Globalization
John B. Ford
Barbara Mueller
Charles R. Taylor
Insights from
Old Dominion
San Diego State
Villanova University
Nigel Hollis
University
University
Millward Brown
The Tension between Strategy and
Execution: Challenges for International
Advertising Research
Globalization is Much More Than Universal Branding
The primary “international advertising” topic over the past five decades is the question
of whether, and to what degree, advertising can and should be standardized. This
article begins with a discussion of the cumulative findings of this stream of research,
followed by a look at major theories that have been applied to international advertising
research, with a special focus on the application of culture’s use as a conceptual
basis for advertising studies. An exploration of the recent trend toward considering
advertising in the context of global branding strategies is followed by a discussion of
methodological issues in international advertising research, focusing on problems
that have been identified and “best practices” for researchers in overcoming these
problems.
INTRODUCTION
has been whether—and to what degree—advertis-
Though there certainly was a significant amount
ing can (and should) be standardized. This paper
of trade 50 years ago when the Journal of
begins with an examination of the cumulative
Advertising Research began publication, the notion
findings of this stream of research, followed by
of international advertising had received scant
a look at major theories that have been applied
attention. This would begin to change in the 1960s,
to international advertising research, with a spe-
and subsequent decades would see a dramatic
cial focus on the application of culture’s use as
increase in the amount of attention paid to global
a conceptual basis for advertising studies. An
advertising. Such greater interest makes sense:
exploration of the recent trend toward consider-
a new global economy generated a widespread
ing advertising in the context of global-branding
understanding among advertising practitioners
strategies is followed by a discussion of methodo-
and academicians that businesses needed a deeper
logical issues in international advertising research,
Authors are listed alphabetically.
understanding of how to operate effectively in for-
focusing on problems that have been identified
The authors contributed equally to
eign markets.
and “best practices” for researchers in overcoming
the development of the manuscript.
Clearly, the most popular “international” topic
DOI: 10.2501/JAR-51-1-027-041
these problems.
March 2011 Supplement
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
27
Globalization
GLOBAL STANDARDIZATION OF
Kingdom (Caillat and Mueller, 1996).
ADVERTISING
Other authors identified specific cultural
substantial barriers existed (Boddewyn,
A major focus of attention in international-
dimensions that may have operated as
Soehl, and Picard, 1986). When the study
advertising research over the past half-
obstacles to standardization (e.g., Miracle,
was replicated in the United States, how-
century—and, particularly from the 1960s
Chang, and Taylor, 1992). Differences in
ever, the results found that only nine
through the 1980s—has been the degree to
gender depictions (e.g., Ford et al., 1998)
percent of the firms standardized in all
which companies should standardize their
and the types of humor also have been
foreign markets, with the majority relying
standardizing advertising even though
advertising across international markets
addressed as potential obstacles (Alden,
on a mix of standardization and adapta-
in which they do business. For example,
Hoyer, and Lee, 1993). Douglas and Wind
tion (Hite and Fraser, 1988). A study in
in 1961, Elinder called attention to what
(1987) went further, reported on several
the Journal of Advertising Research high-
he described as increasingly similar liv-
barriers to the standardization of market-
lighted the nuances associated with stand-
ing conditions among Europeans and
ing practices, and argued that such consid-
ardization in finding that traditional and
suggested that, in spite of language barri-
erations should be viewed as merely one
modern appeals sometimes stand side by
ers, more standardization was necessary.
of several options for strategic success in
side in Chinese advertising, suggesting
Similarly, 6 years later, Fatt argued that
global markets.
some opportunity for standardization but
the United States itself is a heterogene-
While
commonly
positioned
as
a
simultaneously recognizing its complexity
ous market demographically, ethnically,
“debate,” more articles began to occupy
culturally, and psychographically and
a middle-ground position on standardi-
In a 2002 article in the Journal of Advertis-
criticized those opposed to standardized
zation. Some authors suggested that con-
ing Research (“What is Wrong with Inter-
(Cheng and Schweitzer, 1996).
advertising for focusing on what could not
tingency approaches be adopted (Miracle,
national Advertising Research?”), Taylor
be done and, in turn, missing the oppor-
1968; Peebles, Ryans, and Vernon, 1978).
examined the state of international adver-
tunity to capitalize on great advertising
Moriarty and Duncan, in 1990, observed
tising research. He wrote that research
ideas.
that research to that date had found no
clearly had shown it was time to stop
In a classic Journal of Advertising Research
simplistic answers and astutely called for
the standardization “debate” and called
article “Pitfalls of Advertising Overseas”,
researchers to view standardization as a
for more managerially relevant research
Ricks, Arpan, and Fu observed that dif-
continuum, not a dichotomy.
to examine what elements of advertising
ferent attitudes, customs, and consumer
Meanwhile, James and Hill, in a paper
could be standardized and when. Into the
needs required adaptation from the U.S.
entitled “International Advertising Mes-
2000s, it was becoming common practice
market (1974). They pointed to several
sages: To Adapt or Not to Adapt” in the
for many advertisers to standardize at a
specific blunders that firms had made as
Journal of Advertising Research (1991),
broad strategic level but to modify execu-
a result of not paying attention to cultural
planted a seed for future researchers
tional elements and language when neces-
nuances, including Colgate’s introduction
when they noted the need to distinguish
sary (Taylor and Johnson, 2002).
of Cue toothpaste in France where, unfor-
between strategic factors and executions
tunately, the word cue had pornographic
when considering standardization.
connotations. Meanwhile, Levitt’s The Glo-
As evidence grew indicating that global
advertising could work in at least some
At the end of the decade, again in the
contexts and that more advertisers were
balization of Markets famously pointed to
Journal of Advertising Research, in a “Stand-
employing global strategies, the focus of
the presence of international markets and
ardized International Advertising: Some
research turned to the advantages of glo-
recommended standardization (1983).
