1. What are some of the major differences between the Gospel of John and the Synoptic Gospels? Briefly describe a few events and teachings in Jesus’ life that are not found in the Gospel of John. 2. How does John’s use of the Greek term logos connect Jesus with the creation account of Genesis 1 as well as the Greek principle of cosmic Reason? 3. Why did the writer of the Gospel of John compile a “Book of Signs”? briefly describe one of those signs and its meaning. 4. Identify the leaders of the Jerusalem church and the missionaries who first helped carry “the new way” into the larger world beyond the Jewish capital. 5. In recording the events of Pentecost how does Luke emphasize role of the Holy Spirit and that Christianity is a religion for all peoples? According to the author of Luke, what ancient Hebrew prophecy is fulfilled by the Spirit’s coming upon the first disciples? 6. Summarize the results of Paul’s three missionary journeys into Gentile territories. What series of events led to Paul’s arrest in Caesarea and Rome? 7. Briefly describe Paul’s transformation from a zealous Pharisee to Christianity’s first great missionary. How does the account of his conversion in Acts Ch. 9 differ from his own accounts in Gal. 1:15 and I Cor. 9:1 and 15:8-9? 8. How many authentic letters of Paul are there? How many disputed and/or pseudonymous letters of Paul’s exist and what generally distinguishes the authentic letters from the disputed/pseudonymous letters. PHOTO ESSAY Diverse Portraits of Jesus W I L L I S , K AEarly Christian artists commonly emphasized Jesus’ Srelevance to their lives by portraying him dressed Sas a contemporary, but they also envisioned him Ain a variety of ways, ranging from a clean-shaven Nyouth to a mature, bearded figure. A fresco in the Catacomb of Saint Domitilla in Rome (above) D shows Jesus and the apostles as beardless, with Rshort hair, and wearing white linen tunics in the AGreco-Roman fashion. By contrast, the image of Jesus on the famous Shroud of Turin (detail left), 2 a burial cloth in which Jesus’ crucified body was 1 allegedly wrapped, shows a bearded figure with 6 long hair in what may have been the style of 1 Palestinian-Jewish men of the early first century CE. T Although carbon 14 dating of a swath from the shroud in 1988 indicated that it was woven in S about the fourteenth century CE, recent chemical tests of other parts of the shroud suggest that it is actually much older. (The cloth sample dated in 1988 reportedly was taken from a medieval-era patch used to repair the shroud after it was damaged by fire.) W I L L I S , In a mosaic from the mid-third century CE (above), a Christian artist portrays Christ as the sun-god Apollo, thereby expressing the glorified Jesus’ cosmic importance. As the “light of the world,” Christ replaces Greco-Roman solar deities and now K A S S A N D R A 2 1 6 1 T S shines “like the sun in full strength” (Rev. 1:16). Sixth-century mosaics in Ravenna depict scenes from Jesus’ ministry: (left ) A youthful Jesus summons the brothers Peter and Andrew to leave their fishing boat and follow him. (below) A mature, bearded Jesus (with halo) and his disciples are dressed in a style characteristic of the late eastern Roman (Byzantine) period. Diverse Portraits of Jesus (continued) (top) As a disciple looks on, Jesus expels demons from a man and casts them into swine at Gergesa. (middle) On his fatal journey to Jerusalem, a beardless Jesus touches the eyes of a blind man to restore his sight. (bottom left) Judas kisses Jesus in the garden of Gethsemane, identifying W I L L I S , him to the guards who have come to arrest him, as Peter draws his sword to cut off the ear of Malchus, slave of the High Priest (John 18:10, 26). (bottom right) In a post resurrection appearance found only in John’s Gospel, the risen Jesus allows a skeptical Thomas to touch his wounds, leading to Thomas’s recognition of Jesus as “my Lord and my God.” ■ K A S S A N D R A 2 1 6 1 T S c hapter 10 John’s Reinterpretation of Jesus W Made Flesh Divine Wisdom I He who has faith in me will do what I amLdoing; and he will do greater things still. . . . L Spirit . . . will teach you everything, Your Advocate [Paraclete], the Holy and will call to mind all thatI I have told you. John 14:12, 26 S , Key Topics/Themes In John’s Gospel, the order K of events and the portrayal of Jesus and his teaching are strikingly different from those in A the Synoptic accounts. Whereas the Synoptics S depict Jesus as an eschatological healer-exorcist S whose teachings deal primarily with Torah reinterpretation, John describes Jesus as an embodi- A ment of heavenly Wisdom who performs no N exorcisms and whose message centers on his own divine nature. In John, Jesus is the human D form of God’s celestial Word, the cosmic expres- R sion of divine Wisdom by which God created A the universe. As the Word incarnate (made 2 From the moment we read the opening lines of1 John’s Gospel—“When all things began, the6 Word already was. The Word dwelt with God, and what God was, the Word was” (1:1)—we re-1 alize that we have entered a world of thoughtT strikingly different from that of the SynopticS Gospels. “Word,” which John uses to denote the state of Jesus’ preexistence in heaven before he came to earth, translates the Greek term Logos. A philosophical concept with a long pre-Christian history, Logos can mean anything from a divine utterance to the principle of cosmic reason that flesh), Jesus reveals otherwise unknowable truths about God’s being and purpose. To John, Jesus’ crucifixion is not a humiliating ordeal (as Mark characterizes it), but a glorification that frees Jesus to return to heaven. Although John’s Gospel alludes briefly to Jesus’ future return, it contains no prophecies of the Second Coming comparable to those found in the Synoptics. Instead of emphasizing the Parousia, it argues that the risen Christ is eternally present in the invisible form of a surrogate—the Paraclete, or Holy Spirit, which continues to inspire and direct the believing community. orders and governs the universe. To John, it is the infinite wisdom of God personified, the ultimate consummation of Israel’s long wisdom tradition (see below). Identifying his hero with the Greek Logos concept is only the first of John’s many astonishing innovations in retelling Jesus’ story. While the three Synoptics give generally similar accounts of their subject’s life, John creates a portrait of Jesus that differs in both outline and content from the other Gospels. Ninety percent of John’s material appears exclusively in his 231 232 part three diverse portraits of jesus The Gospel According to John Author: Traditionally, John, son of Zebedee and brother of James, one of the Twelve. The writer, who does not identify himself, states that his version of Jesus’ life is based on testimony of an unnamed “Beloved Disciple.” Scholars classify the work as anonymous. Date: Between about 95 and 100 ce, after some Christians were expelled from Jewish synagogues. Small fragments of the Gospel found in Egypt, dating from the first half of the second century ce, are the oldest surviving part of the New Testament. Place of composition: Unknown. The Gospel may have evolved at a number of different sites as the Johannine community moved from a Jewish-Palestinian to a Gentile environment. Sources: A compilation of Jesus’ miraculous acts, the hypothetical Signs Gospel; Greek and Jewish traditions involving heavenly Wisdom; and the oral teachings of an unidentified “Beloved Disciple.” Audience: Communities influenced by a uniquely high Christology, including belief in Jesus’ prehuman existence as Cosmic Wisdom (the Logos), as well as a proto-Gnostic group. account and has no parallel in the Synoptics. The Fourth Gospel offers a different chronology of Jesus’ ministry, a different order of events, a different teaching, and a distinctly different teacher. Instead of Mark’s humble carpenter-prophet, John presents a divine hero whose supernatural glory radiates through every speech he makes and every miracle he performs. John’s Jesus is a being of light even while walking the earth. Writing perhaps thirty years after Mark had invented the Gospel form, the author of the Fourth Gospel is aware that, even after the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple in 70 ce, the End did not come and Jesus did not return. He is also aware that, despite its disappointment in the delayed Parousia, the Christian movement had not only survived the tribulations of the Jewish wars and government persecutions, but had grown vigorously and expanded throughout the Roman Empire. Inspired by the Paraclete—which he defines as “the Spirit of truth” (John 14:16; 15:26)—the fourth Evangelist boldly reinterprets Jesus’ theological significance, emphasizing what Jesus accomplished at his first coming and spotlighting his cosmic stature. Unlike the Synoptic writers, John gives little indication that Jesus was remembered as an apocalyptic prophet who announced God’s dawning kingdom and who expelled demons to show that Satan no longer controlled humanity. In John, Jesus does not predict Jerusalem’s fall, prophesy about his return to earth, or perform a single exorcism. Instead, John portrays Jesus as effectively disclosing his “glory” during his earthly Wministry. When the divine Logos became human I as the man Jesus, his disciples could already see L “his glory, such glory as befits the Father’s only L Son, full of grace and truth” (John 1:14). For John, the Crucifixion itself reveals Jesus’ “hour of I glory” and it is Jesus’ death and return to heaven, Shis place of origin, which allows him to reveal the , “power and glory” that Mark had ascribed to the Second Coming (Mark 13:26; cf. John 1:14; 12:27–33; 17:5, 22, 24). K In creating a portrait of Jesus so different Afrom those in the Synoptic Gospels, John freely Sconfesses that his purpose is not biographical but theological: His account was written “in order that Syou may hold the faith that Jesus is the Christ, the ASon of God, and that through this faith you may Npossess life by his name” (20:31). This declaration follows the Gospel’s climactic scene—a post resDurrection appearance in which the reality of RJesus’ living presence conquers the doubts of his Amost skeptical follower, Thomas. Confronted with a sudden manifestation of the risen Jesus, Thomas acknowledges him as “My Lord and my 2 God”—a confession of faith that the reader is 1 intended to echo. 6 1 T S Authorship Since the late second century ce, the Gospel of John (commonly labeled the Fourth Gospel to distinguish it from the Synoptics) has been attributed to the apostle John, son of Zebedee and brother of James. In the Synoptics, John and James are Galilean fishermen and, along chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus with Peter, form an inner circle of Jesus’ most intimate followers. The most prominent of the Twelve, the three are present when Jesus raises Jairus’s daughter (Mark 5:37), at the Transfiguration (Mark 9:2), and in the garden of Gethsemane when Jesus is arrested (Mark 14:33). Jesus nicknames John and his brother “Boanerges,” meaning “sons of thunder,” perhaps for their aggressive temperaments, as when they ask Jesus to send fire to consume a Samaritan village (Luke 9:54) or demand first place in his kingdom (Mark 10:35–40). WritingW in the mid-50s ce, Paul describes John as one ofI the three “pillars” in the Jerusalem churchL (Gal. 2:6–10) during its formative period. L According to one church tradition, John eventually settled in Ephesus, where he lived toI an exceptionally old age, writing his Gospel,S three letters, and the Book of Revelation. These, five works are known collectively as the “Johannine literature.” The tradition ascribing authorship to theK son of Zebedee is relatively late. Before aboutA 180 ce, church writers do not mention the S Gospel’s existence. After that date, some leading churchmen accept it as John’s composition,S although others doubt its authenticity. SomeA even suggest that it was the work of Cerinthus, aN Gnostic teacher. One church leader, Clement of Alexandria,D states what became the official view of John’sR origin. Clement (c. 200 ce) recognized the sa-A lient differences between the Synoptics and John and noted that after the other Evangelists had preserved the “facts of history” John then2 wrote “a spiritual Gospel.” Both traditionalists1 and modern critics agree with Clement on two6 counts: that John’s Gospel was the last one written and that it profoundly “spiritualizes” Jesus. 