Globalization John B. Ford Barbara Mueller Charles R. Taylor Insights from Old Dominion San Diego State Villanova University Nigel Hollis University University Millward Brown The Tension between Strategy and Execution: Challenges for International Advertising Research Globalization is Much More Than Universal Branding The primary “international advertising” topic over the past five decades is the question of whether, and to what degree, advertising can and should be standardized. This article begins with a discussion of the cumulative findings of this stream of research, followed by a look at major theories that have been applied to international advertising research, with a special focus on the application of culture’s use as a conceptual basis for advertising studies. An exploration of the recent trend toward considering advertising in the context of global branding strategies is followed by a discussion of methodological issues in international advertising research, focusing on problems that have been identified and “best practices” for researchers in overcoming these problems. INTRODUCTION has been whether—and to what degree—advertis- Though there certainly was a significant amount ing can (and should) be standardized. This paper of trade 50 years ago when the Journal of begins with an examination of the cumulative Advertising­ Research began publication, the notion findings­ of this stream of research, followed by of international­ advertising had received scant a look at major theories that have been applied attention­. This would begin to change in the 1960s, to international advertising research, with a spe- and subsequent decades would see a dramatic cial focus on the application of culture’s use as increase in the amount of attention paid to global a conceptual basis for advertising studies. An advertising. Such greater interest makes sense: exploration of the recent trend toward consider- a new global economy generated a widespread ing advertising in the context of global-branding understanding among advertising practitioners strategies is followed by a discussion of methodo- and academicians that businesses needed a deeper logical issues in international advertising research, Authors are listed alphabetically. understanding of how to operate effectively in for- focusing on problems that have been identified The authors contributed equally to eign markets. and “best practices” for researchers in overcoming the development of the manuscript. Clearly, the most popular “international” topic DOI: 10.2501/JAR-51-1-027-041 these problems. March 2011 Supplement JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH 27 Globalization GLOBAL STANDARDIZATION OF Kingdom (Caillat and Mueller, 1996). ADVERTISING Other authors identified specific cultural substantial barriers existed (Boddewyn, A major focus of attention in international- dimensions that may have operated as Soehl, and Picard, 1986). When the study advertising research over the past half- obstacles to standardization (e.g., Miracle, was replicated in the United States, how- century—and, particularly from the 1960s Chang, and Taylor, 1992). Differences in ever, the results found that only nine through the 1980s—has been the degree to gender depictions (e.g., Ford et al., 1998) percent of the firms standardized in all which companies should standardize their and the types of humor also have been foreign markets, with the majority relying standardizing advertising even though advertising across international markets addressed as potential obstacles (Alden, on a mix of standardization and adapta- in which they do business. For example, Hoyer, and Lee, 1993). Douglas and Wind tion (Hite and Fraser, 1988). A study in in 1961, Elinder called attention to what (1987) went further, reported on several the Journal of Advertising Research high- he described as increasingly similar liv- barriers to the standardization of market- lighted the nuances associated with stand- ing conditions among Europeans and ing practices, and argued that such consid- ardization in finding that traditional and suggested that, in spite of language barri- erations should be viewed as merely one modern appeals sometimes stand side by ers, more standardization was necessary. of several options for strategic success in side in Chinese advertising, suggesting Similarly, 6 years later, Fatt argued that global markets. some opportunity for standardization but the United States itself is a heterogene- While commonly positioned as a simultaneously recognizing its complexity ous market demographically, ethnically, “debate,” more articles began to occupy culturally, and psychographically and a middle-ground position on standardi- In a 2002 article in the Journal of Advertis- criticized those opposed to standardized zation. Some authors suggested that con- ing Research (“What is Wrong with Inter- (Cheng and Schweitzer, 1996). advertising for focusing on what could not tingency approaches be adopted (Miracle, national Advertising Research?”), Taylor be done and, in turn, missing the oppor- 1968; Peebles, Ryans, and Vernon, 1978). examined the state of international adver- tunity to capitalize on great advertising Moriarty and Duncan, in 1990, observed tising research. He wrote that research ideas. that research to that date had found no clearly had shown it was time to stop In a classic Journal of Advertising Research simplistic answers and astutely called for the standardization “debate” and called article “Pitfalls of Advertising Overseas”, researchers to view standardization as a for more managerially relevant research Ricks, Arpan, and Fu observed that dif- continuum, not a dichotomy. to examine what elements of advertising ferent attitudes, customs, and consumer Meanwhile, James and Hill, in a paper could be standardized and when. Into the needs required adaptation from the U.S. entitled “International Advertising Mes- 2000s, it was becoming common practice market (1974). They pointed to several sages: To Adapt or Not to Adapt” in the for many advertisers to standardize at a specific blunders that firms had made as Journal of Advertising Research (1991), broad strategic level but to modify execu- a result of not paying attention to cultural planted a seed for future researchers tional elements and language when neces- nuances, including Colgate’s introduction when they noted the need to distinguish sary (Taylor and Johnson, 