Research Issues and Implications” contri-
bal advertising to go beyond economies
In the 1980s and 1990s, several articles
bution, Onkvisit and Shaw observed that
of scale, toward building uniform brand
pointed out specific cultural issues that
contingency perspectives were becoming
image (Duncan and Ramaprasad, 1995).
were difficult to overcome, including the
dominant and that the desirable degree of
According to popular press reports, many
observation that, in Saudi Arabia, many
standardization depended on case-specific
non-European
citizens were not receptive to certain types
environmental factors (1999).
tions, including Microsoft, Dell, Electronic
multi-national
corpora-
of Western advertising (Al-Makaty et al.,
Empirical studies began to lend cre-
Arts, Mitsubishi, and Kawasaki Europe,
1996), and research that showed how suc-
dence to the notion that standardization
increasingly were moving toward more
cessful appeals in beer advertising dif-
had real benefits. One survey of European
standardized
fered from the United States to the United
firms found that many managers were
Europe to develop a consistent brand
28
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
March 2011 Supplement
advertising
throughout
Globalization
strategy across the continent (Taylor and
Okazaki, 2006).
Several studies, such as a content anal-
More studies also have suggested that,
the potential to be standardized across
although some important differences still
the United States and Japan in a way that
do exist, convergence is creating more
likely would not have been possible a dec-
ysis of luxury versus non-luxury prod-
opportunities for standardizing some
ade or more before (Okazaki, Mueller, and
ucts (Whitelock and Chung, 1989) and
executional aspects of advertising. For
Taylor, 2010).
an exploration of the types of products
example, one study provided evidence
In summary, evidence abounds that
using standardized “U.S.” approaches
that some types of comparative ads could
a standardized advertising strategy has
in India (Chandra, Griffith, and Ryans,
be effective in Germany, a market wherein
become more feasible than it was in
2002), examined specific factors related
such advertising was not legal until 1998
the past. And, in fact, it often may have
to standardization. One program found
and thought to be of questionable effective-
become more desirable in that it can help
that visual aspects of some advertisements
ness (Schwaiger et al., 2007). And another
build a global brand. The degree and cir-
exhibited the most important influence
observed that, although some significant
cumstances under which standardized
on consumer perceptions of ad similar-
differences were present in U.S. and Arab
advertising executions can be employed,
ity (Backhaus, Muhlfeld, and Van Doorn,
markets, there were more similarities than
however, remains a topic of discussion.
2001). These results suggested a greater
one would think: for example, there were
ability to standardize an advertisement’s
no significant differences between the U.S.
GLOBAL BRANDS AND PERCEIVED
visual elements. A study of the reaction of
advertisements and the Arab advertise-
BRAND GLOBALNESS
Dutch consumers to advertising, however,
ments regarding the depiction of women
As global advertising strategies have
documented the difficulty of standard-
(Kalliny et al., 2008).
become more viable, more corporations
izing language even in a country where
In “Cultural Values Reflected in Chi-
have emphasized global branding. Bloom
many speak multiple languages (Gerritsen
nese and U.S. Television Commercials,”
berg BusinessWeek’s annual survey of the
et al., 2000).
a Journal of Advertising Research paper, the
world’s most valuable brands, listed Coca-
However, in his 2005 “Moving Inter-
authors found advantages of using West-
Cola—with a value approaching $70 bil-
national Advertising Research Forward:
ern models in advertisements in Taiwan
lion—to be the top worldwide brand in
A New Research Agenda,” Taylor noted
to give brands a “global look” in terms
2010. Other brand leaders included IBM,
in the pages of the Journal of Advertising
of perceived brand globalness and prod-
Microsoft, Nokia, Samsung, McDonald’s,
Research that only a few studies explicitly
uct “Western-ness” but also identified an
BMW, Toyota, Gillette, and H&M. Glo-
modeled factors that made firms more
in-group bias in favor of Chinese brand
bal brands no longer are examples of just
prone to standardization (e.g., Laroche et
names on other dimensions (Chang, 2008).
mega-successful marketing. As hypoth-
al., 2001; Samiee et al., 2003). Taylor also
Another study at the same time found
esized in Strategic Direction (2008):
called for more examination of the rela-
that using an English brand name with
tionship between standardized advertis-
the local language actually was effective
The power they exert may go beyond the
ing and firm performance.
in boosting recall and recognition of an
economic sphere to social and political
To that end, in a survey of U.S. and Japa-
advertisement among young South Kore-
clout. Many global brands have budgets
nese subsidiaries located in the European
ans—a result that indicated some level of
that exceed the GNP of small nations and
Union, managers reported that stand-
opportunity to standardize even an aspect
have altered every aspect of the lives of
ardized advertising was associated with
of language (Ahn and LaFerle, 2008).
