bycorrect,
an
you
experimenter
after
some
play
drawing
words
the
part
to
to
the
of
remember,
conduct
alot,
teacher.
plays
anand
the
experiment.
ask
part
him of
to aread
learner.
out after some time.
51
The punishment part
High voltage: 450
Dangerous
Low voltage:
Medium voltage:
15 Do it. I am in
250
charge of all this.
You are in control of a machine generating a voltage
The experimenter
You regret.
keeps
‘Why
instructing
didn’t
I stop,
you toman?’
increase voltage,
You
do
it
accordingly.
ranging
from
15 to
450
volts.
The
screams
and shows
saying
that
helearner
takes
full
responsibility
forgreat
that. pain.
52
Milgram’s trick
You fooled me?
No one in fact got
hurt. The learner is a
great pretender.
You are cheated, man.
There’s no electric shock
at all.
You
angry.
Youor
think
is unethical.
Theare
lucky
thing,
the it
bad
thing is that…
53
The Stanford Prison: A case study
54
http://www.imdb.com/video/imdb/vi739618841/
Final questions
• Which experiment is more unethical according to Kantian ethics?
• Is the respect to autonomy something absolute? Is a lesser degree of
autonomy totally unacceptable?
• How can we respect people when they are not fully rational?
56
Purchase answer to see full
attachment