MODULE 3 Research Strategies: How Psychologists Ask and Answer Questions The Scientific Method ▪ Scientific method is the process of testing ideas about the world by ▪ Setting up situations that test our ideas ▪ If the data do not fit our ideas, then ideas are modified and tested again. ▪ Making careful, organized observations ▪ Analyzing whether the data fit with our ideas ▪ Replication The Scientific Method The Scientific Method ▪ Theory ▪ Hypothesis ▪ Operational definition ▪ Replication A Good Theory… Effectively organizes Leads to clear predictions Often stimulates research May be replicated The Scientific Method ▪ Testing hypothesis and refining theories ▪ Description ▪ Correlation ▪ Causation ▪ Experiments Research Strategies: Description ▪ __is a systematic, objective observation of people ▪ The goal is to provide a clear, accurate picture of people’s behaviors, thoughts, and attributes Description __ __ • Examines one individual in depth • Records behavior in natural environment • Provides fruitful ideas • Describes but does not explain behavior • Cannot be used to generalize • Can be revealing Surveys and interviews • Examines many cases in less depth • Wording effect • Random sampling • Utilizes random sampling of population for best results TWITTER MESSAGE MOODS, BY TIME AND BY DAY ▪ This illustrates how, without knowing anyone’s identity, big data enable researchers to study human behavior on a massive scale. Research Strategies: Correlation ▪ General definition: an observation that two traits or attributes are related to each other (thus, they are “co”-related) ▪ Scientific definition: a measure of how closely two factors vary together, or how well you can predict a change in one from observing a change in the other Correlation ▪ Positive correlation (between 0 and +1.00) ▪ Indicates a direct relationship, meaning that two things increase together or decrease together ▪ Negative correlation (between 0 and −1.00) ▪ Indicates an inverse relationship: As one thing increases, the other decreases. ▪ Correlation coefficient ▪ Provides a statistical measure of how closely two things vary together and how well one predicts the other SCATTERPLOTS, SHOWING PATTERNS OF CORRELATION Correlations can range from +1.00 (scores on one measure increase in direct proportion to scores on another), to 0.00 (no relationship), to –1.00 (scores on one measure decrease precisely as scores rise on the other). Research Strategies: Regression Toward the Mean ▪ Illusory correlation ▪ Refers to the perception of a relationship between two variables when only a minor or no relationship actually exists ▪ May be fed by regression toward the mean ▪ Regression toward the mean ▪ Refers to the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average Correlation and Causation ▪ No matter how strong the relationship, correlation does not prove causation. ▪ Correlation indicates the possibility of a cause- effect relationship, but does not prove it. ▪ http://www.tylervigen.com/spurious-correlations THREE POSSIBLE CAUSE-EFFECT RELATIONSHIPS People low in self-esteem are more likely to report depression than are those high in self-esteem. One possible explanation of this negative correlation is that a bad self-image causes depressed feelings. But, as the diagram indicates, other cause-effect relationships are possible. Research Strategies: Experimentation ▪ With experiments, researchers can focus on the possible effects of one or more factors in several ways. ▪ Manipulating the factors of interest to determine their effects ▪ Holding constant (“controlling”) other factors ▪ Experimental group and control group Experimentation ▪ __ ▪ Neither those in the study nor those collecting the data know which group is receiving the treatment. ▪ Treatment’s actual effects can be separated from potential placebo effect. ▪ __ ▪ Effect involves results caused by expectations alone. Experimentation Variables that is manipulated; Independent variable • Factor the variable whose effect is in an experiment being studied other than the Confounding variable • Factor independent variable that in an experiment might produce an effect Dependent variable in an experiment • Factor that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated Comparing Research Methods Research Method Basic Purpose How Conducted Descriptive To observe and record behavior Do case studies, naturalistic observations, or surveys Correlational Experimental What Is Manipulated Weaknesses Nothing No control of variables; single cases may be misleading To detect naturally occurring Collect data on two relationships; to or more variables; Nothing assess how well no manipulation one variable predicts another Cannot specify cause and effect To explore cause and effect Manipulate one or more factors; use random assignment The independent variable(s) Sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables Research Strategies: Predicting Real Behavior ▪ Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? ▪ Controlled, artificial environments are created in laboratory experiments to test general theoretical principles. ▪ These general principles help explain everyday behaviors. ▪ Ethics? Animals & Humans Protecting Research Participants: Studying and Protecting Animals ▪ Professional associations and funding agency guidelines ▪ Universities: IRB ethics committees; laboratory regulation and inspection ▪ American Psychological Association (APA): Guidelines for humane treatment and minimization of infection, illness, and pain Protecting Research Participants: Studying and Protecting Humans ▪ Ethics in Research: Obtain potential participants’ informed consent before the experiment ▪ Protect them from harm and discomfort ▪ Keep information about individual participants confidential ▪ Fully debrief people (explain the research afterward) MODULE 6 Tools of Discovery and Older Brain Structures Having Our Heads Examined ▪ Scientists can selectively destroy or electrically, chemically, or magnetically stimulate the brain. ▪ EEG (Electroencephalogram) ▪ PET (Positron emission tomography) ▪ MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging) ▪ fMRI (Functional MRI) Older Brain Structures ▪ Less complex brain in primitive vertebrates handle basic survival functions ▪ More complex brain in advanced mammals Stefan Klein/imagebroker/Alamy (including humans) contain new brain systems built on the old The Brainstem and Thalamus The brainstem, including the medulla and pons, is an extension of your spinal cord. The thalamus is attached to its top. The reticular formation passes through both structures. • Brainstem • Is oldest and innermost brain region • Medulla • Is located at base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing • Pons • Sits above medulla and helps coordinate movement The Brainstem THE BODY’S CROSSWIRING Nerves from one side of the brain are mostly linked to the body’s opposite side. The Brain ▪ Reticular formation ▪ Involves nerve network running through the brainstem and thalamus; plays an important role in controlling arousal ▪ Thalamus ▪ Is area at the top of the brainstem; directs sensory messages to cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla The Cerebellum ▪ Aids in judgment of time, sound, and texture discrimination and emotional control ▪ Coordinates voluntary movement and life- sustaining functions ▪ Helps process and store information outside of awareness The Limbic System ▪ This neural system sits between brain’s older parts and its cerebral hemispheres ▪ Neural centers include hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus ▪ Is linked to emotions, memory, and drives The Limbic System ▪ Hippocampus ▪ Consolidates new memories ▪ Amygdala ▪ Consists of two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion ▪ Hypothalamus ▪ Is neural structure lying below the thalamus ▪ Directs several maintenance activities (basic physiological fxns) ▪ Helps govern endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward PAIN FOR PLEASURE This rat has an electrode implanted in a reward center of its hypothalamus. It will cross an electric grid, accepting painful shocks, in order to press a lever that sends impulses to its reward center. New Ways of Using Brain Stimulation ▪ Animal research ▪ Using brain stimulation to control animals’ actions in search-andrescue operations ▪ Human research RATBOT ON A PLEASURE CRUISE Researchers used a remote control brain stimulator to guide rats across a field and even up a tree. ▪ Stimulating brain’s reward circuits ▪ Stimulating areas associated with neurological disorders such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s. Aults 52. Should we use animal models to help us understand human psychology? Explain specific reasons, e.g., experimental evidence/theory, as to why we should or should not use animals in research. Aults Part 2: Short Essay. Please answer the questions below and write/type in the space provided. This section is worth 50 points. 51. What are the advantages and disadvantages of doing correlation research? Please be sure to give equal credit to the advantages and the disadvantages of this practice.
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