people all over the world. The way we dress
higher financial and strategic performance
An analysis of the types of appeals used
and adorn ourselves, the way we eat and
(Okazaki et al., 2006). The study also inves-
in Japanese and U.S. advertising found
drink, our choices of entertainment, how we
tigated factors associated with a greater
an apparent trend toward convergence
communicate and the methods of transport
propensity to standardize advertising. In
and concluded that Japanese advertis-
we use to move around our cities, nations
2006, Kiran Karande, Almurshidee, and
ing may have become more “American”
and the planet are all influenced by global
Al-Olayan found that two specific fac-
and, in turn, U.S. advertising may have
brands.
tors—culturally normative ad content and
become more ”Japanese” (Okazaki and
product
Mueller, 2008). An experimental study fur-
As the clout of global brands has
with the ability to standardize advertising
thermore suggested that certain types of
increased, decisions about their man-
in three Middle Eastern countries.
soft-sell and hard-sell appeals may have
agement have become of paramount
information—were
associated
March 2011 Supplement
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
29
Globalization
importance, raising such questions as
Brown database, only three percent show
theory can be employed to provide insight
“How can global brands be created, man-
up in seven or more countries (Pfanner,
on advertising effectiveness across mar-
aged, and marketed most efficiently and
2009). Nevertheless, an increasing number
kets; how social resources and institutions
successfully?”
of corporations have taken advantage of
create differences across markets; how
For decades, scholars have debated
the emergence of GCC by adjusting their
regulatory structure affects advertisers in
the emergence of segments of consum-
brand portfolios in favor of global brands.
various markets; and how local-versus-
ers around the world who share similar
global competition relates to advertis-
needs and wants. Today, it is also widely
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE IN
ing decisions. Clearly, a firm’s brands, its
accepted that globalization—economic,
INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISING RESEARCH
marketing staff, and its ability to conceive
cultural, and otherwise—has promoted
Academicians
international
and execute effective promotional strat-
the growth of global consumer segments
advertising have long called for more
egy constitute resources. And the ways in
(Holt, Quelch, and Taylor, 2004), which
application of theory (e.g., Moriarty and
which these resources are deployed affect
appear to share similarities in consump-
Duncan, 1990). For years, it was relatively
success.
tion behaviors (Keillor, D’Amico, and
rare for published cross-national adver-
A second promising framework is GMS
Horton, 2001).
tising studies to directly test communica-
theory (Zou and Cavusgil, 2002; Zou
This growth has been closely tied to
tion and/or consumer-behavior theories.
and Volz, 2010). The focus of this theory
the emergence of a global consumer cul-
Often, the focus of such investigations
is on how following global strategies
studying
ture (GCC), which functions not because
was to identify one or a few relevant cul-
contributes to a firm’s financial and stra-
it creates similarities in the consumption
tural differences and then study whether
tegic success. Standardization of promo-
of particular products (such as the iPod)
the differences in advertising content
tion strategies is identified as one major
but because it becomes a primary source
appeared to be consistent with those vari-
dimension of a GMS, as are coordination
of “self-expression” and “identity” around
ables. Although such approaches did pro-
of marketing ideas and global market par-
the world (Waters, 1995). This trend also
vide insights on some cultural aspects that
ticipation. As such, the theory is beginning
has contributed to the desire for global
managers needed to take into account,
to be applied to assess the impact of stand-
branding.
they often left much to be desired in terms
ardized advertising on financial and stra-
of theory advancement or managerial
tegic performance (Okazaki et al., 1996).
In 2003, Steenkamp, Batra, and Alden
explored the effects of perceived brand
relevance.
A third theory base that increasingly has
globalness (PBG) on consumer prefer-
It is encouraging to observe that several
been applied is GCC theory. “Consumer
ences in more economically advanced
new theories originating in international
culture theory” (CCT) refers to “a family
markets. They demonstrated that a con-
business/strategic management recently
of theoretical perspectives that address
sumer’s perception of a brand’s global
have begun to be applied to international
the dynamic relationships between con-
presence is likely to result in brand pref-
advertising (Taylor, 2010). These theories
sumer actions, the marketplace, and cul-
erence through a product quality image—
include resource-advantage theory, glo-
tural meanings” (Arnould and Thompson,
the symbolic value of prestige—and a
bal-marketing strategy theory (GMS), and
2005). CCT views consumption as con-
projected global belongingness. Although
GCC positioning theory and the related
tinually shaped by ongoing interactions
the degree to which PBG matters will vary
concepts of global brand positioning and
within a dynamic socio-cultural context
from consumer to consumer, this concept
PBG. In addition, cultural frameworks
and fundamentally is concerned with fac-
has become important to researchers. And
continue to be used to guide many inter-
tors that mold consumer experiences and
it is clear that many marketing practition-
national advertising studies. The remain-
identities. As cultural globalization occurs,
ers now agree that the degree to which
der of this section will give an overview of
global consumer culture theory (GCCT) is
consumers perceive a brand to have a glo-
some recent applications of these theories.
a logical consequence.
bal reputation also is important.
