Bulgaria
Please read these 2 pdf files
1. GUIDELINES FOR WRITING A CASE STUDY ANALYSIS (pdf)
2. From Connectivity to Service Delivery - Case Studies in E-Governance (pdf) ONLY read
Chapter 5 Bulgaria………..
It is a group case study and my part is (introduction and objective) write one page and make one
introduction slide
From Connectivity to
Service Delivery:
Case studies in e-governance
United Nations Development Programme
DE M O C R ATIC GOV ERNANC E
1
From Connectivity to
Service Delivery:
Case studies in e-governance
Authors/editors: Raúl Zambrano and Ruhiya Kristine Seward
UNDP disclaimer: This is an independent report of the United Nations Development Programme. The analysis and
recommendations expressed in this publication are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect the views of UNDP,
its Executive Board, or United Nations Member States.
For further Information please visit: http://www.undpegov.org/
Copyright © 2013 by the United Nations Development Programme. All rights reserved.
This publication is released under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license. For full details of the license, please see
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/.
Contents
Acronyms & Abbreviations���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5
Acknowledgements���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6
Chapter 1. Overview��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
Chapter 2. Introduction��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Framework for e-governance�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 9
Objectives of this report���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Conceptual framework and methodology�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Chapter 3. Albania: Introducing Information & Communication Technologies to Public Schools�������������13
Country background����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
Information & communication technology in Albania������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
e-Schools programme�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
Assessment of the programme��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Chapter 4. Bangladesh: Harnessing Digital Opportunities for Development����������������������������������������������19
Country background����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
Information & communication technology in Bangladesh����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21
Access to Information (A2I) Programme���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Assessment of the programme��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������24
Chapter 5. Bulgaria: Raising Digital Literacy through a Country-Wide Network of Telecentres����������������27
Country background����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27
Information & communication technology In Bulgaria�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������28
Telecentres project��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������29
Assessment of the project������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30
Chapter 6. Cape Verde: Bringing Government Closer to the People�������������������������������������������������������������33
Country background����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
Information & communication technology in Cape Verde�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35
National Identification System in Cape Verde�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������36
Assessment of the project������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������36
Chapter 7. Indonesia: Piloting e-Prosperity for the Poor�������������������������������������������������������������������������������39
Country background����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������39
Information & communication technology in Indonesia��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40
Partnerships for e-Prosperity for the Poor ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������41
Assessment of the project �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Chapter 8. Conclusions & Implications for Programming������������������������������������������������������������������������������45
Conclusions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
Implications and suggestions for programming ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������47
Annex I. Country Comparisons ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������50
Annex II. Assessments ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������52
Annex III. Assessment Methodology ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Endnotes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������57
References ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������62
3
List of FIGURES AND tables
Figure 1: The six components of e-governance�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
Table 1: Albania Country profile�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13
Table 2: ICT in Albania��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 15
Table 3: Bangladesh Country profile������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 19
Table 4: ICT in Bangladesh������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21
Table 5: Bulgaria Country profile������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
Table 6: ICT in Bulgaria�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 28
Table 7: Cape Verde Country profile������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 33
Table 8: ICT in Cape Verde�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
Table 9: Indonesia Country profile���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 39
Table 10: ICT in Indonesia�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Table 11: Country profiles�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
Table 12: Health-related indices�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
Table 13: Governance and the Democracy Index����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50
Table 14: ICT usage��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
Table 15: ICT Price Basket and sub-baskets����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
4
ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS
A2I
Access to Information
CIA
Central Intelligence Agency (United States)
EIU
Economist Intelligence Unit
EU
European Union
GDI
Gender-related Development Index
GDP
Gross domestic product
GII
Gender Inequality Index
GNI
Gross national income
GNP
Gross national product
HDI
Human Development Index
HDR
Human Development Report
iCA
iCentres Association (Bulgaria)
ICT
Information and communication technology
ICTD
Information and communication technology for development
IMF
International Monetary Fund
ITU
International Telecommunication Union
MDG
Millennium Development Goal
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO
Non-governmental organization
NRI
Network Readiness Index
Pe-PP
Partnerships for e-Prosperity for the Poor
PIU
Project Implementation Unit (Albania)
PMU
Project Management Unit (Bulgaria)
PPP
Purchasing power parity
SMS
Short Message Service
UISC
Union Information and Service Centres (Bangladesh)
UNDESA
United Nations Department for Economic and Social Affairs
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF
United Nations Children’s Fund
WHO
World Health Organization
5
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This publication was developed by the e-governance and Access to Information team in the Democratic Governance Group
in UNDP’s Bureau for Development Policy in New York. It was written by Raúl Zambrano, Senior Policy Adviser, and Dr. Ruhiya
Kristine Seward, Research Analyst. The report is based on five assessments of UNDP e-governance programmes in Albania,
Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Cape Verde and Indonesia from 2008 to 2010. Assessments were carried out by Ravi Raina, an independent ICT consultant, and Nele Leosk, of the e-governance Academy Foundation in Estonia.