2002). of Cue toothpaste in France where, unfor- between strategic factors and executions tunately, the word cue had pornographic when considering standardization. connotations. Meanwhile, Levitt’s The Glo- As evidence grew indicating that global advertising could work in at least some At the end of the decade, again in the contexts and that more advertisers were balization of Markets famously pointed to Journal of Advertising Research, in a “Stand- employing global strategies, the focus of the presence of international markets and ardized International Advertising: Some research turned to the advantages of glo- recommended standardization (1983). Research Issues and Implications” contri- bal advertising to go beyond economies In the 1980s and 1990s, several articles bution, Onkvisit and Shaw observed that of scale, toward building uniform brand pointed out specific cultural issues that contingency perspectives were becoming image (Duncan and Ramaprasad, 1995). were difficult to overcome, including the dominant and that the desirable degree of According to popular press reports, many observation that, in Saudi Arabia, many standardization depended on case-specific non-European citizens were not receptive to certain types environmental factors (1999). tions, including Microsoft, Dell, Electronic multi-national corpora- of Western advertising (Al-Makaty et al., Empirical studies began to lend cre- Arts, Mitsubishi, and Kawasaki Europe, 1996), and research that showed how suc- dence to the notion that standardization increasingly were moving toward more cessful appeals in beer advertising dif- had real benefits. One survey of European standardized fered from the United States to the United firms found that many managers were Europe to develop a consistent brand 28 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH March 2011 Supplement advertising throughout Globalization strategy across the continent (Taylor and Okazaki, 2006). Several studies, such as a content anal- More studies also have suggested that, the potential to be standardized across although some important differences still the United States and Japan in a way that do exist, convergence is creating more likely would not have been possible a dec- ysis of luxury versus non-luxury prod- opportunities for standardizing some ade or more before (Okazaki, Mueller, and ucts (Whitelock and Chung, 1989) and executional aspects of advertising. For Taylor, 2010). an exploration of the types of products example, one study provided evidence In summary, evidence abounds that using standardized “U.S.” approaches that some types of comparative ads could a standardized advertising strategy has in India (Chandra, Griffith, and Ryans, be effective in Germany, a market wherein become more feasible than it was in 2002), examined specific factors related such advertising was not legal until 1998 the past. And, in fact, it often may have to standardization. One program found and thought to be of questionable effective- become more desirable in that it can help that visual aspects of some advertisements ness (Schwaiger et al., 2007). And another build a global brand. The degree and cir- exhibited the most important influence observed that, although some significant cumstances under which standardized on consumer perceptions of ad similar- differences were present in U.S. and Arab advertising executions can be employed, ity (Backhaus, Muhlfeld, and Van Doorn, markets, there were more similarities than however, remains a topic of discussion. 2001). These results suggested a greater one would think: for example, there were ability to standardize­ an advertisement’s no significant differences between the U.S. GLOBAL BRANDS AND PERCEIVED visual elements. A study of the reaction of advertisements and the Arab advertise- BRAND GLOBALNESS Dutch consumers to advertising, however, ments regarding the depiction of women As global advertising strategies have documented the difficulty of standard- (Kalliny et al., 2008). become more viable, more corporations izing language even in a country where In “Cultural Values Reflected in Chi- have emphasized global branding. Bloom­ many speak multiple languages (Gerritsen nese and U.S. Television Commercials,” berg BusinessWeek’s annual survey of the et al., 2000). a Journal of Advertising Research paper, the world’s most valuable brands, listed Coca- However, in his 2005 “Moving Inter- authors found advantages of using West- Cola—with a value approaching $70 bil- national Advertising Research Forward: ern models in advertisements in Taiwan lion—to be the top worldwide brand in A New Research Agenda,” Taylor noted to give brands a “global look” in terms 2010. Other brand leaders included IBM, in the pages of the Journal of Advertising of perceived brand globalness and prod- Microsoft, Nokia, Samsung, McDonald’s, Research that only a few studies explicitly uct “Western-ness” but also identified an BMW, Toyota, Gillette, and H&M. Glo- modeled factors that made firms more in-group bias in favor of Chinese brand bal brands no longer are examples of just prone to standardization (e.g., Laroche et names on other dimensions (Chang, 2008). mega-successful marketing. As hypoth- al., 2001; Samiee et al., 2003). Taylor also Another study at the same time found esized in Strategic Direction (2008): called for more examination of the rela- that using an English brand name with tionship between standardized advertis- the local language actually was effective The power they exert may go beyond the ing and firm performance. in boosting recall and recognition of an economic sphere to social and political To that end, in a survey of U.S. and Japa- advertisement among young South Kore- clout. Many global brands have budgets nese subsidiaries located in the European ans—a result that indicated some level of that exceed the GNP of small nations and Union, managers reported that stand- opportunity to standardize even an aspect have altered every aspect of the lives of ardized advertising was associated with of language (Ahn and LaFerle, 2008). people all over the world. The way we dress higher financial and strategic performance An analysis of the types of appeals used and adorn ourselves, the way we eat and (Okazaki et al., 2006). The study also inves- in Japanese and U.S. advertising found drink, our choices of entertainment, how we tigated factors associated with a greater an apparent trend toward convergence