Resource-advantage theory is derived
Recently, numerous scholars implicitly
A note of caution pertaining to the
from the resource-based view of the firm
have viewed culture as a secondary and
global-branding trend: collectively, local
and puts a central focus on resource utiliza-
dependent variable or have even regarded
brands still account for the overwhelm-
tion and how firms differentiate themselves
it explicitly as subordinate to economic
ing majority of consumers’ purchases. Of
and create value. Griffith and Yalcinkaya
globalization (Featherstone, 2004). There
more than 10,000 brands in a Millward
(2010) outlined how resource-advantage
is no question that nations increasingly are
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JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
March 2011 Supplement
Globalization
being integrated into the global economy.
both invisible and visible consumer
brand is associated with a specific foreign
Other scholars have regarded globaliza-
cultures from a multitude of sources
culture (e.g., Singapore Airline’s use of
tion primarily in terms of culture. For
(Hermans and Kempen, 1998).
the “Singapore Girl” in its global media
example, in Globalization (1995), Waters
noted, “While it is clearly not the case
advertising).
In 2008, Merz, He, and Alden integrated
Study results suggest that although
that culture, as an arena differentiated
categorization theory into the discussion
GCC still is in its infancy, meaningful
from economics and politics, has ever
of whether consumer cultures globalize,
percentages of advertisements in seven
been totally globalized, it has nevertheless
glocalize, or localize. They suggested that
countries—representing both developed
shown a greater tendency towards globali-
arguments for GCC are made most eas-
and
zation than either of the other two arenas.”
ily at the superordinate level (the most
GCCP. Advertisements reflecting GCCP
In 2010, Taylor noted that GCCT and its
abstract level of categorization—such as
may employ a globally common language
offshoots have become influential. Indeed,
advertising as an abstract category label).
(English), global aesthetic style (such as a
for some scholars, GCCT even has rede-
However, their strength (versus glocal
globally recognized spokesperson), and
developing
economies—employ
fined what constitutes a global brand. In
and local consumer culture) at the basic
universal story themes (e.g., membership
contrast to the traditional view of a global
(an intermediate category—for example,
in the global culture or the use of the latest
brand (based largely on the marketing-
print advertising schemas—consumers
technology).
standardization literature), in the GCCT
everywhere expect to see a headline and
Archpru and Alden (2010) suggest inte-
definition of a global brand, the consum-
logo in a print ad) and subordinate level
grating two of the foregoing theoretical
er’s perception of brand “globalness” is
(the most specific level of categoriza-
constructs: GCCP and PBG. They argue
paramount (Ozsomer and Altaras, 2008).
tion—such as print advertising elements
that these constructs are based on two per-
using specific colors and celebrity endors-
spectives that are critical for understanding
Two additional perspectives should be
noted:
• Proponents of local consumer culture
(LCC)
hypothesize
that
distinctive
ers) levels is moderated by whether
the complexities of global consumer cul-
meanings associated with consumption
ture: specifically, that of the firm (GCCP)
are perceived as primarily functional or
and that of the consumer (PBG), which,
symbolic.
considered together, provide a more com-
local consumption cultures are resilient
An important outgrowth of CCT for
prehensive approach to understanding the
against globalization (Jackson, 2004).
international advertising researchers is
relationship between international adver-
Consumers may prefer local brands
the notion of GCC positioning and asso-
tising and GCC than either perspective
and advertising imagery because they
ciated attempts to build a broader theory
alone. They also argue that global brand
can identify more easily with local life-
of how consumers react to global and local
advertising may benefit from a combined
styles, values, attitudes, and consump-
appeals. In 1999, Alden, Steenkamp, and
(or hybrid) approach, involving ads that
tion behaviors. Indeed, there is ample
Batra examined the emergence of brand-
would feature globally desired attributes
evidence of brands (notably, McDon-
positioning strategies in advertising that
(i.e., quality and prestige) along with con-
ald’s, for one) whose success was based
paralleled the growth of the global market-
sumer preferences for global-versus-local
on not offering the same products with
place. The authors proposed a construct—
signs and behaviors in the selection of lan-
the same advertising messages across
GCCP—that associated the brand with
guage, visuals, and themes.
the globe.
a widely understood and recognized set
• Advocates for glocal consumer culture
of symbols believed to constitute emerg-
CULTURE: THE ELEPHANT IN THE ROOM
argue that consumers often “draw from
ing GCC, thereby enhancing the brand’s
One of the biggest problem areas in global
all available global and local, new and
equity.
advertising research has been—and con-
old sources as they use products to posi-
Alden et al. contrasted GCCP with two
tion themselves in the local age, gender,
other types of consumer culture posi-
hoc rationalization for differences in com-
social class, religion, and ethnic hierar-
tioning: local consumer culture position-
parative studies. When all else fails, the
chies” (Ger and Belk, 1996). “Glocaliza-
ing (LCCP [e.g., Budweiser’s association
theory holds, if differences are found, they
tion” is a mixture of homogenization
with small-town American culture in its
must be due to cultural differences. The
(convergence)
and
tinues to be—the use of culture as a post
heterogenization
U.S. advertising]) and foreign consumer
problem is that this approach presents cul-
(divergence)—thus, a hybrid blend of
culture positioning (FCCP), in which the
ture as a nebulous catchall that is of little
March 2011 Supplement
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
31
Globalization
value in advancing advertising theory in a
construct, and appearances of “culture” or
meaningful manner.
“cross-cultural” in titles and abstracts did
fied that have employed some or all of
not appear again in any volume until the
these five cultural dimensions as grounds
From a practical standpoint, it is easier
to use a contact who offers a means of
gathering data in a foreign location and
1980s.