The report was designed by Jacqueline Broner.
The team would like to acknowledge the support and inputs from all UNDP country offices and colleagues in the governments of Albania, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Cape Verde and Indonesia, who contributed greatly to the completion of the study.
We would also like to acknowledge the assistance offered by the staff of the programmes and implementing agencies for
providing information, arranging meetings and helping to conduct interviews and surveys, as well as those who offered time
for personal interviews and completed questionnaires. In particular, we are grateful to the following people:
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Klarina Abazaj, e-Schools National Project Officer, UNDP Albania
Rubaiya Ahmed, A2I Programme, Chief Adviser’s Office, Bangladesh
Carlos Brito, Programme Officer, Democratic Governance, UNDP Cape Verde
Anir Chowdhury, Policy Adviser, e-governance and Development, UNDP Bangladesh
Pavel Gospodinov, IT Portfolio Manager, Telecentres, UNDP Bulgaria
A.A. Munir Hasan, National Project Coordinator, Access to Information
Sokol Haxhiu, ICT for Development Cluster Manager, UNDP Albania
Spass Kostov, Technology Manager, iCenters
Dr. Vadim David Levitin, e-Schools International Programme Manager, UNDP Albania
Maink Mahmud, e-governance and Development, UNDP Bangladesh
Elisabete Mendes, Director, Democratic Governance, UNDP Cape Verde
K.A.M. Morshed, Assistant Country Director, UNDP Bangladesh
Angel Panov, Technical Coordinator, National Research and Education Network
Vanya Petrova, Administrator, National Research and Education Network
Taru J. Wisnu, Pe-PP Project Officer, UNDP Jakarta
6
chapter 1: OVERVIEW
Developing economies have witnessed unprecedented growth in the use of information and communication technologies
(ICTs) in the last decade. With the broadening and democratizing of ICT access - in particular to mobile phones - new technologies are spreading rapidly in places that once struggled with basic communications systems. There are now upwards
of 3.9 billion mobile phone subscriptions in the world today, in a global population reaching over seven billion people.1
Low-income countries have mobile phone penetration rates of almost 45 percent, and lower-middle-income countries, 76
percent.2 In Sub-Saharan Africa, a region with historically low ICT access, it is estimated over 40 percent of the population has
access to a mobile device, dwarfing the 15 percent who use the Internet.
While the global economic crisis of 2008 has had a significant impact on most economies around the world, it has not been as
devastating as initially expected in developing countries. One reason why is that many lower-income countries have diversified their economies and do not depend exclusively on northern markets for trade and employment. Economic diversification and the broadening of access to ICTs have fostered greater social innovation, and have offered citizens and governments
new ways of confronting traditional development and governance challenges. For governments, ICTs offer tools for achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by promoting services for the most marginalized populations while also
enhancing transparency and accountability. For citizens, these new communication tools, channels and networks offer new
avenues for participation, allowing stakeholders a more prominent voice in decision- and public policy-making processes.
Broader ICT access opens innovative territory for citizen participation, electoral support, educational development and service delivery, all of which are critical to governance development. As citizens are able to engage more easily and effectively
with governing processes through new mobile and online tools, governments are recognizing the need to integrate ICT
development into national development agendas.
The countries in this study are implementing or working towards ambitious e-governance programmes and projects that
help to expand access to information and freedom of expression, and reinforce civil liberties and pluralistic governance
structures. Although many challenges remain, stakeholders are developing local solutions that can be shared with other
developing countries around the globe.
This report provides insight into the role ICTs can play in achieving critical development goals, and distils lessons and good
practices for e-governance development. These case studies help us consider what is feasible and necessary for e-governance development in poor and middle-income countries, particularly when there is political will to promote better and
more efficient governance.
For instance, governance issues and ‘ICT preparedness’ in countries has an impact on programming. The communications
market related to access and connectivity issues – such as infrastructure development and costs for connecting to a network are important considerations for e-governance initiatives and programmes, particularly in relation to reaching the poor. High
costs of communications and other technologies can reduce the impact and sustainability of projects and programmes. Citizens who cannot afford ICT access need to be taken into consideration as part of UNDP’s pro-poor mandate and programmes
and projects need to prioritize the provision of basic public services and information to underserved areas and introduce
strategies for making access affordable for the poor. Intermediaries and intermediate technologies that facilitate access to
information and services can be deployed in marginalized areas for instance, with the idea being that stakeholders do not
need to use a computer or own a mobile device to get access to public services.