communicate and the methods of transport propensity to standardize advertising. In and concluded that Japanese advertis- we use to move around our cities, nations 2006, Kiran Karande, Almurshidee, and ing may have become more “American” and the planet are all influenced by global Al-Olayan found that two specific fac- and, in turn, U.S. advertising may have brands. tors—culturally normative ad content and become more ”Japanese” (Okazaki and product Mueller, 2008). An experimental study fur- As the clout of global brands has with the ability to standardize advertising thermore suggested that certain types of increased, decisions about their man- in three Middle Eastern countries. soft-sell and hard-sell appeals may have agement have become of paramount information—were associated March 2011 Supplement JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH 29 Globalization importance, raising such questions as Brown database, only three percent show theory can be employed to provide insight “How can global brands be created, man- up in seven or more countries (Pfanner, on advertising effectiveness across mar- aged, and marketed most efficiently and 2009). Nevertheless, an increasing number kets; how social resources and institutions successfully?” of corporations have taken advantage of create differences across markets; how For decades, scholars have debated the emergence of GCC by adjusting their regulatory structure affects advertisers in the emergence of segments of consum- brand portfolios in favor of global brands. various markets; and how local-versus- ers around the world who share similar global competition relates to advertis- needs and wants. Today, it is also widely THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE IN ing decisions. Clearly, a firm’s brands, its accepted that globalization—economic, INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISING RESEARCH marketing staff, and its ability to conceive cultural, and otherwise—has promoted Academicians international and execute effective promotional strat- the growth of global consumer segments advertising have long called for more egy constitute resources. And the ways in (Holt, Quelch, and Taylor, 2004), which application of theory (e.g., Moriarty and which these resources are deployed affect appear to share similarities in consump- Duncan, 1990). For years, it was relatively success. tion behaviors (Keillor, D’Amico, and rare for published cross-national adver- A second promising framework is GMS Horton­, 2001). tising studies to directly test communica- theory (Zou and Cavusgil, 2002; Zou This growth has been closely tied to tion and/or consumer-behavior theories. and Volz, 2010). The focus of this theory the emergence of a global consumer cul- Often, the focus of such investigations is on how following global strategies studying ture (GCC), which functions not because was to identify one or a few relevant cul- contributes to a firm’s financial and stra- it creates similarities in the consumption tural differences and then study whether tegic success. Standardization of promo- of particular products (such as the iPod) the differences in advertising content tion strategies is identified as one major but because it becomes a primary source appeared to be consistent with those vari- dimension of a GMS, as are coordination of “self-expression” and “identity” around ables. Although such approaches did pro- of marketing ideas and global market par- the world (Waters, 1995). This trend also vide insights on some cultural aspects that ticipation. As such, the theory is beginning has contributed to the desire for global managers needed to take into account, to be applied to assess the impact of stand- branding. they often left much to be desired in terms ardized advertising on financial and stra- of theory advancement or managerial tegic performance (Okazaki et al., 1996). In 2003, Steenkamp, Batra, and Alden explored the effects of perceived brand relevance. A third theory base that increasingly has globalness (PBG) on consumer prefer- It is encouraging to observe that several been applied is GCC theory. “Consumer ences in more economically advanced new theories originating in international culture theory” (CCT) refers to “a family markets. They demonstrated that a con- business/strategic management recently of theoretical perspectives that address sumer’s perception of a brand’s global have begun to be applied to international the dynamic relationships between con- presence is likely to result in brand pref- advertising (Taylor, 2010). These theories sumer actions, the marketplace, and cul- erence through a product quality image— include resource-advantage theory, glo- tural meanings” (Arnould and Thompson, the symbolic value of prestige—and a bal-marketing strategy theory (GMS), and 2005). CCT views consumption as con- projected global belongingness. Although GCC positioning theory and the related tinually shaped by ongoing interactions the degree to which PBG matters will vary concepts of global brand positioning and within a dynamic socio-cultural context from consumer to consumer, this concept PBG. In addition, cultural frameworks and fundamentally is concerned with fac- has become important to researchers. And continue to be used to guide many inter- tors that mold consumer experiences and it is clear that many marketing practition- national advertising studies. The remain- identities. As cultural globalization occurs, ers now agree that the degree to which der of this section will give an overview of global consumer culture theory (GCCT) is consumers perceive a brand to have a glo- some recent applications of these theories. a logical consequence. bal reputation also is important. Resource-advantage theory is derived Recently, numerous scholars implicitly A note of caution pertaining to the from the resource-based view of the firm have viewed culture as a secondary and global-branding trend: collectively, local and puts a central focus on resource utiliza- dependent variable or have even regarded brands still account for the overwhelm- tion and how firms differentiate themselves it explicitly as subordinate to economic ing majority of consumers’ purchases. Of and create value. Griffith and Yalcinkaya globalization (Featherstone, 2004). There more than 10,000 brands in a Millward (2010) outlined how resource-advantage is no question that nations increasingly are 30 