1 Problems with the Traditional Theory T S Most contemporary scholars doubt that the apostle John wrote the document bearing his name. Most scholars are also skeptical that the same author wrote all of the Johannine literature (see Chapter 18 for a discussion of the letters of John 233 and Chapter 19 on the authorship of Revelation). The Gospel itself does not mention the author’s identity, stating instead that it is based on the testimony of an anonymous disciple “whom Jesus loved” (21:20–24). Tradition identifies this “Beloved Disciple” with John (whose name does not appear in the Gospel), but scholars can find no evidence to substantiate this claim. Jesus predicted that John would suffer a death similar to his (Mark 10:39), whereas the Gospel implies that its author, unlike Peter, James, and John, did not die a martyr’s death (21:20–22). Many historians think it likely that Herod Agrippa executed the apostle John along with his brother James about 41–43 ce (Acts 12:1–3). Some critics propose that another John, prominent in the church at Ephesus about 100 ce, is the author. Except that he was called “John the Elder” (presbyter), we know nothing that would connect him with the Johannine writings. Lacking definite confirmation of traditional authorship, scholars regard the work as anonymous. For convenience, we refer to the author as John. The Beloved Disciple Although the Gospel text does not identify its author, editorial notes added to the final chapter associate him with the unnamed Beloved Disciple, suggesting that at the very least this disciple’s teachings are the Gospel’s primary source (21:23–24). Whether or not this anonymous personage was a historical character, he is certainly an idealized figure, achieving an intimacy and emotional rapport with Jesus unmatched by that with Peter or the other disciples. In the Gospel, he does not appear (at least as the one “Jesus loved”) until the final night of Jesus’ life, when we find him at the Last Supper, lying against his friend’s chest (13:23). (The Twelve dined in the Greco-Roman fashion, reclining two-by-two on benches set around the table.) Designed to represent the Johannine community’s special knowledge of Christ, the Beloved Disciple is invariably presented in competition 234 part three diverse portraits of jesus with Peter, who may represent the larger apostolic church from which the disciple’s exclusive group is somewhat distanced. At the Last Supper, the Beloved Disciple is Peter’s intermediary, transmitting to Jesus Peter’s question about Judas’s betrayal (13:21–29). Acquainted with the High Priest, he has access to Pilate’s court, thus gaining Peter’s admittance to the hearing, where Peter denies knowing Jesus (18:15–18). The only male disciple at the cross, he receives Jesus’ charge to care for Mary, becoming her “son” and hence Jesus’ “brother” as well (19:26–27). Outrunning Peter to the empty tomb on Easter morning, he arrives there first and is the first to believe that Jesus is risen (20:2–10). In a boat fishing with Peter on the Sea of Galilee, the disciple is the first to recognize the resurrected Jesus standing on the shore, identifying him to Peter (21:4–7). Peter, future “pillar” of the Jerusalem church, is commissioned to “feed” (or spiritually nourish) Jesus’ “sheep” (his future followers), but Jesus has a special prophecy for the Beloved Disciple’s future: He may live until the Master returns (21:20–22). This brief allusion to the Beloved Disciple’s surviving until Jesus’ return is one of only two explicit references to the Parousia in John’s Gospel. The single reference to Jesus’ coming again in the main body of the Gospel appears in John 14:3, where it is placed in the context of Jesus’ receiving the disciples into their everlasting home, perhaps at the hour of their deaths. In John 21, which scholars believe is an epilogue to the Gospel and by a writer or editor different from that of the main narrative, the author states that Jesus’ words about the Beloved Disciple had been misunderstood “in the brotherhood,” the community that produced the Gospel. “But in fact Jesus did not say that he would not die,” the editor points out, “he only said, ‘If it should be my will that he wait until I come, what is it to you?’” (21:23). By the time the epilogue was written, the Beloved Disciple had apparently already died, suggesting that even the longest-lived followers who had personally known Jesus had by then passed from the scene. Does the writer mean to imply that expectations of Jesus’ return during the lifetimes of some original followers was a misapprehension, a mistaken interpretation of Jesus’ teaching? Instead of emphasizing Jesus’ return to earth, John’s Gospel underscores Jesus’ return to heaven, his place of origin. At the Last Supper Jesus promises the disciples: “I will not leave you bereft; I am coming back to you,” coming not visibly at the Parousia, but in the unseen form of the Paraclete, which Jesus describes as “your Advocate, the Holy Spirit, whom the Father will send in my Wname” (14:26). Explaining the necessity of his reI turn to heaven, Jesus tells the disciples: “It is for L your good that I am leaving you. If I do not go, L your Advocate [the Paraclete] will not come, whereas if I go, I will send him to you” (16:7). Not I the Parousia, but the Paraclete, the Spirit that asSsures Jesus’ continuing presence among believ, ers, will reveal Jesus’ “glory” and invisibly express God’s will in human society (16:8-15). One disciple clearly articulates Jesus’ intent Kin thus revising expectations of his Second AComing: “You mean to disclose yourself to us Salone and not to the world?” (14:22). In the Johannine view, Jesus has already returned spirSitually to dwell within believers sanctified by Alove, and perhaps will not manifest himself visibly Nto “the world” at a Parousia (14:10–29). D RPlace and Date of Composition ADespite its use of Hellenistic terms and ideas, recent studies indicate that John’s Gospel is deeply rooted in Palestinian tradition. It shows 2 a greater familiarity with Palestinian geography 1 than the Synoptics and reveals close connec6 tions with first-century Palestinian Judaisms, particularly concepts prevailing in the Essene 1 community at Qumran. Study of the Dead Sea T Scrolls from Qumran reveals many parallels beStween Essene ideas and those prevailing in the Johannine community. Essene writers and the author of John use a remarkably similar vocabulary to express the same kind of ethical dualism, dividing the world into two opposing groups of people: those who walk in the light (symbolizing truth and goodness) and those chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus who walk in darkness (symbolizing deceit and evil). In comparing John with the Dead Sea Scroll known as the Rule of the Community, scholars find not only an almost identical use of distinctive terms but also a comparable worldview according to which the universe is a battleground of polar opposites. In this dualistic cosmos, the devil (synonymous with “liar”) and his “spirit of error” oppose Jesus’ “spirit of truth” (cf. John 8:44; 12:35; 14:17; 15:26 with Rule of the Community 1QS 3.13, 17–21). The Qumran and Johannine communitiesW are also alike in that each is apparently based onI the teachings of a spiritually enlightened founder.L As the mysterious Teacher of Righteousness had L earlier brought the light of true understanding to the Essenes, so the Johannine Jesus—“the lightI of the world”—came to illuminate humanity’sS mental and spiritual darkness. , Although the unidentified Essene teacher receives nothing comparable to the exaltation the Johannine writer accords Jesus, the twoK groups display similar attitudes, regarding them-A selves as specially chosen to fulfill the divine will. S Both the Dead Sea Scrolls and the Johannine writings claim exclusive knowledge of God de-S nied to outsiders and both view their respectiveA groups, tiny as they were, as the only guardians ofN light and truth in a fatally benighted world. Before the Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered,D many scholars believed that John’s Gospel—withR its seemingly Platonic dualism and use of GreekA philosophical terms such as Logos—originated in a Hellenistic environment, perhaps in Ephesus, the traditional home of the apostle John in his2 old age. A wealthy seaport and capital of the1 Roman province of Asia (western Turkey),6 Ephesus was a crossroads of Greek and Near Eastern ideas. With a large colony of Jews, it was1 a center for Paul’s missionary work, as well as theT base of a John-the-Baptist sect (Acts 19:1–7). IfS the Gospel was composed in an area where the Baptist was regarded as Jesus’ superior, it would account for the writer’s severe limitation of the Baptist’s role in the messianic drama, reducing his function to that of a mere “voice” bearing witness to Jesus (1:6–9, 19–28). The many 235 similarities between Essene and Johannine thought, however, now incline many scholars to fix the Gospel’s place of composition (at least its first edition) in Palestine or Syria. Some critics once thought that John’s Gospel was composed late in the second century, when Christian authors first mention it. However, tiny manuscript fragments of John discovered in the Egyptian desert have been dated to about 125 to 150 ce, making them the oldest surviving part of a New Testament book. Allowing time for the Gospel to have circulated abroad as far as Egypt, the work could not have originated much later than about 100 ce. The Gospel’s references to believers’ being expelled from Jewish synagogues (9:22, 34–35)—an extended process that began about 85 or 90 ce—suggest that the decisive break between church and synagogue was already in effect when it was written. Hence, the Gospel is usually dated to between about 95 and 100 ce. Relation to the Synoptic Gospels Despite some verbal parallels to Mark (cf. John 6:7 and Mark 6:37; John 12:27–28 and Mark 14:34–36), most scholars do not think that the author of John’s Gospel drew on the earlier Gospels. A few scholars, however, such as Thomas Brodie (see “Recommended Reading”), argue that the author created his account by appropriating material from the Synoptics and thoroughly transforming it. After carefully analyzing John’s presumed reworking of his sources (primarily Mark, Matthew, Ephesians, and the Mosaic Torah), Brodie concludes that John’s Gospel is basically a theological reinterpretation of previously existing traditions about Jesus’ life and meaning. Instead of deriving from a marginal Christian group, the supposedly independent Johannine community, John’s narrative actually represents mainstream Christianity. The enormous differences between the Synoptics and the Fourth Gospel, however, persuade most scholars that John’s vision of Jesus does not derive from the older canonical Gospels 236 part three diverse portraits of jesus b o x 10.1 Representative Examples of Material Found Only in John Concept of the Logos: Before coming to earth, Jesus preexisted in heaven, where he was God’s mediator in creating the universe (1:1–18). Miracle at Cana: Jesus changes water into wine (the first “sign”) (2:1–12). Principle of spiritual rebirth: the conversation with Nicodemus (3:1–21; see also 7:50–52; 19:39). Conversation with the Samaritan woman (4:1–42). Jesus healing the invalid at Jerusalem’s Sheep Pool (5:1–47). The “I am” sayings: Jesus speaks as divine Wisdom revealed from above, equating himself with objects or concepts of great symbolic value, such as “the bread of life” (6:22–66) and “the resurrection and the life” (11:25). Cure of the man born blind: debate between church and synagogue (9:1–41). The raising of Lazarus (the seventh “sign”) (11:1–12:11). A different tradition of the Last Supper: washing W the disciples’ feet (13:1–20) and delivering the I farewell discourses (13:31–17:26). L Resurrection appearances in or near Jerusalem to L Mary Magdalene and the disciples, including Thomas (20:1–29). I Resurrection appearances in Galilee to Peter and S to the Beloved Disciple (21:1–23). , (see Boxes 10.1 and 10.2). Concentrating on Jesus as a heavenly revealer of ultimate truth, John does not present his hero in Synoptic terms. Most of the material that appears in the Synoptics does not appear in John; conversely, most of John’s contents are not even alluded to in the Synoptic Gospels. A dozen representative differences between John and the Synoptics follow, along with brief suggestions about the author’s possible reasons for not including characteristic Synoptic material: 1. John has no birth story or reference to Jesus’ virginal conception, perhaps because he sees Christ as the eternal Word (Logos) who “became flesh” (1:14) as the man Jesus of Nazareth. John’s doctrine of the Incarnation (the spiritual Logos becoming physically human) makes the manner of Jesus’ human conception irrelevant. 