One promising approach looked at
A multitude of studies can be identi-
for hypothesis development and testing.
The limitations inherent in this corpo-
then build a paper around the collected
advertising strategies across cultures to
rate culturally affected framework, how-
data than it is to develop a compelling the-
determine relevant determinants of suc-
ever, have caused consternation among
oretical case a priori for why data should
cess (Kaynak and Mitchell, 1981). In 1987,
theorists examining culture and interna-
be collected and analyzed in either a single
discussing culture in advertising research
tional advertising (e.g., Triandis, 1995;
or multi-country setting. The second, more
in her examination of Japanese and Amer-
Trompenaars, 1993). Regardless of the crit-
challenging approach should build on
ican ad appeals, Mueller identified very
icisms, many advertising researchers have
theory to justify the choice of relevant vari-
few research papers that were helpful in
built upon this foundation, having found
ables and the context for any subsequent
providing concrete direction for handling
the dimensions easy to comprehend and
data analysis as meaningful incremental
culture as a research construct. Samiee
apply (e.g., Albers-Miller and Gelb, 1996).
hypotheses are formed.
and Jeong, in 1994, identified 24 compara-
Hampden-Turner
and
Trompenaars
The discipline has come a very long
tive/cross-cultural advertising studies.
offered another approach to the develop-
way from the early works in which coun-
Although this volume reflected a distinct
ment of a cultural typology (2000). This
try context and culture were black boxes.
improvement in the sheer number of
typology also arose from a large dataset
Researchers in the Journal of Advertising
investigations, the authors found that cul-
built from a corporate culturally affected
Research who looked to examine different
ture was not the important focus of these
environment, which also has limita-
advertising approaches and audiences in
studies, as national differences, instead,
tions. Interestingly, however, a different
a foreign setting included Nuttall (1962)
were the determinant of differentiation.
and Caffyn and Sagovsky (1963) in the
One study found that cultural research
set of cultural values was identified from
this research: universalism/particularism,
United Kingdom; Bower (1963) in Can-
now has shifted more heavily toward the
individualism/communitarianism,
ada; Kuhn (1963) in Germany; and Mark
view of culture as a set of all-permeat-
cificity/diffuseness,
spe-
achieved/ascribed,
(1963) in France. As would be expected,
ing values infused in the cultural group
inner
this early work was somewhat imprecise
in focus through family, friends, social
sequential/synchronous time.
and ill defined. Thus, the nature of culture
groups, church, and daily media (Okazaki
There are elements of culture in this set
becomes the important starting point for
and Mueller, 2007). What then becomes the
that undoubtedly will affect advertising
theory development.
In 1960, Hoebel defined “culture”
direction/outer
direction,
and
foundation for theoretical development
information processing and that could
are the various frameworks that have been
prove to be of potential value in theory
as “the integrated sum total of learned
developed that account for a significant
development. In particular, the concept of
behavioral traits that are manifest and
proportion of variance across various cul-
time is a dimension that has yet to be effec-
shared by members of a society.” This was
tural units (Craig and Douglas, 2001).
tively examined.
further developed in 1963 by Kroeber and
The main framework that has served
Another promising area for study
Kluckhohn, who examined more than 160
in this capacity has been the national cul-
involves the seven values framework
definitions of culture and determined that
tural dimensions developed by Hofstede
developed by Schwartz in 1992 and later
it was defined as either (1) communicable
(1980, 2001) in his extensive study of IBM
revised by Schwarz and Sagiv in 1995.
knowledge, (2) that which distinguishes
employees across a wide variety of coun-
Those seven relevant cultural values from
humans from animals, or (3) all historical
tries. This produced the four dimensions
which theory development could build
accomplishments from human social life.
so readily recognized: masculinity-femi-
are conservatism, propriety, intellectual
The obvious relevant dimension is that
ninity; individualism/collectivism; power
autonomy, hierarchy, egalitarian commit-
culture involves learned behavior, and
distance; and uncertainty avoidance. In
ment, mastery, and harmony. This research
it affects all aspects of daily life. The first
1988, Hofstede and Bond added Confu-
attempted to depart from earlier work
actual mention of culture in advertising-
cian dynamism, a fifth dimension that
by focusing on individual values across
research titles appeared in 1967 (Lorimer
focused on long-term versus short-term
cultures without the inherent corporate-
and Dunn), but it was treated as a nebulous
perspectives.
cultural umbrella.
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JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
March 2011 Supplement
Globalization
Classic Excerpt: Globalization
Pitfalls in Advertising Overseas
David A. Ricks, Jeffrey S. Arpan, and Marilyn Y. Fu
Authors’ Note: The point of this seminal article
is that most pitfalls in global marketing could
be tied back to a lack of cultural awareness.
This piece spelled out a problem that still is
as pertinent today as it was 36 years ago.
This article continues to be regularly cited in
international-marketing textbooks. It seems
such a simple message, but companies still
make cultural mistakes in their advertisements
that could be avoided with preliminary cultural
research and assessment.
to adapt adequately to the environment.