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH March 2011 Supplement Globalization being integrated into the global economy. both invisible and visible consumer brand is associated with a specific foreign Other scholars have regarded globaliza- cultures from a multitude of sources culture (e.g., Singapore Airline’s use of tion primarily in terms of culture. For (Hermans­ and Kempen, 1998). the “Singapore Girl” in its global media example, in Globalization (1995), Waters noted, “While it is clearly not the case advertising). In 2008, Merz, He, and Alden integrated Study results suggest that although that culture, as an arena differentiated categorization theory into the discussion GCC still is in its infancy, meaningful from economics and politics, has ever of whether consumer cultures globalize, percentages of advertisements in seven been totally globalized, it has nevertheless glocalize, or localize. They suggested that countries—representing both developed shown a greater tendency towards globali- arguments for GCC are made most eas- and zation than either of the other two arenas.” ily at the superordinate level (the most GCCP. Advertisements reflecting GCCP In 2010, Taylor noted that GCCT and its abstract level of categorization—such as may employ a globally common language offshoots have become influential. Indeed, advertising as an abstract category label). (English), global aesthetic style (such as a for some scholars, GCCT even has rede- However, their strength (versus glocal globally recognized spokesperson), and developing economies—employ fined what constitutes a global brand. In and local consumer culture) at the basic universal story themes (e.g., membership contrast to the traditional view of a global (an intermediate category—for example, in the global culture or the use of the latest brand (based largely on the marketing- print advertising schemas—consumers technology). standardization literature), in the GCCT everywhere expect to see a headline and Archpru and Alden (2010) suggest inte- definition of a global brand, the consum- logo in a print ad) and subordinate level grating two of the foregoing theoretical er’s perception of brand “globalness” is (the most specific level of categoriza- constructs: GCCP and PBG. They argue paramount (Ozsomer and Altaras, 2008). tion—such as print advertising elements that these constructs are based on two per- using specific colors and celebrity endors- spectives that are critical for understanding Two additional perspectives should be noted: • Proponents of local consumer culture (LCC) hypothesize that distinctive ers) levels is moderated by whether the complexities of global consumer cul- meanings associated with consumption ture: specifically, that of the firm (GCCP) are perceived as primarily functional or and that of the consumer (PBG), which, symbolic. considered together, provide a more com- local consumption cultures are resilient An important outgrowth of CCT for prehensive approach to understanding the against globalization (Jackson, 2004). international advertising researchers is relationship between international adver- Consumers may prefer local brands the notion of GCC positioning and asso- tising and GCC than either perspective and advertising imagery because they ciated attempts to build a broader theory alone. They also argue that global brand can identify more easily with local life- of how consumers react to global and local advertising may benefit from a combined styles, values, attitudes, and consump- appeals. In 1999, Alden, Steenkamp, and (or hybrid) approach, involving ads that tion behaviors. Indeed, there is ample Batra examined the emergence of brand- would feature globally desired attributes evidence of brands (notably, McDon- positioning strategies in advertising that (i.e., quality and prestige) along with con- ald’s, for one) whose success was based paralleled the growth of the global market- sumer preferences for global-versus-local on not offering the same products with place. The authors proposed a construct— signs and behaviors in the selection of lan- the same advertising messages across GCCP—that associated the brand with guage, visuals, and themes. the globe. a widely understood and recognized set • Advocates for glocal consumer culture of symbols believed to constitute emerg- CULTURE: THE ELEPHANT IN THE ROOM argue that consumers often “draw from ing GCC, thereby enhancing the brand’s One of the biggest problem areas in global all available global and local, new and equity. advertising research has been—and con- old sources as they use products to posi- Alden et al. contrasted GCCP with two tion themselves in the local age, gender, other types of consumer culture posi- hoc rationalization for differences in com- social class, religion, and ethnic hierar- tioning: local consumer culture position- parative studies. When all else fails, the chies” (Ger and Belk, 1996). “Glocaliza- ing (LCCP [e.g., Budweiser’s association theory holds, if differences are found, they tion” is a mixture of homogenization with small-town American culture in its must be due to cultural differences. The (convergence) and tinues to be—the use of culture as a post heterogenization U.S. advertising]) and foreign consumer problem is that this approach presents cul- (divergence)—thus, a hybrid blend of culture positioning (FCCP), in which the ture as a nebulous catchall that is of little March 2011 Supplement JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH 31 Globalization value in advancing advertising theory in a construct, and appearances of “culture” or meaningful manner. “cross-cultural” in titles and abstracts did fied that have employed some or all of not appear again in any volume until the these five cultural dimensions as grounds From a practical standpoint, it is easier to use a contact who offers a means of gathering data in a foreign location and 1980s. One promising approach looked at A multitude of studies can be identi- for hypothesis development and testing. The limitations inherent in this corpo- then build a paper around the collected advertising strategies across cultures to rate culturally affected framework, how- data than it is to develop a compelling the- determine relevant determinants of suc- ever, have caused consternation among oretical case a priori for why data should cess (Kaynak and Mitchell, 1981). In 1987, theorists examining culture and interna- be