2. John contains no record of Jesus’ baptism by John, emphasizing Jesus’ independence of and superiority to the Baptist. Besides denying the Baptist an Elijah role, the author shows Jesus conducting his own baptism K campaign, thus competing with the Baptist A (3:22–23; 4:1). S 3. John includes no period of contemplation in the Judean wilderness or temptation by S Satan. His Jesus possesses a vital unity with A the Father that makes worldly temptation N impossible. 4. John never mentions Jesus’ exorcisms, D which play so large a role in Mark’s and R Matthew’s reports of his ministry. Instead, A Jesus himself is accused of “having a demon” 2 1 6 1 T S (7:20; 8:46–52; 10:19–20). 5. Although he recounts some friction between Jesus and his brothers (7:1–6), John does not reproduce the Markan tradition that Jesus’ family thought he was mentally unbalanced or that his neighbors in Nazareth viewed him as nothing extraordinary (Mark 3:20–21, 31–35; 6:1–6). In John, Jesus meets considerable opposition, but he is always too commanding and powerful a figure to be ignored or devalued. 6. John presents Jesus’ teaching in a form radically different from that of the Synoptics. Both Mark and Matthew state that Jesus “never” taught without using parables chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus 237 bo x 10.2 Characters Introduced or Given New Emphasis in John Andrew, Peter’s brother, as a speaking character (1:40–42, 44; 6:8–9; 12:20–22) Philip, one of the Twelve (1:43–49; 6:5–7; 12:20–22; 14:8–11) Nathanael, one of the Twelve (1:45–51) Mary as a participant in Jesus’ ministry (2:1–5) and at the cross (19:25–27) Nicodemus, a leading Pharisee (3:1–12; 7:50–52; 19:39) A Samaritan woman (4:7–42) W I L L I (Mark 4:34; Matt. 13:34), but John does notS record a single parable of the Synoptic type, (involving homely images of agricultural or domestic life). Instead of brief aphorisms and vivid comparisons, the Johannine JesusK conducts long dialogues with figures likeA Nicode mus and delivers philosophical S speeches in which Jesus’ own nature is typically the subject of discussion. In John, heS speaks both publicly and privately in thisA manner, in Galilee as well as in Jerusalem.N The Synoptic Jesus almost never speaks as he does everywhere in John; the JohannineD Jesus almost never speaks as he does through-R out the Synoptics. A John stands alone in his adaptation of Jesus’ teaching, decisively outvoted four to one by the other Evangelists and their re-2 spective sources. Not only Mark but also Q1 and the special material in Matthew (M)6 and Luke (L) agree that Jesus taught chiefly 1 in aphorisms and parables. 7. John includes none of Jesus’ reinterpreta-T tions of the Mosaic Law, the main topic ofS Jesus’ Synoptic discourses. Instead of the many ethical directives about not divorcing, keeping the Sabbath, ending the law of retaliation, and forgiving enemies that we find in Mark, Matthew, and Luke, John records only one “new commandment”—to The woman taken in adultery (8:3–11; an appendix to John in the NEB) A man born blind (9:1–38) Lazarus, brother of Mary and Martha (11:1–44; 12:1–11) An unidentified disciple whom “Jesus loved” (13:23–26; 18:15–16; 19:26–27; 20:2–10; 21:7, 20–24) Annas, father-in-law of Caiaphas, the High Priest (18:12–14, 19–24) love. In both the Gospel and the Epistles, this is Jesus’ single explicit directive; in the Johannine community, mutual love among “friends” is the sole distinguishing mark of true discipleship (13:34–35; 15:9–17). 8. Conspicuously absent from John’s Gospel is any prediction of Jerusalem’s fall, a concern that dominated the Synopticists’ imaginations (Mark 13; Matt. 24–25; Luke 21). Viewing events a full generation after the Jewish Revolt, the Johannine author effectively disassociates Jesus from the apocalyptic hopes that many early Christians had linked to Jerusalem’s destruction (see below). 9. Instead of apocalyptic prophecies of Jesus’ Second Coming (Mark 13; Matthew 24–25; and Luke 21), John’s Gospel focuses on two vital concepts: Jesus has already completed his role as Israel’s Messiah and he is already present in the believing community. For John, the Paraclete, the Holy Spirit that serves as Christians’ Helper, Comforter, or Advocate (14:25–26; 16:7– 15) and that inspires the Johannine fellowship, is Jesus’ surrogate, marking his invisible presence. To this Evangelist, Jesus’ first coming means that believers have life now (5:21–26; 11:25–27) and that divine judgment is a current reality, not merely a 238 part three diverse portraits of jesus future event (3:18; cf. 9:39; 12:31). Scholars find in John a realized eschatology, a belief that events usually associated with the eschaton (world’s End), such as divine judgment and the awarding of eternal life, are even now realized or fulfilled by Jesus’ spiritual presence among believers. For John, the earthly career of Jesus, followed by the infusion of his Spirit into the disciples (20:22–23), has already accomplished God’s purpose in sending the Messiah. For the Johannine community, in his hour of “glory” (crucifixion), Jesus had essentially finished his work (19:30). Just as John’s doctrine of the Incarnation made the concept of a virgin conception theoretically unnecessary, so his view of the Paraclete effectively mutes the expectation of the Parousia. 10. Although he represents the sacramental bread and wine as life-giving symbols, John does not preserve a communion ritual or the institution of a New Covenant between Jesus and his followers at the Last Supper. Stating that the meal took place a day before Passover, John substitutes Jesus’ act of humble service—washing the disciples’ feet—for the Eucharist (13:1–16). 11. As his Jesus cannot be tempted, so John’s Christ undergoes no agony before his arrest in the garden of Gethsemane. Unfailingly poised and confident, Jesus experiences his painful death as a glorification, his raising on the cross symbolizing his imminent ascension to heaven. Instead of Mark’s cry of despair, in John, Jesus dies with a declaration that he has “accomplished” his life’s purpose (19:30). 12. Finally, it must be emphasized that John’s many differences from the Synoptics are not simply the result of the author’s trying to “fill in” the gaps in his predecessors’ Gospels. By carefully examining John’s account, we see that he does not write to supplement earlier narratives about Jesus; rather, both his omissions and his inclusions are determined almost exclusively by the writer’s special theological convictions (20:30–31; 21:25). From his opening hymn praising the eternal Word to Jesus’ promised reascension to heaven, every part of the Gospel is calculated to illustrate Jesus’ glory as God’s fullest revelation of his own ineffable Being. Differences in the Chronology and Order of Events W I Although John’s essential story resembles the Synoptic version of Jesus’ life—a public minisL try featuring healings and other miracles folL lowed by official rejection, arrest, crucifixion, I and resurrection—the Fourth Gospel presents important differences in the chronology and Sorder of events. Significant ways in which John’s , narrative sequence differs from the Synoptic order include the following: K1. A S S A N2. D R A The Synoptics show Jesus working mainly in Galilee and coming south to Judea only during his last days. In contrast, John has Jesus traveling back and forth between Galilee and Jerusalem throughout the duration of his ministry. The Synoptics place Jesus’ assault on the Temple at the end of his career, making it the incident that consolidates official hostility toward him; John sets it at the beginning (2:13–21). 3. The Synoptics agree that Jesus began his mission after John the Baptist’s imprison2 ment, but John states that their missions 1 overlapped (3:22–4:3). 6 4. The earlier Gospels mention only one Passover and imply that Jesus’ career lasted only about 1 a year; John refers to three Passovers (2:13; T 6:4; 11:55), thus giving the ministry a duration S of about three years. 5. Unlike the Synoptics, which present the Last Supper as a Passover celebration, John states that Jesus’ final meal with the disciples occurred the evening before Passover and that the Crucifixion took place on Nisan 14, the day of preparation when paschal lambs were chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus being sacrificed (13:1, 29; 18:28; 19:14). Many historians believe that John’s chronology is the more accurate, for it is improbable that Jesus’ arrest, trial, and execution took place on Nisan 15, the most sacred time of the Passover observance. Scholars also note, however, that John’s probable reason for his dating of the Crucifixion is more theological than historical. Because he identifies Jesus as the “Lamb of God” at the beginning of his Gospel (1:29), it is themati-W cally appropriate for John to coordinate theI time of Jesus’ death with the ritual slaying of the paschal lambs (prescribed in Exod. 12:3–10; cf.L L Isa. 53:7–12). I S As an author, John states that his goal is to, John’s Purpose and Method elicit belief in his community’s distinctively high Christology, an emphasis on Jesus’ divinity (17:3–5; 20:30–31), but other purposes alsoK can be inferred from his text. Like the otherA Evangelists, John writes partly to defend his S community against hostile criticism, particularly from Jewish leaders. Unlike the SynopticS authors, however, John does not generallyA differentiate among his Jewish opponents;N instead of identifying them as scribes, Pharisees, or Sadducees, he generally lumps themD all together simply as “the Jews”—as if his fel-R low countrymen belonged to a group fromA which he is entirely disassociated. Scholars believe that John’s blanket condemnation of “the Jews” echoes the bitterness that developed in2 the decades following 70 ce, when the church1 and the synagogue became increasingly di-6 vided. Refl ecting a social situation comparable to that in Matthew’s Gospel, John1 indicates that his group—perhaps because ofT their increasingly vocal claims that Jesus isS equal to God—has been banished from fellowship in the synagogue. The expulsion was evidently traumatic for John, who responds by retrojecting the event back to the time of Jesus and insisting that his group is spiritually superior to their synagogue critics 239 (cf. John 3:9–11 and 9:13–35). Nonetheless, the Evangelist states that “salvation comes” “from the Jews” (4:22). The Work of the Paraclete: Jesus and Believers Are “One” John’s Double Vision Many commentators have noted that John’s Gospel portrays Jesus not as a figure of the recent historical past, but as an immortal being who still inhabits the author’s community. In John’s narrative, Jesus’ ministry and the similar activities of his later followers—the Johannine “brotherhood”— merge into an almost seamless whole. To articulate his vision that Christ and the members of his own group are “one” (17:12), John employs a double vision, creating in