“The importance of having an adequate
Whatever the timing of the decision, how-
‘cultural sensitivity’ on the part of deci-
ever, the basic root of the troublesome
sion-makers involved in international oper-
uncertainty is most likely the presence
ations is well borne out by the findings of
of an additional culture in the decision-
this study. Unicultural managements mak-
making framework. Different customs,
ing all the decisions regarding advertising
attitudes, and needs render many of a
in different cultures seems a high risk
firm’s normal procedures inapplicable or
strategy. Multicultural participation in the
un-transferable. Awareness of and sensi-
planning, decision making, execution, and
tivity to these often-subtle cultural differ-
evaluation stages of an advertising pro-
“International trade and investment oper-
ences may be the major determinant in
gram appears to be a better procedure.
ations are fraught with risk and uncer-
the success of an international business
Effective use of local foreign nationals
tainty. In fact, the problems encountered
venture.
would have prevented many, if not all,
by managers of foreign operations are
often more difficult than those encountered in domestic operations, and in many
instances they have threatened the very
survival of the firm.
“Research in this area can identify
critical factors in the environment which
have caused problems for outsiders in
of the blunders reported in this study –
especially those done because the advertisement was translated too literally.
the past so that others can avoid making
“Those knowledgeable in the field of
similar mistakes. This particular research
international advertising have advised
“Many managers fail to realize this, and
reports investigations and analyses of
that the need is to translate basic
investors frequently underestimate the
actual blunders made by executives in
appeals, not necessarily the literal. No
difficulties associated with overseas oper-
advertising and other aspects of interna-
matter how different people are in differ-
ations. Domestic success is no guarantee
tional business. All blunders are publicly
ent countries, one fact remains: there are
of predictable performance in a different
documented as having been made by real
certain basic appeals that are common to
environment. Many successful domestic
companies in real countries. Taken as a
all people, although they may not always
firms have made plans for foreign invest-
group, they offer some important lessons
be expressed in the same words. The
ments that have missed their mark so
for international business in the future…”
key is to identify and respect the differ-
widely that these companies have been
unable to take advantage of opportunities
in even the most promising markets.
“Most international advertising blunders occur because of a failure to fully
understand the foreign culture and its
ences in point of view and sensitivities to
nuances. Basic appeals can be successfully employed everywhere.”
“When actual results differ widely from
social norms. This can take many forms,
David A. Ricks, Jeffrey S. Arpan, and
planned results, it is often difficult to
ranging from blatant rejection of existing
Marilyn Y. Fu. “Pitfalls in Advertising Over-
judge whether the cause was an initial
customs and tastes to innocent insensi-
seas.” Journal of Advertising Research
conceptualization error or one of failing
tivity to the environment…”
14, 6 (1974): 47–51.
What should be of interest to advertis-
opportunities for new insights and theo-
or her name with a new approach, yet
ing researchers is the similarity (and dif-
retical development in comparing and
often differences may be more semantic
ferences) in values across these various
contrasting key cultural values. Clearly,
than they are substantive. Nonetheless,
typologies. And there are considerable
every researcher hopes to associate his
these frameworks offer significant value
March 2011 Supplement
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
33
Globalization
to advertising practitioners and scholars
alike.
obstacle to applying culture to cross-
It also should be noted that “quali-
national studies is the sheer complexity
tative,” in many ways, is an improper
A recent development that promises
of a construct that, in reality, consists of
distinction, as data and analyses are
a great deal of value for cross-cultural
many dimensions. Another major hurdle
involved in content-analysis research
advertising researchers is the database
is the assumption of cultural homogene-
(primarily chi-square analysis using pop-
built by project GLOBE, a study by more
ity within a culture. Researchers recently
ulation counts), but it functions more in a
than 160 researchers across 62 countries
have suggested taking individual level
discovery capacity for providing a start-
involving middle managers from the
measures in cross-cultural studies to ver-
ing point for inductive reasoning and
financial-services,
telecommunications,
ify that the cultural differences actually
theory development. Content analysis
and food-service industries (House et al.,
exist within the groups sampled, as well as
faces some inherent limitations, however,
2004).
running individual level analyses (Taylor,
especially in regard to theory testing and
2005).
generalizing to other settings, because it
The study identified nine relevant cultural dimensions: gender egalitarianism,
is a descriptive technique (Okazaki and
future orientation, performance orienta-
CROSS-CULTURAL METHODOLOGICAL
Mueller, 2007). The concerns voiced by
tion, humane orientation, assertiveness,
ISSUES: STILL MAKING THE SAME
Samiee and Jeong in their 1994 study of
institutional collectivism, in-group col-
MISTAKES?
24 comparative/cross-cultural advertis-
lectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and
When addressing methodology in glo-
ing studies still resonate today, as quality
power distance. The connection to (and
bal/cross-cultural advertising research, it
controls and proper justifications seem to
validation of) Hofstede’s dimensions is
is important to make a primary distinc-
be the exception rather than the rule. Bet-
apparent when examining these GLOBE
tion between qualitative and quantitative
ter approaches will encompass randomiz-
dimensions, but others are quick to point
studies.
ing ads rather than using convenience
out that the correlational analyses show
Qualitative work often is a necessary
samples, but the tradeoff is always the
significant differentiation from the origi-
first step in the discovery process, as can
time and expense that may be involved.
nal Hofstede dimensions (Okazaki and
often be seen in the setting of benchmarks
Clearly, journals now are requiring tighter
Mueller, 2007). A recent article suggests
found in so many content analyses (e.g.,
controls for all qualitative and quantita-
applying GLOBE to three global adver-
Ford et al., 1998; Mueller, 1992). Most of
tive studies.