collected and analyzed in either a single discussing culture in advertising research tional advertising (e.g., Triandis, 1995; or multi-country setting. The second, more in her examination of Japanese and Amer- Trompenaars, 1993). Regardless of the crit- challenging approach should build on ican ad appeals, Mueller identified very icisms, many advertising researchers have theory to justify the choice of relevant vari- few research papers that were helpful in built upon this foundation, having found ables and the context for any subsequent providing concrete direction for handling the dimensions easy to comprehend and data analysis as meaningful incremental culture as a research construct. Samiee apply (e.g., Albers-Miller and Gelb, 1996). hypotheses are formed. and Jeong, in 1994, identified 24 compara- Hampden-Turner and Trompenaars The discipline has come a very long tive/cross-cultural advertising studies. offered another approach to the develop- way from the early works in which coun- Although this volume reflected a distinct ment of a cultural typology (2000). This try context and culture were black boxes. improvement in the sheer number of typology also arose from a large dataset Researchers in the Journal of Advertising investigations, the authors found that cul- built from a corporate culturally affected Research who looked to examine different ture was not the important focus of these environment, which also has limita- advertising approaches and audiences in studies, as national differences, instead, tions. Interestingly, however, a different a foreign setting included Nuttall (1962) were the determinant of differentiation. and Caffyn and Sagovsky (1963) in the One study found that cultural research set of cultural values was identified from this research: universalism/particularism, United Kingdom; Bower (1963) in Can- now has shifted more heavily toward the individualism/communitarianism, ada; Kuhn (1963) in Germany; and Mark view of culture as a set of all-permeat- cificity/diffuseness, spe- achieved/ascribed, (1963) in France. As would be expected, ing values infused in the cultural group inner this early work was somewhat imprecise in focus through family, friends, social sequential/synchronous time. and ill defined. Thus, the nature of culture groups, church, and daily media (Okazaki There are elements of culture in this set becomes the important starting point for and Mueller, 2007). What then becomes the that undoubtedly will affect advertising theory development. In 1960, Hoebel defined “culture” direction/outer direction, and foundation for theoretical development information processing and that could are the various frameworks that have been prove to be of potential value in theory as “the integrated sum total of learned developed that account for a significant development. In particular, the concept of behavioral traits that are manifest and proportion of variance across various cul- time is a dimension that has yet to be effec- shared by members of a society.” This was tural units (Craig and Douglas, 2001). tively examined. further developed in 1963 by Kroeber and The main framework that has served Another promising area for study Kluckhohn, who examined more than 160 in this capacity has been the national cul- involves the seven values framework definitions of culture and determined that tural dimensions developed by Hofstede developed by Schwartz in 1992 and later it was defined as either (1) communicable (1980, 2001) in his extensive study of IBM revised by Schwarz and Sagiv in 1995. knowledge, (2) that which distinguishes employees across a wide variety of coun- Those seven relevant cultural values from humans from animals, or (3) all historical tries. This produced the four dimensions which theory development could build accomplishments from human social life. so readily recognized: masculinity-femi- are conservatism, propriety, intellectual The obvious relevant dimension is that ninity; individualism/collectivism; power autonomy, hierarchy, egalitarian commit- culture involves learned behavior, and distance; and uncertainty avoidance. In ment, mastery, and harmony. This research it affects all aspects of daily life. The first 1988, Hofstede and Bond added Confu- attempted to depart from earlier work actual mention of culture in advertising- cian dynamism, a fifth dimension that by focusing on individual values across research titles appeared in 1967 (Lorimer focused on long-term versus short-term cultures without the inherent corporate- and Dunn), but it was treated as a nebulous perspectives. cultural­ umbrella. 32 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH March 2011 Supplement Globalization Classic Excerpt: Globalization Pitfalls in Advertising Overseas David A. Ricks, Jeffrey S. Arpan, and Marilyn Y. Fu Authors’ Note: The point of this seminal article is that most pitfalls in global marketing could be tied back to a lack of cultural awareness. This piece spelled out a problem that still is as pertinent today as it was 36 years ago. This article continues to be regularly cited in international-marketing textbooks. It seems such a simple message, but companies still make cultural mistakes in their advertisements that could be avoided with preliminary cultural research and assessment. to adapt adequately to the environment. “The importance of having an adequate Whatever the timing of the decision, how- ‘cultural sensitivity’ on the part of deci- ever, the basic root of the troublesome sion-makers involved in international oper- uncertainty is most likely the presence ations is well borne out by the findings of of an additional culture in the decision- this study. Unicultural managements mak- making framework. Different customs, ing all the decisions regarding advertising attitudes, and needs render many of a in different cultures seems a high risk firm’s normal procedures inapplicable or strategy. Multicultural participation in the un-transferable. Awareness of and sensi- planning, decision making, execution, and tivity to these often-subtle cultural differ- evaluation stages of an advertising pro- “International trade and investment oper- ences may be the major determinant in gram appears to be a better procedure. ations are fraught with risk and uncer- the success of an international business Effective use of local foreign nationals tainty. In fact, the problems encountered venture. would have prevented