his Gospel a twolevel drama in which Jesus of the past and believers of the present perform the same Spirit-directed work. John is able to blend past and present in Jesus’ biography through the operation of the Paraclete, a distinctively Johannine concept introduced in Jesus’ farewell speeches at the Last Supper (chs. 14–17). This long section presents Jesus explaining precisely why he must leave his disciples on earth while he dies and ascends to heaven. His death is not a permanent loss, for he returns to the Father only in order to empower his disciples with the Paraclete, the Holy Spirit, which acts as his invisible self among them (14:12–26). Functioning as a manifestation of the post resurrection Jesus, the Paraclete guides the Johannine community to interpret Jesus’ teachings as no other group could: “It will teach you everything, and will call to mind all that I have told you” (16:26). This Spirit, Jesus’ own double, allows the author to portray Christ in his full theological splendor. It also enables John’s group not only to continue Jesus’ miraculous works, but even to surpass his deeds. He who has faith, Jesus promises, “will do what I am doing; and he will do greater things still because I am going to the Father. Indeed, anything you ask in my name I will do” (14:12–14). In this vow—found only in 240 part three diverse portraits of jesus John—the writer finds his key to understanding the continuity between the Master and his later disciples. John’s singular method of telling Jesus’ story becomes especially clear in chapter 9. In narrating Jesus’ restoration of sight to a man born blind, John skillfully melds traditions of Jesus’ healing miracles with the works that members of his community currently perform. John’s narrative can equate the two parties— Jesus and his later disciples—because the same Paraclete operates through both. An awareness of John’s method, conflating past and present, will help readers understand the historical forces at work in this episode. After Jesus cures the man’s lifelong blindness, a series of confrontations and arguments ensue between the man, his parents, and officials of the local synagogue. The Jewish officials’ interrogation of the man replicates circumstances prevailing not in Jesus’ day but in the writer’s own time. Explicit references to the expulsion of Jesus’ followers from the synagogue (9:22, 34)—a process that began well after Jesus’ death, during the last decades of the first century ce—are sure indicators of John’s two-level approach. John employs a comparable blending of past and present in Jesus’ dialogue with the Pharisee Nicodemus (3:1–21). Jesus’ pretended astonishment that Nicodemus—depicted as one of Israel’s most famous teachers—does not understand or experience the power of the Holy Spirit motivating the author’s community could not have taken place in Jesus’ lifetime. But it accords well with what we know of much later debates between Jewish authorities and the author’s group, which proclaimed the Paraclete’s role in their lives. Using the firstperson plural “we” to signify the whole believing community, John affi rms that his brotherhood intimately knows the Spirit’s creative force, whereas “you” (the unbelievers) stubbornly refuse to credit the Johannine testimony (3:9–11). Readers will also note that in this dialogue Jesus speaks as if he has already returned to heaven (3:13), another indicator that this passage reflects a perspective that developed long after the incident supposedly took place. Apparent Stages in the Composition of John Evidence of Editing In his extended meditations on Jesus’ cosmic stature and their Lord’s ongoing relationship with the Johannine group, the author/redactor apparently modified his Gospel Wtext from time to time, not always smoothing over I his editorial changes. Recognized “seams” in L John’s narrative include passages in chapter 8, L where Jesus first addresses “Jews who had believed him” (8:31) but then suddenly accuses his supI posedly friendly audience of planning to “kill S[him]” (8:37). In chapter 11, the narrator identi, fies Mary, the sister of Martha and Lazarus, as “the woman who anointed the Lord with ointment” (11:2), but doesn’t actually show her performing Kthis action until the next chapter (12:2–8). A The most obvious disconnections appear Sduring Jesus’ farewell speeches at the Last Supper. Partway through the present form of the Sdiscourse, Jesus states that he will “not talk much Alonger with you [the disciples]” and then orders Nthem to stand “up” and “go forward,” as if he has finished his conversation with them (14:31). Yet Dhis farewell oration continues for another three Rchapters (15:1–17:26). Only in John 18 does Jesus Aactually leave the room and “cross the Kedron ravine” to the garden of Gethsemane (18:1). The editorial expansions of Jesus’ last dis2 course result in further disjunctions. When Jesus 1 first mentions his imminent departure (for 6 heaven), Peter asks where he is going (13:33–36), a question that Thomas later repeats (14:5). Yet 1 in John 16, Jesus states that “None of you asks me T ‘Where are you going?’” (16:5). Thus Jesus seems Sto have forgotten the disciples’ earlier inquiries. For the Johannine Evangelist, however, the material in these added chapters—featuring the activity of the Paraclete, the necessity of communal love, and the “oneness” of Jesus and his friends—was too significant to leave out. Guided by the Paraclete, John was moved to include chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus these ongoing communications from the risen Jesus as if his Lord had delivered them on the night before his death. Relation to Gnostic Ideas In addition to refuting Jewish critics offended by the Johannine community’s proclamation of Jesus’ divinity (viewed as an attack on Jewish monotheism) and its claim to spiritual superiority, John appears to defend his view of Jesus’ nature against incipient Gnostic influences. Gnosticism was a complex religious/philosophical movement thatW developed into Christianity’s first major chal-I lenge to what later became official churchL teaching. Whereas the church eventually esL poused a doctrine that declared Jesus both fully human and fully divine, many Gnostics tendedI to focus on Jesus as pure spirit, free of humanS weakness (see Box 18.3). Although Gnosticism, took many forms, it typically held a dualistic view of the cosmos. This dualism saw the universe as two mutually exclusive realms: The in-K visible world of spirit is eternal, pure, and good,A whereas the physical world is inherently evil, the S creation of a deeply flawed deity, whom some Gnostics identified with Yahweh. According toS Gnostic belief, human beings gain salvationA only through special knowledge (gnosis), im-N parted to a chosen elite through communion with spiritual beings. A divine redeemer (pre-D sumably Christ) descends from the spirit realmR to transmit saving knowledge to persons whoseA souls are sufficiently disciplined to escape the body’s earthly desires. Transcending the material world’s false reality, the soul can then per-2 ceive the eternal truths of the spirit world. 1 A sometimes baffling mixture of elements6 from Greek philosophies and mystery cults, as well as aspects of Judaism and Christianity,1 Gnosticism embraced a variety of ideas aboutT Christ. One branch of Gnosticism, calledS Docetism (a name taken from the Greek verb “to seem”), argued that Christ, being good, could not also be human; he only seemed to have a physical body. The Docetists contended that, as God’s true Son, Christ was wholly spiritual, ascending to heaven while leaving another’s body on the 241 cross (see discussion of the Johannine Letters in Chapter 18). Although he sometimes uses Gnostic terms, John—despite his doctrine of Jesus’ heavenly origins and divinity—avoids Gnosticism’s extremism by insisting on Jesus’ physical humanity (1:14). Even after the Resurrection, Jesus displays fleshly wounds and consumes ordinary food (20:24–29; 21:9–15). To show that Jesus was a mortal man who truly died, John eliminates from his Passion story Mark’s tradition that Simon of Cyrene carried Jesus’ cross (lest the reader think that Simon might have been substituted for Jesus at the Crucifixion). John also adds an incident in which a Roman soldier pierces Jesus’ side with a spear, confirming his physical vulnerability and mortality (19:34–37). Despite its conviction that the divine Logos “became flesh” (1:14), John’s Gospel was popular in many Gnostic circles (which may account for its relatively slow acceptance by the church at large). Besides the metaphysical concepts of Christ’s preexistence and his inherent divinity, John contains other statements that accord with Gnostic ideas. To know the “true God” and his Son is to gain “eternal life” (17:3); the assertion that “the spirit alone gives life; the flesh is of no avail” (6:63); and the teaching that only spiritual rebirth can grant immortality—all found only in John—are classic Gnostic beliefs. Considering John’s emphasis on Jesus’ spiritual invincibility and God-like stature, it is not surprising that the first commentaries written on John were by Gnostic Christians—or that some church leaders suspected that the author himself was a Gnostic! Organization of John’s Gospel John’s Gospel is framed by a prologue (1:1–51) and an epilogue (21:1–25). The main narrative (chs. 2–20) divides naturally into two long sections: an account of Jesus’ miracles and public teachings (chs. 2–11) and an extended Passion story focusing on Jesus’ private speeches to the disciples (chs. 12–20). Because John regards Jesus’ miracles as “signs”—direct evidence of his hero’s supernatural power—the first section 242 part three diverse portraits of jesus is commonly known as the Book of Signs. Many scholars believe that the author uses a previously compiled collection of Jesus’ miraculous works as a primary source (see below). Because it presents Christ’s death as a “glorious” fulfillment of the divine will, some commentators call the second part the Book of Glory. The Gospel can be outlined as follows: John’s supreme irony is that the very world that the Word created rejects him, preferring spiritual “darkness” to the “light” he imparts. Nonetheless, the Word “became flesh”—the man Jesus—and temporarily lived among humans, allowing them to witness his “glory, such glory as befits the Father’s only Son” (1:10–14). 1. Prologue: hymn to the Logos; testimony of the Baptist; call of the disciples (1:1–51) 2. The Book of Signs (2:1–11:57) a. The miracle at Cana b. The cleansing of the Temple c. The dialogue with Nicodemus on spiritual rebirth d. The conversation with the Samaritan woman e. Five more miraculous signs in Jerusalem and Galilee; Jesus’ discourses witnessing to his divine nature f. The resuscitation of Lazarus (the seventh sign) 3. The Book of Glory (12:1–20:31) a. The plot against Jesus b. The Last Supper and farewell discourses c. The Passion story d. The empty tomb and post resurrection appearances to Mary Magdalene, Peter, and the Beloved Disciple 4. Epilogue: post resurrection appearances in Galilee; parting words to Peter and the Beloved Disciple (21:1–25) Greek and Jewish Background Hymn to the Word (Logos) John’s opening hymn to the Word introduces several concepts vital to his portrait of Christ. The phrase “when all things began” recalls the Genesis creation account when God’s word of command—“Let there be light”—illuminated a previously dark universe. In John’s view, the prehuman Christ is the creative Word (divine Wisdom, cosmic Reason) whom God uses to bring heaven and earth into existence. “With God at the beginning,” the Word is an integral part of the Supreme Being—“what God was, the Word was” (1:1–5). As noted previously, Logos (Word) is a Greek Wphilosophical term, but John blends it with a I parallel Hebrew tradition about divine Wisdom L that existed before the world began. According L to the Book of Proverbs (8:22–31), Wisdom (depicted as a gracious young woman) was I Yahweh’s companion when he created the uniSverse, transforming the original dark chaos into , a realm of order and light. As Yahweh’s darling, she not only was his intimate helper in the creative process but also became God’s channel Kof communication with humanity. As Israel’s Awisdom tradition developed in Hellenistic Stimes, Wisdom was seen as both Yahweh’s agent of creation and the being who reveals the diSvine mind to the faithful (Ecclus. 