tising contexts: (1) the linkages among
the earlier studies in global/cross-cultural
One last issue to raise regarding con-
societal culture, industry advertising
advertising involved content analyses. A
tent analyses relates to the old approach
practices, and perceived effectiveness;
few studies were sprinkled throughout
by which inter-rater reliability was calcu-
(2) the impact of the fit between adver-
the 1960s and 1970s, but these tended to
lated—which usually involved a compari-
tising practices and societal expectations
be convenience-focused and limited in
son across codings, with the expectation
on advertising effectiveness; and (3) the
terms of the coverage of the ads analyzed.
that there be just 0.85 agreement (Kassar-
influences of societal practices and values
In one overview of cross-cultural research
jian, 1977). Taking random subsets of ads
on consumer interpretations and process-
in advertising for the period 1982 to 1992,
and comparing them with the expectation
ing of advertising messages (House, Qui-
the overwhelmingly preferred tool for
of 0.85 agreement, however, no longer is
gley, and de Luque, 2010).
analysis was content analysis (Samiee and
an appropriate expectation. Beginning
Jeong, 1994).
in the 1990s, the standards changed, as
So much more work needs to be done
to identify and understand differences
It is important to note that perceptual
Rust and Cooil, in 1994, set a new level of
across cultural units of analysis and to
advertising research involving viewers is
agreement with their proportional reduc-
determine how advertising strategies
not understood properly unless the foun-
tion in loss (PRL) measure. This measure
can be adjusted for the greatest possible
dations have been established as to what
requires careful assessments and differing
impact on the perceptions of consumers,
the viewers in question have actually been
levels of agreement given the number of
while at the same time minimizing nega-
exposed to by the various media in their
coders involved and the number of differ-
tive societal impacts.
country setting; thus, exploratory research
ent categories, and so corrects for chance
of this kind can be vital to begin the the-
agreement.
The critical point is that there are many
opportunities to explore in the exami-
oretical
nation of culture. Perhaps the biggest
process.
34
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
refinement
March 2011 Supplement
and
development
Samiee and Jeong, in 1994, rightly called
for higher standards in content analyses
Globalization
and provided guidelines for improving
research is no different. When new tech-
Malhotra et al. in 1996 discussed the
the nature of this type of analysis. Subse-
niques are presented in these emerging
need for addressing four major levels of
quent studies reflected the use of multi-
areas of research, however, different sets
equivalence:
ple coders, differing cultural and gender
of problems arise. As advertising jour-
mixes, tougher expectations in terms of
nals turn more heavily toward involved
agreement, and better justifications for
decision models using structural equa-
nomenon in question function in the
sampling frames (cf. Ford et al., 1998).
tion modeling, one very large problem
same way in the different settings?
In the 1980s, survey-based studies or
that accompanies this methodology is the
mixed-method studies began to appear
issue inherent in construct equivalencies
with stronger theoretical foundations
(Malhotra, Agarwal, and Peterson, 1996).
and hypotheses that took the place of
The problem often has been a tradeoff
more general research questions in earlier
between the more practically focused and
research. For example, in 1988, Gilly was
action-oriented
particularly thorough in attempting to
models, as opposed to the value-laden,
shed light on women’s impressions of their
theoretically rich etic models. The goal of
emic
(culture-specific)
• Functional equivalence: Does the phe-
• Conceptual equivalence: Is the phenomenon the same conceptually?
• Instrument equivalence: Is this survey
instrument equivalent in this setting?
• Measurement equivalence: Is the phenomenon measured in the same way in
this setting?
depictions in ads in a cross-cultural set-
the cross-cultural advertising researcher
None of these levels should be over-
ting by, first, setting the benchmarks with
is to understand the various settings and
looked, as the research may be fraught
content analyses in Australia, the United
perceptions of viewers and to build better
with artifacts and confounds that may
States, and Mexico, then by addressing
decision models for advertisers and adver-
raise serious questions about the data
responses to the depictions using surveys
tising researchers.
involved, the analyses run, and/or the
of viewers in these same country settings.
The “pseudo-etic” trap is a serious issue
conclusions drawn. The problem, accord-
The benchmarks provided in comparisons
in which a construct of interest is studied
ing to a variety of researchers, is that the
of ads and ad settings still continue today
in a local context and a scale is developed
tried-and-true protocols offer a difficult
as some researchers opt for the content-
in that context to measure the occurrence
and likely inappropriate method for con-
analysis methodology as their mechanism
of that phenomenon. Once the scale has
struct equivalence.
of choice.
been developed, validated, and published,
In 1979, Churchill presented the iter-
the easy approach is to assume that the
ative-refinement approach most often
cultural advertising research from 1995 to
scale will work anywhere and then have it
seen as the multi-trait, multi-method
2006 found that content analysis was still
back-translated into a target language and
purist way of handling scale develop-
the most utilized technique for cross-cul-
taken as appropriate for use in another
ment. Using this approach, the first step
tural studies (38 of 106 studies gathered:
country setting.
involves the definition of the construct
An overview of methodology in cross-
34.9 percent), but with survey research a
This battle between opportunistic and
and the understanding of its relevant
close second (33 percent) and experiments
strategic research has continued for years.