many, if not all, by managers of foreign operations are often more difficult than those encountered in domestic operations, and in many instances they have threatened the very survival of the firm. “Research in this area can identify critical factors in the environment which have caused problems for outsiders in of the blunders reported in this study – especially those done because the advertisement was translated too literally. the past so that others can avoid making “Those knowledgeable in the field of similar mistakes. This particular research international advertising have advised “Many managers fail to realize this, and reports investigations and analyses of that the need is to translate basic investors frequently underestimate the actual blunders made by executives in appeals, not necessarily the literal. No difficulties associated with overseas oper- advertising and other aspects of interna- matter how different people are in differ- ations. Domestic success is no guarantee tional business. All blunders are publicly ent countries, one fact remains: there are of predictable performance in a different documented as having been made by real certain basic appeals that are common to environment. Many successful domestic companies in real countries. Taken as a all people, although they may not always firms have made plans for foreign invest- group, they offer some important lessons be expressed in the same words. The ments that have missed their mark so for international business in the future…” key is to identify and respect the differ- widely that these companies have been unable to take advantage of opportunities in even the most promising markets. “Most international advertising blunders occur because of a failure to fully understand the foreign culture and its ences in point of view and sensitivities to nuances. Basic appeals can be successfully employed everywhere.” “When actual results differ widely from social norms. This can take many forms, David A. Ricks, Jeffrey S. Arpan, and planned results, it is often difficult to ranging from blatant rejection of existing Marilyn Y. Fu. “Pitfalls in Advertising Over- judge whether the cause was an initial customs and tastes to innocent insensi- seas.” Journal of Advertising Research conceptualization error or one of failing tivity to the environment…” 14, 6 (1974): 47–51. What should be of interest to advertis- opportunities for new insights and theo- or her name with a new approach, yet ing researchers is the similarity (and dif- retical development in comparing and often differences may be more semantic ferences) in values across these various contrasting key cultural values. Clearly, than they are substantive. Nonetheless, typologies. And there are considerable every researcher hopes to associate his these frameworks offer significant value March 2011 Supplement JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH 33 Globalization to advertising practitioners and scholars alike. obstacle to applying culture to cross- It also should be noted that “quali- national studies is the sheer complexity tative,” in many ways, is an improper A recent development that promises of a construct that, in reality, consists of distinction, as data and analyses are a great deal of value for cross-cultural many dimensions. Another major hurdle involved in content-analysis research advertising researchers is the database is the assumption of cultural homogene- (primarily chi-square analysis using pop- built by project GLOBE, a study by more ity within a culture. Researchers recently ulation counts), but it functions more in a than 160 researchers across 62 countries have suggested taking individual level discovery capacity for providing a start- involving middle managers from the measures in cross-cultural studies to ver- ing point for inductive reasoning and financial-services, telecommunications, ify that the cultural differences actually theory development. Content analysis and food-service industries (House et al., exist within the groups sampled, as well as faces some inherent limitations, however, 2004). running individual level analyses (Taylor­, especially in regard to theory testing and 2005). generalizing to other settings, because it The study identified nine relevant cultural dimensions: gender egalitarianism, is a descriptive technique (Okazaki and future orientation, performance orienta- CROSS-CULTURAL METHODOLOGICAL Mueller, 2007). The concerns voiced by tion, humane orientation, assertiveness, ISSUES: STILL MAKING THE SAME Samiee and Jeong in their 1994 study of institutional collectivism, in-group col- MISTAKES? 24 comparative/cross-cultural advertis- lectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and When addressing methodology in glo- ing studies still resonate today, as quality power distance. The connection to (and bal/cross-cultural advertising research, it controls and proper justifications seem to validation of) Hofstede’s dimensions is is important to make a primary distinc- be the exception rather than the rule. Bet- apparent when examining these GLOBE tion between qualitative and quantitative ter approaches will encompass randomiz- dimensions, but others are quick to point studies. ing ads rather than using convenience out that the correlational analyses show Qualitative work often is a necessary samples, but the tradeoff is always the significant differentiation from the origi- first step in the discovery process, as can time and expense that may be involved. nal Hofstede dimensions (Okazaki and often be seen in the setting of benchmarks Clearly, journals now are requiring tighter Mueller, 2007). A recent article suggests found in so many content analyses (e.g., controls for all qualitative and quantita- applying GLOBE to three global adver- Ford et al., 1998; Mueller, 1992). Most of tive studies. tising contexts: (1) the linkages among the earlier studies in global/cross-cultural One last issue to raise regarding con- societal culture, industry advertising advertising involved content analyses. A tent analyses relates to the old approach practices, and perceived effectiveness; few studies were sprinkled throughout by which inter-rater reliability was calcu- (2) the impact of the fit between adver- the 1960s and 1970s, but these tended to lated—which usually involved a compari- tising practices and societal expectations be convenience-focused and limited in son across codings, with