24; Wisd. of ASol. 6:12–9:18). N In the Greek philosophical tradition, Logos is also a divine concept, the principle of cosmic DReason that gives order and coherence to the othRerwise chaotic world, making it accessible to huAman intellect. The Logos concept had circulated among Greek thinkers since the time of the philosopher Heraclitus (born c. 540 bce). In John’s 2 day, Logos was a popular Stoic term, commonly 1 viewed as synonymous with the divine intelligence 6 that created and sustained the universe. These analogous Greek and Hebrew ideas 1 converge in the writings of Philo Judaeus, a T Hellenistic-Jewish scholar living in Alexandria Sduring the first century ce. A pious Jew profoundly influenced by Greek rationality, Philo attempted to reconcile Hellenistic logic with the revelation contained in the Hebrew Bible. Philo used the Hebrew concept of Wisdom as the creative intermediary between the transcendent Creator and the material creation. However, he employed the chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus 243 Heaven (1) (2) Logos Paraclete Descent to earth Cross Ascension to heaven (Spirit) Descent to earth W Johannine community I L L made flesh). Note that Jesus’ ascension to figure 10.1 John’s concept of the Incarnation (the Word heaven (return to his place of spiritual origin) is followed by I a descent of the Paraclete, Jesus’ Spirit—an invisible surrogate that inspires the Johannine brotherhood. Whereas Jesus’ human presence on earth S within the believing community. was brief, John implies that the Paraclete abides permanently , Earth Incarnation ( Jesus in human form) Greek term Logos to designate Wisdom’s role and function. (Philo may have preferred Logos be-K cause it is masculine in Greek, whereas Wisdom A [Sophia] is feminine.) Philo’s interpretation can be illustrated by an allegorical reading of GenesisS 1, in which God’s first act is to speak—to createS the Word (Logos)—by which power the cosmosA is born. N In identifying the prehuman Christ with Philo’s Logos, John equates Jesus with the loftiestD philosophical ideal of his age. His Christ is thusR superior to every other heavenly or earthly being, A all of whom owe their creation to him. John’s Jesus not only speaks the word of God but is the Word incarnate. From the author’s perspective,2 Jesus’ human career is merely a brief interlude, a1 temporary descent to earth preceded and followed by eternal life above (3:13). (Compare6 John’s Logos doctrine with similar ideas discussed1 in Phil. 2 and Col. 1–2; see also Figure 10.1.) T S Jesus and Divine Wisdom After the prologue, John does not again refer explicitly to Jesus as the Word. He does, however, repeatedly link his hero to the concept of divine Wisdom, a personification of God’s creative intelligence (see Box 10.3). In the Hebrew Bible, Wisdom is both the means by which God creates and the channel through whom he communicates to humankind. Hebrew Bible writers characteristically picture Wisdom speaking in the first person, using the phrase “I am” and then defining her activities as God’s agent. John casts many of Jesus’ speeches in exactly the same form, beginning with a declaration “I am” and then typically equating himself with a term of great religious significance. Wisdom’s speeches clearly anticipate John’s concept of Jesus’ cosmic stature: The Lord created me the beginning of his works, before all else that he made, long ago. Alone, I was fashioned in times long past, at the beginning, long before earth itself. (Prov. 8:22–23) Identifying Wisdom with God’s verbal command to create light (Gen. 1:3), the author of Ecclesiasticus represents her as saying: I am the word which was spoken by the Most High; . . . Before time began he created me, and I shall remain for ever. . . . (Ecclus. 24:3, 9) 244 part three diverse portraits of jesus b o x 10.3 Wisdom Speeches in the Hebrew Bible and the Apocrypha as Models for the Johannine Jesus Wisdom searches the streets for those willing to receive her: Hear how Wisdom lifts her voice and Understanding cries out. She stands at the cross-roads, . . . beside the gate, at the entrance to the city. . . . “Men, it is to you I call, I appeal to every man: . . . Listen! For I will speak clearly, you will have plain speech from me; for I speak nothing but the truth. . . . I am Wisdom, I bestow shrewdness and show the way to knowledge and prudence. . . . I have force, I also have ability; understanding and power are mine. Through me kings are sovereign and governors make just laws . . . from me all rulers on earth derive their nobility. Those who love me I love, and those who search for me find me. ... The Lord created me the beginning of his works, before all else that he made, long ago. Alone, I was fashioned in times long past, at the beginning, long before earth itself. When there was yet no ocean I was born. . . . When he set the heavens in their place I was there, when he girdled the ocean with the horizon, when he fixed the canopy of clouds overhead and set the springs of ocean firm in their place. . . . Then I was at his side each day, his darling and delight, playing in his presence continually, playing on the earth, when he had finished it, while my delight was in mankind. . . . Happy is the man who keeps to my ways, happy the man who listens to me, . . . for he who finds me finds life and wins favor from [Yahweh], while he who finds me not, hurts himself and all who hate me are in love with death.” (Prov. 8:1–7, 12–17, 22–36) Hear the praise of Wisdom from her own mouth, . . . in the presence of the heavenly host: “I am the word [Logos] which was spoken by the Most High: it was I who covered the earth like a mist. My dwelling-place was in high heaven; my throne was in a pillar of cloud. . . .” Then the Creator decreed where I should dwell. He said, “Make your home in Jacob; find your heritage in Israel.” . . . W“Before time began he created me, I shall remain for ever. . . . I and I took root among the people whom the Lord had L honoured by choosing to be his special possession. . . . L Come to me, you who desire me, I and eat your fill of my fruit. . . . Whoever feeds on me will be hungry for more, Sand whoever drinks from me will thirst for more.” , (Ecclus. 24:1–12, 18–21) For in wisdom there is a spirit intelligent and holy, Kunique in its kind, yet made up of many parts, subtle, Afree-moving, lucid, spotless, clear, invulnerable, loving what is good, . . . kindly towards men, . . . allSpowerful, all-surveying, and permeating all intelligent, Spure, and delicate spirits. . . . She is the brightness that streams from everlasting light, the flawless mirror Aof the active power of God and the image of his goodNness. She is one, yet can do everything; herself unchanging, she makes all things new, age after age she Denters into holy souls, and makes them God’s friends prophets, for nothing is more acceptable to God Rand but the man who makes his home with wisdom. A She is initiated into the knowledge that belongs to God and she decides for him what he shall do. . . . Through her I shall have immortality, and shall 2 leave an undying memory to those who come after I shall rule over my peoples, and nations will 1 me. become my subjects. 6 Send her forth from the holy heavens, and from thy glorious throne bid her come down, so that she 1 may labour at my side and I may learn what pleases T thee. For she knows and understands all things, and will guide me presently in all I do, and guard me in Sher glory. So shall my life’s work be acceptable, and I shall judge thy people justly, and be worthy of my father’s throne. (Wisd. of Sol. 7:22–28; 8:4, 13; 9:10–12) chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus 245 bo x 10.4 Isis and the “I Am” Statements in John Yahweh’s declaration of being as the eternal “I AM” in Exodus 3 and Lady Wisdom’s assertion of her cosmic role in Proverbs 8 and the deuterocanonical books of Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus provide a biblical model for John’s “I am” speeches. In Hellenistic culture, the closest parallel to these Johannine statements occurs in hymns honoring Isis, an Egyptian mother goddess who, in John’s time, was recognized as a universal deity throughoutW the Greco-Roman world. One text from the first orI second century ce pictures Isis asserting her divine L preeminence: L I am Isis, the mistress of every land . . . I gave and ordained laws for men, which no one is I able to change . . . S I am she who findeth fruit for men . . . I divided the earth from the heaven. I showed the paths of the stars, I ordered the course of the sun and the moon . . . I made strong the right . . . I broke down the governments of tyrants. I made an end to murders . . . I ordained that the true should be thought good . . . With me the right prevails. . . . Although the exact form of the Johannine declarations “I am the . . .” does not occur in this hymn, it does appear in another fragmentary Isis text, where she affirms her eternity: “I am the deity that had no beginning . . . I am the truth, I am the creator and the destroyer.” (Compare John 14:6, where Jesus says, “I am the way, the truth, and the life.”) , Sent by God to live among his people, Israel,K Wisdom invites all to seek her favor: A Come to me, you who desire me, S and eat your fill of my fruit; . . . Whoever feeds on me will be hungry for more, S and whoever drinks from me will thirst for A more. N (Ecclus. 24:19, 21–22;) D Whereas Wisdom stimulates a thirst for knowl-R edge, the Johannine Jesus fully satisfies it: A . . . whoever drinks the water that I shall give him will never suffer thirst any more. The water that I shall give him will be an inner spring always welling up for eternal life. (John 4:14) 2 1 6 1 Jesus and Yahweh T Jesus’ “I Am” Pronouncements Besides associat-S ing Jesus with the Hebrew principle of eternal Wisdom, John’s “I am” speeches also express an important aspect of his Christology. They echo Yahweh’s declaration of being to Moses at the burning bush (Exod. 3:14), in which God reveals his sacred personal name. In the Hebrew Bible, only Yahweh speaks of himself (the “I AM”) in this manner. Hence, Jesus’ reiterated “I am . . . the bread of life” (6:35), “the good shepherd” (10:11), “the resurrection and the life” (11:25), or “the way,” “the truth,” and “the life” (14:6) express his unity with God, the eternal “I AM” (see Box 10.4). John attributes much of “the Jews’” hostility toward Jesus to their reaction against his apparent claims to divinity. When Jesus refers publicly to his prehuman existence, declaring that “before Abraham was born, I am,” his outraged audience in the Temple attempts to stone him for blasphemy (8:56–59). Most scholars doubt that Jesus really made such assertions. In John’s double-vision approach, the attempted stoning represents Jewish leaders’ response to the preaching of John’s group, which made extraordinary claims about Jesus’ divine nature. Role of the Baptist Readers will notice that John repeatedly interrupts his Logos hymn to compare the Baptist unfavorably to Jesus. Insisting on the Baptist’s inferiority, the author has him bear witness 246 part three diverse portraits of jesus against himself: He is neither a prophet nor the Elijah figure, but only “a voice” whose sole function is to announce Jesus. Thus, the Baptist bears witness to seeing the Holy Spirit descend upon Jesus, a phenomenon that Mark reports as Jesus’ inward or private experience of his calling (Mark 1:10–11) (see Box 8.6). Contrary to the Markan tradition of a hidden Messiah whose identity is only gradually revealed, John has the Baptist immediately hail Jesus as the “Lamb of God . . . who takes away the sin of the world.” In John, Jesus is recognized as “God’s Chosen One” right from the start (1:6–9, 19–36). The Book of Signs