domain. Once the limits of the construct
a distant third (17.9 percent; Okazaki
Researchers must step back and address
are established, the literature is searched,
and Mueller, 2007). The report noted that
the limitations of their investigations,
and qualitative mechanisms are used
during the period from 1995 to 2006, the
carefully basing their research in differ-
to generate a complete set of potential
Journal of Advertising Research published
ent country/cultural settings a priori by
measurement items. These are then vali-
only 4 content analyses whereas the
theoretically and practically showing that
dated through iterative steps of empiri-
Journal of Advertising published 12, per-
the countries used in any kind of cross-cul-
cal testing, item refinement, qualitative
haps suggesting that the Journal of Adver-
tural analysis offer potential value to the
follow-up, and subsequent empirical
tising Research reviewers and editors shied
academic and practitioner communities
testing, allowing the researcher to purify
away from content analyses owing to their
(Craig and Douglas, 2001).
the items and refine the scale. The scale
limitations.
An area of disagreement among cur-
finally is psychometrically assessed for
Over time, increasing levels of sophis-
rent advertising researchers appears to
reliability and validity. This often has
tication have permeated the types of
be whether the tried-and-true protocols
been seen as severely limiting to more
investigations involved in any developing
are really the best way to handle scale
practical approaches to construct identi-
area of study. Cross-cultural advertising
development in a cross-cultural setting.
fication and scale development.
March 2011 Supplement
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
35
Globalization
Rossiter called his 2002 alternative to
Churchill the C-OAR-SE method. The
researcher begins with the definition of the
phenomenon in question, which can be
done with multiple cross-classifications of
a variety of objects, attributes, and expert
In the last 50 years, the evolution of international
advertising research has occurred at a relatively
slow yet, perhaps, appropriate pace.
raters. This approach involves more input
from experts with logical argumentation
who presented a series of steps to fol-
CONCLUSION
arising from a series of open-end ques-
low in properly assessing measurement
In the last 50 years, the evolution of inter-
tions posed to various raters. After the
invariance when looking to assess scalar
national advertising research has occurred
construct is defined, empirical validation
equivalences. This framework is based on
at a relatively slow yet, perhaps, appro-
occurs through input from expert raters
confirmatory factor analysis and allows
priate pace. A major change has been a
rather than extensive empirical data col-
for an assessment of configural invariance
gradual realization that global advertising
lection and testing.
(the scalar items should show the same
strategies can be effective in many con-
Rossiter argued that Churchill’s process
configuration of salient as opposed to non-
texts, even if aspects of execution must be
modified.
misses an opportunity to focus on concep-
salient factor loadings across the different
tualization through expert input rather
country groupings); metric invariance
In conjunction with this realization,
than blind adherence to earlier research
(people in the different country settings
marketers are focusing on building glo-
and conceptualizations. His main criticism
should reply to the various items in the
bal brands more than ever before. As a
was that content validity really was the
same way); factor covariance invariance
result, it is incumbent upon advertising
only thing of importance in scale devel-
(if the factor variances and covariances
researchers to study how advertising can
opment. It is the iterations among experts
are invariant, the researcher is certain that
most effectively play into building glo-
in the proper contexts of the constructs
the actual underlying constructs are the
bal brands. Recently, several promising
that help in the development of the scale.
same across the various country settings);
theories have evolved that ultimately may
What has critics concerned is the lack of
and error variance invariance. Another
lead to a better understanding of what can
empirical validation in this approach and
viable alternative was proposed in 2005
make global advertising work and how
the over-reliance on content validity (cf.
by Ewing, Salzberger, and Sinkovics, who
consumers perceive global brands.
Diamantopoulos, 2005).
suggested a model for assessment based
It also should be observed that, in
on the work of Georg Rasch.
In many senses, culture remains the
“elephant in the room” as its application
developing cross-national surveys, it has
Given that so much of the latest wave of
to international advertising issues often
become the accepted standard to expect
empirical cross-cultural research focuses
leads to overly simplistic and sometimes
researchers to pay attention to equivalence
on the use of techniques such as structural
self-fulfilling explanations. Nevertheless,
issues both before and after data are col-
equation modeling, the concern over scales
it is well accepted that culture—although
lected, regardless of the scale development
and their development and equivalence
highly complex—is a fundamental aspect
procedure used. As Craig and Douglas
across cultural settings is of paramount
of the study of international advertising,
observed in 2001, appropriate back-trans-
importance when attempting to build stra-
and new frameworks that have added
lation procedures should be followed
tegic models for advertisers. If we do not
insight have evolved.
prior to data collection. Indeed, now there
take every step to ensure construct equiv-
Research methods have evolved as
are even more sophisticated possibili-
alence, the results of any analyses will be
well, and we see more studies employing
ties, including using teams of linguists to
highly suspect.
advanced techniques, using appropriate
undergo a rigorous translation (Taylor,
The future looks bright for cross-cul-
scale development tools, and incorporat-
2005). It also is the case that measurement
tural research in advertising, as theory
ing appropriate procedures for ensuring
invariance needs to be assessed after data
development and testing are leading to
equivalence. These developments should
is collected.
better explanatory models, and the debate
provide much cause for optimism about
The most common method that has
over approaches to scale development
developments in international advertising
been adopted in the literature is based
and equivalence are extremely healthy for
research over the next 50 years of the Jour-
on Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998),
researchers and practitioners.
nal of Advertising Research.
36
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
March 2011 Supplement
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