the expectation on advertising effectiveness; and (3) the terms of the coverage of the ads analyzed. that there be just 0.85 agreement (Kassar- influences of societal practices and values In one overview of cross-cultural research jian, 1977). Taking random subsets of ads on consumer interpretations and process- in advertising for the period 1982 to 1992, and comparing them with the expectation ing of advertising messages (House, Qui- the overwhelmingly preferred tool for of 0.85 agreement, however, no longer is gley, and de Luque, 2010). analysis was content analysis (Samiee and an appropriate expectation. Beginning Jeong, 1994). in the 1990s, the standards changed, as So much more work needs to be done to identify and understand differences It is important to note that perceptual Rust and Cooil, in 1994, set a new level of across cultural units of analysis and to advertising research involving viewers is agreement with their proportional reduc- determine how advertising strategies not understood properly unless the foun- tion in loss (PRL) measure. This measure can be adjusted for the greatest possible dations have been established as to what requires careful assessments and differing impact on the perceptions of consumers, the viewers in question have actually been levels of agreement given the number of while at the same time minimizing nega- exposed to by the various media in their coders involved and the number of differ- tive societal impacts. country setting; thus, exploratory research ent categories, and so corrects for chance of this kind can be vital to begin the the- agreement. The critical point is that there are many opportunities to explore in the exami- oretical nation of culture. Perhaps the biggest process. 34 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH refinement March 2011 Supplement and development Samiee and Jeong, in 1994, rightly called for higher standards in content analyses Globalization and provided guidelines for improving research is no different. When new tech- Malhotra et al. in 1996 discussed the the nature of this type of analysis. Subse- niques are presented in these emerging need for addressing four major levels of quent studies reflected the use of multi- areas of research, however, different sets equivalence: ple coders, differing cultural and gender of problems arise. As advertising jour- mixes, tougher expectations in terms of nals turn more heavily toward involved agreement, and better justifications for decision models using structural equa- nomenon in question function in the sampling frames (cf. Ford et al., 1998). tion modeling, one very large problem same way in the different settings? In the 1980s, survey-based studies or that accompanies this methodology is the mixed-method studies began to appear issue inherent in construct equivalencies with stronger theoretical foundations (Malhotra­, Agarwal, and Peterson, 1996). and hypotheses that took the place of The problem often has been a tradeoff more general research questions in earlier between the more practically focused and research. For example, in 1988, Gilly was action-oriented particularly thorough in attempting to models, as opposed to the value-laden, shed light on women’s impressions of their theoretically rich etic models. The goal of emic (culture-specific) • Functional equivalence: Does the phe- • Conceptual equivalence: Is the phenomenon the same conceptually? • Instrument equivalence: Is this survey instrument equivalent in this setting? • Measurement equivalence: Is the phenomenon measured in the same way in this setting? depictions in ads in a cross-cultural set- the cross-cultural advertising researcher None of these levels should be over- ting by, first, setting the benchmarks with is to understand the various settings and looked, as the research may be fraught content analyses in Australia, the United perceptions of viewers and to build better with artifacts and confounds that may States, and Mexico, then by addressing decision models for advertisers and adver- raise serious questions about the data responses to the depictions using surveys tising researchers. involved, the analyses run, and/or the of viewers in these same country settings. The “pseudo-etic” trap is a serious issue conclusions drawn. The problem, accord- The benchmarks provided in comparisons in which a construct of interest is studied ing to a variety of researchers, is that the of ads and ad settings still continue today in a local context and a scale is developed tried-and-true protocols offer a difficult as some researchers opt for the content- in that context to measure the occurrence and likely inappropriate method for con- analysis methodology as their mechanism of that phenomenon. Once the scale has struct equivalence. of choice. been developed, validated, and published, In 1979, Churchill presented the iter- the easy approach is to assume that the ative-refinement approach most often cultural advertising research from 1995 to scale will work anywhere and then have it seen as the multi-trait, multi-method 2006 found that content analysis was still back-translated into a target language and purist way of handling scale develop- the most utilized technique for cross-cul- taken as appropriate for use in another ment. Using this approach, the first step tural studies (38 of 106 studies gathered: country setting. involves the definition of the construct An overview of methodology in cross- 34.9 percent), but with survey research a This battle between opportunistic and and the understanding of its relevant close second (33 percent) and experiments strategic research has continued for years. domain. Once the limits of the construct a distant third (17.9 percent; Okazaki­ Researchers must step back and address are established, the literature is searched, and Mueller, 2007). The report noted that the limitations of their investigations, and qualitative mechanisms are used during­ the period from 1995 to 2006, the carefully basing their research in differ- to generate a complete set of potential Journal of Advertising Research published ent country/cultural settings a priori by measurement items. These are then vali- only 4 content analyses whereas the theoretically and practically showing that dated through iterative steps of empiri- Journal­ of Advertising published 12, per- the countries used in any kind of cross-cul- cal testing, item refinement, qualitative