John structures his account of Jesus’ public ministry around seven signs—miracles that illustrate Jesus’ supernatural power—to demonstrate his hero’s divinity. The Johannine emphasis on signs contrasts emphatically with the Markan Jesus’ categorical refusal to give any miraculous proof of his identity: “no sign shall be given to this generation” (Mark 8:11–12; cf. Matt. 12:38–40). Many scholars believe that in composing his narrative the Johannine author used an older document, known as the Signs Gospel. According to this theory, the Signs Gospel was a straightforward narrative that depicted Jesus’ performing (probably seven) wondrous deeds calculated to show that he was the Messiah (see Box 10.5). Some scholars think that the Signs Gospel was the first written account of Jesus’ public ministry, composed about the same time as Q, the similarly hypothetical collection of Jesus’ sayings. Presumably compiled by a group of Jewish Christians about 50–60 ce, it served as the narrative framework for the present Gospel of John. Advocates of this theory believe that the Johannine author merely inserted his elaborate dialogues and lengthy speeches into the Signs Gospel, usually without deleting or changing much of the original wording. Scholars therefore were able to attempt a reconstruction of the text of the earlier Gospel that was John’s principal source. Although the Signs Gospel has not survived as an independent account, it seems to be preserved embedded in the canonical Gospel of John (see R. T. Fortna in “Recommended Reading”). The Miracle at Cana The first Johannine sign occurs at the Galilean Wtown of Cana (not mentioned in the Synoptics), I where Jesus, attending a wedding with his disciL ples and his mother, changes water into wine. L Although the transformation of water into wine has no parallel in any other Gospel, the miracle— I reminiscent of festivals honoring Dionysus, the SGreco-Roman god of wine—is consistent with , Synoptic traditions that depict Jesus’ propensity toward eating and drinking with all kinds of people (Luke 7:33–35, etc.). John’s narrative of Kthe Cana event similarly highlights Jesus’ paraAdoxical combination of ethical leadership with Salmost outrageous behavior, acting in a way that seems to invite excess. When informed that the Shost’s supply of wine has run out, indicating Athat the wedding guests are probably already inNtoxicated, Jesus adds to the party’s merriment by providing an additional 180 gallons of a vinDtage superior to that which the guests have alRready consumed. In John’s view, Jesus’ offering Athe means for celebrants to continue imbibing “good wine” reveals “his glory” and causes the disciples to “believe in him” (2:11), as if con2 firming his qualifications to host the promised 1 messianic banquet. Presented as Jesus’ initial 6 “sign” that God is present in his actions, this joyous celebration of life, symbolized not only by 1 the marriage ceremony but also by the shared T enjoyment of a divinely bestowed beverage, foreSshadows a more solemn celebration described at the end of John’s narrative—that of Jesus’ “glorious” death on the cross. Using the images of water and wine—and the blood these liquids symbolize—the author thematically links the beginning of Jesus’ ministry at Cana with its culmination at Golgotha, where a Roman soldier chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus 247 bo x 10.5 The Signs Gospel Many scholars believe that the author of John’s Gospel used as one of his sources an earlier narrative that emphasized Jesus’ miracles. Because John’s Gospel presents these miracles as “signs” revealing Jesus’ glory, scholars have labeled this hypothetical source the Signs Gospel, claiming that it would have contained the following miraculous deeds (listed here in the order W found in the Gospel of John): 1. Turning water into wine at Cana (in Galilee, 2:1–11) 2. Healing an official’s son (in Galilee, 2:12a; 4:46b–54) I L L I S , thrusts his spear into Jesus’ body, releasing a flow of “blood and water” (19:34). Underscoring the connection between these two framingK incidents, John has Jesus’ mother present atA both Cana and the Crucifixion, the only two S occasions on which she appears in his Gospel S (cf. 2:1–11; 19:25–27). A N Assault on the Temple Reversing the Synoptic order, John shows JesusD driving moneychangers from the Temple duringR a Passover at the outset of his ministry. For John,A the episode’s significance is Jesus’ superiority to the Jerusalem sanctuary. The Temple is no longer sacred because the Holy Spirit now dwells in2 Jesus’ person rather than in the shrine King1 Herod constructed. Jesus’ physical body may be6 destroyed, but unlike the Herodian edifice, he will rise again as proof that God’s Spirit imbues1 T him (2:13–25). S Dialogue with Nicodemus Jesus’ conversation with Nicodemus, a Pharisee and member of the Jewish Council (Sanhedrin), typifies John’s method of presenting Jesus’ teaching (3:1–21). In most of the Johannine 3. 4. 5. 6. Healing a crippled man (in Jerusalem, 5:2–9) Feeding 5,000 people (in Galilee, 6:1–15) Walking on water (in Galilee, 6:16–25) Restoring sight to a blind man (in Jerusalem, 9:1–8) 7. Raising Lazarus from the dead (near Jerusalem, 11:1–45) Some scholars also think that the disciples’ huge catch of fish (21:1–14) was originally a Galilean miracle that the Gospel’s final editor incorporated into his appended account of Jesus’ post resurrection appearances. dialogues, Jesus uses a figure of speech or metaphor that the person with whom he is speaking almost comically misinterprets, usually taking Jesus’ words literally. John then has Jesus explain his figurative meaning, commonly launching a long monologue in which Jesus discourses on his metaphysical nature and unique relationship with the Father. Thus, when Jesus remarks that unless one is “born over again”—or, in an alternative translation, “born from above”—he cannot “see the kingdom of God,” Nicodemus mistakenly thinks he refers to reemerging from the womb. Jesus then explains that he means rebirth “from water and spirit,” referring to the spiritual renewal that accompanies Christian baptism. Found only in John, this doctrine of becoming “born again” resembles beliefs characteristic of Gnosticism and Greek mystery religions. In both cults, converts undergo initiation rites, commonly involving purification by water, to achieve the soul’s new birth on a higher plane of existence, leading eventually to immortality. In the case of being “born from above,” initiates experience the Gnostic truth that their souls (or true selves) are of heavenly origin and hence intrinsically divine and eternal. Perhaps aware of non-Christian parallels to this teaching, the author stresses that Jesus is 248 part three diverse portraits of jesus uniquely qualified to reveal spiritual truths. He is intimately acquainted with the unseen world because heaven is his natural environment, the home to which he will return when “lifted up [on the cross]” (3:12–15). In perhaps the most famous passage of the New Testament, Jesus states his purpose in coming to earth. God so intensely loves the world that he sends his Son, not to condemn it, but to save it, awakening in humanity a faith that gives “eternal life.” Believers pass the test for eternal life through their attraction to Jesus’ “light,” while others judge themselves by preferring the world’s “darkness” (3:16–21). Here, John’s attitude toward the world is positive, although elsewhere he expresses an ambiguous attitude toward its mixed potential for good and evil. Representing Jesus’ ministry and crucifixion as the world’s time of judgment (12:31), he declares that Christians are “strangers in the world” (17:16). Despite acknowledging the world’s capacity to believe (17:21, 23), the author shows Jesus telling Pontius Pilate that his “kingdom does not belong to this world”—at least not the kind of system that Pilate and the Roman Empire represent (18:36). f i g u r e 1 0 . 2 Ravenna mosaic showing Jesus conversing with a Samaritan woman drawing water from Jacob’s well (John 4). Both Luke and John emphasize Jesus’ characteristic concern for women. Conversation with the Samaritan Woman Luke emphasizes Jesus’ positive relationships with women, who are numbered among his most faithful disciples. John further explores Jesus’ characteristic openness to women, with whom he converses freely, teaching them on the same level as his male followers. As in Luke, John shows Jesus ignoring the rigid social conventions that segregate the sexes, even to the Wpoint of speaking intimately with prostitutes I and others of questionable reputation. L Astonishing the disciples with his violation of the social code (4:27), Jesus publicly discusses L fine points of theology with a Samaritan woman I who gives him water to drink at Jacob’s well. SRecalling the deep hostility then existing between Jews and Samaritans, we understand the , woman’s surprise at Jesus’ willingness to associate with her (see Chapter 3 for a description of Kthe Samaritans and Chapter 9 for Luke’s paraAble of the “good Samaritan,” a phrase most Jews would regard as a contradiction in terms). She Sassumes that he is a prophet and seizes the opSportunity to learn from him (see Figure 10.2). A N D R A 2 1 6 1 T S chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus As Jesus later instructs Martha in the mysteries of the Resurrection (11:17–27), so he reveals to the Samaritan woman that he is the “living water” that satisfies humanity’s spiritual thirst. Disclosing that neither the Jerusalem Temple nor the Samaritans’ rival shrine at Mount Gerizim is the only right place to worship, Jesus teaches her that “spirit and truth” transcend the claims of any earthly sanctuary. John uses this episode to illustrate several provocative ideas. Although the woman’s situation is ambiguous (she has had five husbands andW now lives with a man to whom she is not married),I Jesus selects her to fill an important role. She isL not only the first non-Jew to whom he reveals that L he is the Christ (4:25–26) but also the means by which “many Samaritans” become believers (4:39).I The woman’s rush to inform her fellow villagersS about Jesus anticipates Mary Magdalene’s later, role as prophet to the male disciples when she brings the news that their crucified Lord still lives K (20:1–2, 10–18) (see Box 10.6). A S The Woman Taken in Adultery Because it does not appear in the oldest NewS Testament manuscripts, editors of the NewA English Bible relegate the story of the adulterousN woman (8:1–11) to an appendix following chapter 21. In some manuscripts, the incident showsD up in Luke, where it well suits the Lukan themeR of forgiveness. The episode in which PhariseesA demand that Jesus judge a woman “caught in the very act” of illicit sex was apparently a well-known tradition that had difficulty finding a home in2 the canonical Gospels, perhaps because many1 early Christians found it shocking. 6 Asked to endorse the Torah rule that prescribed death by stoning for adulterers (Lev.1 20:10; Deut. 22:20–21), Jesus turns the responsi-T bility for deciding the woman’s fate back on herS accusers. Only the person who is “faultless” (without sin) is qualified to enforce the legal penalty. Forcing those who would judge her to examine their own consciences, Jesus finds that the assembled crowd melts away, leaving him alone with the accused. He neither condemns nor imposes 249 penance on the woman, merely instructing her not to “sin again.” Neither blamed nor lectured, she is left to ponder the meaning of her rescue. Whether this episode belongs in John or not, it is consistent with Jesus’ nonjudgmental attitude toward individual “sinners” in all four Gospels. Further Signs and Miracles Jesus’ second sign is his curing a nobleman’s dying son in Cana (4:46–54). His third is his healing a crippled man at the Sheep Pool in Jerusalem, a controversial act because it occurs on the Sabbath (5:1–15; see Figure 10.3). Criticism directed at Jesus’ alleged Sabbath breaking provides the opportunity for an extended discourse on his special relation to the Father. In John’s view, God’s work (sustaining the universe) continues unceasingly and provides a model that the Son imitates in ministering to God’s human creation (5:16–17). When accused of claiming “equality with God,” Jesus clarifies the nature of his authority. The Son initiates “nothing” on his own; he can only imitate the Father. As God creates life, so the Son grants “eternal life” to those trusting him. In Jesus’ ministry, the long-hoped-for resurrection to immortality is already a reality (5:18–26). Emphasizing his dependence on the Father who sent him, Jesus states that he acts as he is told, dutifully obeying a superior intelligence (5:30). Those who reject him also misread the Hebrew Bible that anticipated God’s ministry through him. If his critics really understood the Torah (including the Sabbath’s true meaning), they would believe him (5:31–47). John’s presentation of the next two signs parallels the Synoptic tradition, but they are followed by a typically Johannine speech in which the author significantly reinterprets their meaning. The miraculous feeding of 5,000 people (the fourth sign) is the only miracle that appears in all four Gospels (6:1–12; Mark 6:30– 44; Matt. 14:13–21; Luke 9:10–17). As in Mark, the miracle is immediately followed by Jesus’ walking on water (John’s fifth sign) (6:16–21; Mark 6:47–51). 250 part three diverse portraits of jesus b o x 10.6 The Role of Women in John’s Gospel Most striking in John’s Gospel is the way he employs women characters to advance crucial theological ideas. In Jesus’ conversation with a Samaritan woman—the longest dialogue between Jesus and a single individual in any canonical Gospel (4:7–26)—the Evangelist shows Jesus relating to the woman at Jacob’s well on both a religious and a personal level. When Jesus mentions that she has had five husbands and is not married to her present male companion, he does not necessarily imply that the woman has misbehaved; she may have been widowed repeatedly or legally divorced through no fault of her own. After perceiving that Jesus is an authentic “prophet,” the woman asks about the correct place to worship God, a major controversy then dividing Jews and Samaritans. Her question elicits Jesus’ reply that geographical location is no longer significant, for now people “must worship in spirit and in truth,” a spiritualized form of honoring God that can be accomplished anywhere. The woman’s eager response is to affirm the Messiah’s future coming and his promised revelation of “everything,” which in turn is the catalyst for Jesus’ statement that he is the Christ, the Johannine account’s first such admission to a non-Jew. Immediately, the woman abandons her waterjar and dashes back to town, her testimony inspiring neighbors to invite Jesus to stay with them. As a result of the woman’s speech, many Samaritans listen to Jesus and become believers, declaring him “the Savior of the world.” Although most villagers believe because of their direct experience of Jesus, it is the woman’s initial perception of Jesus’ identity that makes possible their faith (4:3–42). In the story of Lazarus, the Evangelist uses Jesus’ conversations with Lazarus’s sister Martha to move from a general expectation that resurrection will occur “on the last day” to a realization that in Jesus’ presence people rise from the dead now. When Martha learns that Jesus is “on his way” to their town of Bethany, she seizes the initiative by traveling alone to meet him. Still on the road to Bethany, Jesus and Martha discuss the concept of resurrection, leading to his climactic revelation: “I am the resurrection and I am life . . . no one who is alive and has faith shall ever die.” Even before the resuscitation of her brother, Martha professes her absolute trust in Jesus, Wwhom she recognizes as “the Son of God” (11:20– I 27). Even so, the practical Martha later reminds L Jesus that if he removes the stone blocking the entrance to Lazarus’s tomb, “there will be a stench” L from her brother’s decaying corpse (11:38–41). I At a dinner party celebrating Lazarus’s return to Slife, his sister Mary demonstrates a faith that equals that of Martha when she anoints Jesus’ feet with an , expensive perfume, symbolically preparing him for burial and, with the perfume’s fragrance filling her Khouse, banishing memories of physical decay. She Aalone of Jesus’ friends seems to understand the fact of his imminent death. When she tenderly dries Jesus’ Sfeet “with her hair,” Mary’s humility anticipates Jesus’ Slater action in washing and drying the disciples’ feet Aat the Last Supper (12:1–8; cf. 13:3–17). In the Johannine vision, women continue to Nplay indispensable roles to the Gospel’s concluDsion. As if to emphasize her importance as the first Rwitness of Jesus’ resurrection, John shows Mary AMagdalene acting alone when she visits Jesus’ tomb the first Easter morning. (The Synoptic tradition has Mary accompanied by other Galilean 2 women.) After informing Peter and the Beloved 1 Disciple that Jesus’ tomb is empty, she remains alone at the crypt, conversing first with angels and 6 then with the risen Jesus, who instructs her to con1 vey his message to the disciples. Mary Magdalene T thus precedes the male disciples in proclaiming Sthat Christ is risen, an appointed prophet who bears the original “good news” to Peter and the others (20:1–16). chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus 251 charged that Christians practiced bloodthirsty rites, including cannibalism, during their secret meetings. Jesus’ sixth sign—bestowing sight to a blind man (9:1–41)—illustrates John’s theme that Christ is “the light of the world” (8:12). His gift of sight dispels the darkness that afflicted the man and reflects Jesus’ identity as the Word that originally brought light out of dark chaos at the world’s creation (Gen. 1:1–5). As mentioned previously, this lengthy episode probably mingles traditions about Jesus’ healings with similar miraculous cures performed by Christian prophets in John’s church. The dialogue in the synagogue that follows the miracle illustrates the tension that prevailed between church and synagogue in John’s day. W I L L I S , The Raising of Lazarus f i g u r e 1 0 . 3 Excavations at the Sheep Pool in Jerusalem. John’s Gospel mentions two bathing pools, sites that pilgrims to Jerusalem possibly used for ritual washing before they approached the Temple precincts. The Sheep Pool, where Jesus healed a paralyzed man (John 5:2–15), was discovered in the late nineteenth century, but the Siloam Pool to which Jesus directed a man born blind (9:11) was not found until 2002. Both archaeological discoveries show that the author was intimately familiar with the Jerusalem of pre-70 ce. K A S S A N D R A The scene in which Jesus identifies himself with life-giving bread probably reflects the situ-2 ation in John’s day, when his community ar-1 gued bitterly with other Jews about the Christian6 communion ritual. Jesus asserts that the only way to gain eternal life is to eat his flesh and1 drink his blood. Many persons, including someT of his disciples, take offense at what seems toS them an absurd recommendation of cannibalism. John’s church apparently taught that the sacramental bread and communion wine literally became Jesus’ body and blood (6:25–65), in a process of transubstantiation. Even centuries after John’s time, numerous outsiders The seventh and most spectacular miracle— raising Lazarus from the dead (11:1–44)— demonstrates another Johannine conviction, that Jesus literally possesses power over life and death. Concluding the Book of Signs, the narrative of Lazarus’s miraculous resuscitation also functions to connect Jesus’ good works with his arrest and crucifixion. As John relates it, Jesus’ ability to revive a man who has been dead for four days is the act that consolidates Jewish opposition to him and leads directly to his death (11:45–53). Although no other canonical Gospel mentions the Lazarus episode, some scholars suggest that John may have drawn upon the oral traditions behind Luke’s parable of Lazarus and the rich man, which illustrates the starkly differing fates of two newly deceased men in the afterlife (Luke 16:19–31; see Chapter 9). Luke is also the only other Gospel author to mention Jesus’ friends Mary and Martha, although unlike John he gives no indication that they had a brother named Lazarus (Luke 10:38–42). Whatever the historical foundation of the Lazarus incident, John uses it to prove that Jesus is Lord of the Resurrection. In a climactic “I am” speech, Jesus declares, “I am the resurrection and I am life. If a man has faith in me, even 252 part three diverse portraits of jesus though he die, he shall come to life; and no one who is alive and has faith shall ever die” (11:25). In dramatic fulfillment of his claims, Jesus orders Lazarus to rise from his tomb, showing all witnesses that the eschatological hope of life comes through Jesus now (11:1–44). In John’s account, the raising of Lazarus serves multiple literary and theological purposes. As a turning point in the Gospel narrative, it has the same function as the assault on the Temple in the Synoptics: The incident provokes hostility toward Jesus and ignites a fatal conspiracy leading to his execution. As the episode linking the Book of Signs with the Book of Glory (the story of Jesus’ Passion), the Lazarus account operates as a preview of Jesus’ own death and resurrection. Like Lazarus, Jesus will be entombed in a cave from which a great stone—signifying death’s finality—will be rolled away as he rises to immortal life. In the Johannine narrative, Martha’s confession of faith in Jesus’ divine Sonship—made just before Lazarus’s resuscitation—anticipates Thomas’s more complete recognition of the risen Jesus’ true divinity (11:27; 20:28). The raising of Lazarus is also a perfect demonstration of John’s realized eschatology. Events traditionally assigned to the eschaton, such as the dead obeying a divine summons to exit from their graves, now occur during Jesus’ ministry. “As the Father raises the dead and gives them life, so the Son gives life to men,” Jesus had earlier declared (5:21), adding that those who trust him already possess “eternal life, and [do] not come up for judgment, but [have] already passed from death to life” (5:24). For the Johannine writer, “the time is already here, when the dead shall hear the voice of the Son of God, and all who hear shall come to life” (5:25). In John’s view, the life-imparting final resurrection is currently taking place among believers: “No one,” Jesus assures Martha, “who is alive and has faith shall ever die” (11:26). In thus reinterpreting the timing and nature of resurrection, the author transfers fulfillment of eschatological prophecies about eternal life from the indefinite future—the End of the world—to the concrete here and now. In grim contrast to the joyous belief that greets Jesus’ life-giving miracle, John shows some Jerusalem leaders plotting Jesus’ death. Jesus’ opponents fear that if the Jewish people accept his messiahship (making him “king of the Jews”) their response will incite the Romans to destroy their state and place of worship. (This passage refers to the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 ce.) Caiaphas, the High Priest, proposes that eliminating Jesus will spare the nation that ordeal. Caiaphas’s remark— Wthat “it is more to your interest that one man I should die for the people, than that the whole L nation should be destroyed”—is deeply ironic. L While justifying the plot to kill Jesus, the High Priest unwittingly expresses the Christian I belief that Jesus’ death redeems the world S(11:47–53). John’s Book of Signs is bracketed by mira, cles that Jesus performs at two of life’s milestone events—a wedding and a funeral. In his Kfirst public “sign” of divine power, at Cana, AJesus transforms water into a beverage of intoxSicating joy, extending and intensifying a marriage celebration. In his culminating miracle, Sat Bethany, Jesus brings life to a dead man, Atransmuting grief into gladness, an eschatologNical triumph that he and his friends then celebrate at yet another dinner party (12:1–2). D