haps suggesting that the Journal of Adver- tural analysis offer potential value to the follow-up, and subsequent empirical tising Research reviewers and editors shied academic and practitioner communities testing, allowing the researcher to purify away from content analyses owing to their (Craig and Douglas, 2001). the items and refine the scale. The scale limitations. An area of disagreement among cur- finally is psychometrically assessed for Over time, increasing levels of sophis- rent advertising researchers appears to reliability and validity. This often has tication have permeated the types of be whether the tried-and-true protocols been seen as severely limiting to more investigations involved in any developing are really the best way to handle scale practical approaches to construct identi- area of study. Cross-cultural advertising development in a cross-cultural setting. fication and scale development. March 2011 Supplement JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH 35 Globalization Rossiter called his 2002 alternative to Churchill the C-OAR-SE method. The researcher begins with the definition of the phenomenon in question, which can be done with multiple cross-classifications of a variety of objects, attributes, and expert In the last 50 years, the evolution of international advertising research has occurred at a relatively slow yet, perhaps, appropriate pace. raters. This approach involves more input from experts with logical argumentation who presented a series of steps to fol- CONCLUSION arising from a series of open-end ques- low in properly assessing measurement In the last 50 years, the evolution of inter- tions posed to various raters. After the invariance when looking to assess scalar national advertising research has occurred construct is defined, empirical validation equivalences. This framework is based on at a relatively slow yet, perhaps, appro- occurs through input from expert raters confirmatory factor analysis and allows priate pace. A major change has been a rather than extensive empirical data col- for an assessment of configural invariance gradual realization that global advertising lection and testing. (the scalar items should show the same strategies can be effective in many con- Rossiter argued that Churchill’s process configuration of salient as opposed to non- texts, even if aspects of execution must be modified. misses an opportunity to focus on concep- salient factor loadings across the different tualization through expert input rather country groupings); metric invariance In conjunction with this realization, than blind adherence to earlier research (people in the different country settings marketers are focusing on building glo- and conceptualizations. His main criticism should reply to the various items in the bal brands more than ever before. As a was that content validity really was the same way); factor covariance invariance result, it is incumbent upon advertising only thing of importance in scale devel- (if the factor variances and covariances researchers to study how advertising can opment. It is the iterations among experts are invariant, the researcher is certain that most effectively play into building glo- in the proper contexts of the constructs the actual underlying constructs are the bal brands. Recently, several promising that help in the development of the scale. same across the various country settings); theories have evolved that ultimately may What has critics concerned is the lack of and error variance invariance. Another lead to a better understanding of what can empirical validation in this approach and viable alternative was proposed in 2005 make global advertising work and how the over-reliance on content validity (cf. by Ewing, Salzberger, and Sinkovics, who consumers perceive global brands. Diamantopoulos­, 2005). suggested a model for assessment based It also should be observed that, in on the work of Georg Rasch. In many senses, culture remains the “elephant in the room” as its application developing cross-national surveys, it has Given that so much of the latest wave of to international advertising issues often become the accepted standard to expect empirical cross-cultural research focuses leads to overly simplistic and sometimes researchers to pay attention to equivalence on the use of techniques such as structural self-fulfilling explanations. Nevertheless, issues both before and after data are col- equation modeling, the concern over scales it is well accepted that culture—although lected, regardless of the scale development and their development and equivalence highly complex—is a fundamental aspect procedure used. As Craig and Douglas across cultural settings is of paramount of the study of international advertising, observed in 2001, appropriate back-trans- importance when attempting to build stra- and new frameworks that have added lation procedures should be followed tegic models for advertisers. If we do not insight have evolved. prior to data collection. Indeed, now there take every step to ensure construct equiv- Research methods have evolved as are even more sophisticated possibili- alence, the results of any analyses will be well, and we see more studies employing ties, including using teams of linguists to highly suspect. advanced techniques, using appropriate undergo a rigorous translation (Taylor, The future looks bright for cross-cul- scale development tools, and incorporat- 2005). It also is the case that measurement tural research in advertising, as theory ing appropriate procedures for ensuring invariance needs to be assessed after data development and testing are leading to equivalence. These developments should is collected. better explanatory models, and the debate provide much cause for optimism about The most common method that has over approaches to scale development developments in international advertising been adopted in the literature is based and equivalence are extremely healthy for research over the next 50 years of the Jour- on Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998), researchers and practitioners. nal of Advertising Research. 36 JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH March 2011 Supplement Copyright of Journal of Advertising Research is the property of World Advertising Research Center Limited and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. 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