R A The Book of Glory 2 The second section of John’s Gospel— 1 commonly labeled the Book of Glory (chs. 6 12–20)—may be based on a Passion narrative that had already been added to the primitive 1 Signs Gospel when John incorporated the older T work into his expanded account. If scholars are Scorrect in assuming John’s use of an earlier document, the Johannine author thoroughly transformed his source, radically reinterpreting the meaning of Jesus’ last days. Connecting the Book of Glory with the miraculous signs previously reported, John opens this section by showing Jesus at dinner with friends, celebrating chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus Lazarus’s return to life. The festive scene features several important themes, looking back to Jesus’ feeding of the multitudes and the resuscitation of Lazarus and looking forward to the Last Supper and Jesus’ own death. Even while rejoicing in one man’s escape from the tomb, the dinner guests are forewarned of their leader’s imminent death when Lazarus’s sister Mary anoints Jesus’ feet with expensive perfume. Christ approves her prophetic action as preparing his body for burial, for his hour of “glory” is W near at hand. Whether following different sources or re-I working the older Synoptic tradition, John pic-L tures Jesus’ final days in a way that transforms L the Messiah’s betrayal and suffering into a glorious triumph. After his messianic entry intoI Jerusalem (John adds the detail of the crowds’S waving palm branches that gives Palm Sunday, its name) (12:12–19), Jesus foretells his death in terms resembling Mark’s description of the agony in Gethsemane (14:32–36) but reinter-K preted to highlight the Crucifixion’s savingA purpose: “Now my soul is in turmoil, and what S am I to say? Father, save me from this hour. No, it was for this that I came to this hour. Father,S glorify thy name” (12:27–28). When a celestialA voice affirms that God is glorified in Christ’s ac-N tions, Jesus interprets his “lifting up” (crucifixion) as God’s predestined means of drawing allD people to him, a process of human salvationR that cannot occur without his death (12:28–33).A The Last Supper and Farewell Discourses2 Perhaps because he has already presented his1 view of Jesus as the “heavenly bread” that gives6 life to those who partake of it (6:26–58), John’s account of the Last Supper contains no refer-1 ence to Jesus’ distributing the ceremonial breadT and wine (the Eucharist). Instead, John’s narra-S tive dramatizes a concept found also in Luke’s Gospel—that Jesus comes “like a servant” (Luke 22:27). Given the author’s view that Christ shares the nature of the omnipotent Creator (1:1), Jesus’ taking the role of a domestic slave, washing his disciples’ travel-stained feet, is 253 extremely significant. The Master’s humility both demonstrates God’s loving care for the faithful and sets an example of humble service for the Johannine community (13:3–17). After Judas Iscariot leaves the group to betray his Master (a treachery that John believes is predestined), Jesus delivers a series of farewell speeches intended to make clear the way in which his ministry reveals the Father and to place Jesus’ inevitable death in proper perspective. Summarizing the divine purpose fulfilled in his life, Jesus gives the “new commandment” of love that distinguishes his people from the rest of the world (13:34–35). Christ’s ultimate “act of love” is surrendering his life for his friends’ benefit (15:11–14). The Johannine Jesus’ directive to love fellow believers, however, contrasts with the Synoptic Jesus’ command to love even “enemies” and other outsiders (cf. Matt. 5:44; Luke 6:27). With his example of love opening the true “way” to the Father, the Johannine Jesus faces death as a transfiguring experience. In John’s view, Jesus’ death and return to heaven will permit believers to experience life with God (14:1–6) and simultaneously will allow God to live with them (14:23). Because the divine Parent dwells in him, Christ can reveal God fully—to see Jesus in his true meaning is to see the Father (14:7–11). John insists on Jesus’ unique relationship to God—he and the Father “are one,” but it is a unity of spirit and purpose that also characterizes the disciples (17:12, 20–21). Despite his close identification with the Deity, John’s Jesus does not claim unequivocal equality with God. He simply states that “the Father is greater than I” (14:28). The Paraclete (Holy Spirit) With John’s emphasis on the disciples’ mystic union with Christ (15:5–10; 17:12, 20–22) and the superiority of the unseen spirit to mere physical existence (6:63), it is not surprising that he presents a view of Jesus’ return that differs strikingly from that in the Synoptics. Instead of an eager anticipation of the Second Coming (as in 254 part three diverse portraits of jesus Mark 13, Matt. 24–25, or Luke 21), John teaches that Jesus is already present, inspiring the faithful. Brief allusions to Christ’s reappearance after death (14:3) are fulfilled when he sends the disciples the Paraclete. The Paraclete, variously translated as “Advocate,” “Helper,” “Counselor,” or “Comforter,” is synonymous with “the Spirit of Truth” (14:17) and “the Holy Spirit” (14:26). Although unbelieving humanity will see Jesus no more, he remains eternally with the faithful (14:16–26). An invisible counterpart to Jesus, the Paraclete enables the disciples to understand the true significance of Jesus’ teaching (16:1–15). By implication, the Paraclete also empowers the author to create a Gospel that fully portrays the glory of Jesus’ first advent. By its presence in the Johannine community’s preaching, the Paraclete serves to judge the world’s unbelief. Affirming that Jesus is present simultaneously with the Father and with believers, the Paraclete also witnesses to the invincibility of good, resisting the spiritual darkness that claimed Jesus’ physical life and now threatens his followers. In John’s view, Jesus imparts the promised Advocate (Paraclete) at his resurrection, merely by breathing on the disciples and saying, “Receive the Holy Spirit” (20:21–23). The risen Lord’s action recalls the creation scene in Genesis 2 when Yahweh breathes into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life,” making him an animate being or “living creature.” As John’s Gospel begins with the Word creating the universe (1:1–5), so it closes with the Word breathing the pure spirit of life into his renewed human creation. John’s Interpretation of the Passion Crucifixion as Glorification John’s Passion narrative is pervasively shaped by the author’s high Christology and his wish to shift responsibility for Jesus’ death to his Jewish opponents. The author of Mark’s Gospel had already wrestled with the problem of reconciling his portrait of Jesus as a powerful miracle worker in Galilee with the fact of Jesus’ apparent helplessness before his enemies in Jerusalem (see Chapter 7). After depicting Jesus as a figure of virtually irresistible force throughout his Gospel, John faces an even greater problem in explaining how this incarnation of divine Wisdom became his adversaries’ mortal victim. John resolves the potential dilemma by affirming the paradox inherent in WJesus’ circumstance: Even in Jerusalem, Jesus I retains his superhuman power but voluntarily L declines to use it in order to fulfill scriptural L predictions that God’s Son must die to save others. I SNo Agony in Gethsemane John’s description of , events in Gethsemane differs sharply from the Synoptic tradition. Whereas Mark’s Jesus throws himself on the ground in an agony of dread, Kbegging to be spared a painful and public Ahumiliation (Mark 14:32–36), John’s Jesus reSmains calmly standing while the soldiers who come to arrest him are hurled to the ground. SWhen the Temple police ask Jesus to identify Ahimself, he replies, “I am he,” a revelation of Ndivinity that causes them to collapse in a heap (18:4–8). The last of Jesus’ “I am” statements, Dthis declaration echoes John’s earlier associaRtion of Jesus and Yahweh, the divine “I AM” A(John 8:58; cf. Exod. 3:8–16), a claim to equality with God that incites an attempt to stone Jesus for blasphemy. For John, enemies plot2 ting Jesus’ downfall only seem to be in charge: 1 As Jesus had explained, he alone makes the 6 decision to give up his life (10:17–18). Pilate, the representative of Roman imperial power, is 1 explicitly informed that his role as judge is only T illusory (19:9–10). S Instead of fleeing in terror as they do in the Synoptics, the Johannine disciples are simply dismissed by their Master, who prevents their arrest to fulfill Scripture—the Messiah will lose no one entrusted to him. The author then interweaves the story of Peter’s denial with his unique account of Jesus’ interrogation chapter 10 john’s reinterpretation of jesus before Annas, father-in-law of the High Priest Caiaphas (18:8–17). Unlike the Synoptics, John does not show Jesus being formally tried before the full Sanhedrin, but only having an informal hearing at the High Priest’s private residence. An Innocent Pilate It is in his version of Jesus’ appearance before Pontius Pilate that John most explicitly mirrors his community’s estrangement from the Jewish community. Only John states that Pharisees, as well as TempleW priests, are involved in Jesus’ indictment be-I fore the Roman governor. Presenting eventsL in a strangely implausible way, John shows a L frightened and harried Pilate dashing back and forth between a Jewish crowd outside hisI palace and the accused prisoner inside. (JohnS states that Jewish priests could not enter a, Gentile’s quarters because such contact would make them ritually unclean for the upcoming Passover.) In his desire to foster good rela-K tions with Rome, Luke had depicted a PilateA technically innocent of arranging Jesus’ death S (Luke 23:1–25), but John goes even further. His Pilate is literally run ragged shuttlingS between accommodation of the priests whoA demand Jesus’ execution and his sympatheticN support of the “king” whom they wish to kill (18:28–19:16). In John’s account, Pilate makesD no fewer than eight attempts to persuade Jesus’R priestly accusers (John inaccurately labelsA them collectively as “Jews”) that Jesus is guilty of no crime (cf. 18:31, 38–39; 19:4–6, 12, 14–16). Only after the crowd threatens to accuse Pilate2 himself of sedition against Rome for champi-1 oning Jesus’ cause (19:12) and insists that6 their nation has no ruler but the Roman emperor (19:15–16) does Pilate reluctantly sub-1 mit and turn Jesus over for execution. JohnT also has Pilate symbolically vindicate Jesus’S claim to be the rightful Jewish king by refusing to revise a public notice of the crime for which Jesus was crucified (19:19–22). The Crucifixion: Water and Blood John’s picture of the Crucifixion includes a number of 255 his distinctive concerns. The Johannine Jesus carries his crossbeam all the way to Golgotha, thus precluding any Gnostic or other claim that someone else, such as Simon of Cyrene or even Judas, died in his stead (19:17). In an incident recounted nowhere else, John has a Roman soldier thrust his lance into Jesus’ side, initiating a torrent of blood and water. This wounding not only confirms Jesus’ physical death (lest one think that he only seemed to perish) but also provides typical Johannine symbols of sacramental wine (blood) and truth (water and spirit), emblems that nourish the community of faith (cf. 4:10–14; 6:53–58; 7:37–39). Besides the small group of Galilean women who witness the Crucifixion in the Synoptic tradition, John adds the figures of Jesus’ mother and the Beloved Disciple. Mary (who is never named in this Gospel) apparently fills a symbolic function: Appearing only twice—at the joyous wedding in Cana, where water is turned into wine, and at the cross, where water and blood flow from Jesus—Mary may signify the believing community that benefits from the sacramental emblems of shed blood and crucified body. Only in John’s account does Jesus place her (the church) under the care of the Beloved Disciple, the one...
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