E-governance initiatives also need to consider how governments can capitalize on connectivity to better serve citizen needs
through innovations in e-administration, e-service delivery and e-participation, and should look for ways of enhancing people’s participation in policy decision-making and other governance processes. Many new platforms have been developed
which can broaden stakeholder engagement, and these ICT innovations can be harnessed to foster citizen participation.
Cooperative partnerships with local municipalities, the private sector, financial institutions and other non-technical partners
can help target issues of sustainability and efficiency. Affordable Internet access, for example, is easier to sustain when partnerships and/or alternative sources of funding are established during the early planning stages.
The case studies here show how programming can enhance access to information and improve the delivery of basic services
through public investments in ICTs – and link into existing national development priorities and targets. They also show how
programmes can support the achievement of the MDGs, such as Goal 8, Target 18 which aims to make the benefits of new
information and communications technologies available to all, to support countries in reaching international agreed development goals.
7
chapter 2: INTRODUCTION
Information and communication technologies supporting human development have evolved rapidly since the 1990s. While
ICT deployments were initially centred on infrastructure and connectivity, since the beginning of the new millennium they
have helped to tackle issues related to cost, efficiency, effectiveness, transparency, universal service delivery and greater
participation by stakeholders, offering innovative solutions for public institutions and private actors. The emergence of social
networks, accompanied by the even more impressive and explosive growth of mobile technologies across the world, has
reinforced ICT’s strategic importance in human development, while at the same time bringing to billions of people access to
a digital communications device for the first time in history.
That said, important challenges remain. The lack of resources and skills, weak delivery of public services and deficiencies in
basic infrastructure – not only ICT-related – are daily challenges in the public sector of most developing countries. The urbanrural divide is still a reality in most low-income countries, and is one that poses serious obstacles to reaching the poor and
most vulnerable. Less developed regions that could benefit most from the adoption of ICTs are usually the last to receive
services. Yet, ICT access alone does not guarantee human development. There is an important policy link that must be developed, and e-governance programmes that target the most vulnerable and marginalized are critical for enhancing human
development. This is the area in which UNDP can provide the most leverage for supporting pro-poor policies through its ICT
for development programme.
In exploring ways that UNDP country offices and other development practitioners can address these challenges, this report
has reviewed the following UNDP-supported e-governance projects and programmes:
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Albania: Introducing Information and Communication Technologies to Public Schools (e-Schools)
Bangladesh: Harnessing Digital Opportunities for Development (A2I programme)
Bulgaria: Raising Digital Literacy through a Country-wide Network of Telecentres (T-centres)
Cape Verde: Bringing Government Closer to the People (National Identification System)
Indonesia: Piloting e-Prosperity for the Poor (Pe-PP)
Please see Annex II for links to the individual assessments conducted on these programmes.
Photo courtesy of UNDP Bangladesh/A2I
8
In reviewing the case studies in this report, consideration was given to the type of state in which the project or programme is
operating, whether the project makes sense given the governance regime, whether the work undertaken is consistent with
UNDP e-governance and access to information policy, and whether it furthers the MDGs. More importantly, the report attempts
to ascertain whether UNDP e-governance policies are consistent, in order to help strengthen future e-governance initiatives.
Framework for e-governance
Access to information and e-governance are key pillars of UNDP’s Democratic Governance Practice on Inclusive Participation,
as reflected in the current UNDP Strategic Plan (2008-2013). The core objective of this area is to support government institutions and civil society organizations to provide information, deliver better public services and foster people’s participation,
especially among the most vulnerable, in governance and policy-making processes.
Building on its long-standing experience in this area, UNDP’s e-governance programme approaches ICTs as means to an
end – not as ends in themselves. Information and communication technologies, when properly deployed, are catalytic enablers that can help address traditional development gaps, and in this way can promote overall human development. Rapid
innovation is one of the essential features of new ICTs, a factor that makes them even more adaptable and flexible for use in
a variety of environments and socio-economic conditions. UNDP’s approach to e-governance thus focuses on how ICTs can
help public administrations and civil society engage more closely and establish open dialogue, promote better interaction
and strengthen networks and networking to promote the achievement of internationally agreed development goals and the
enhancement of democratic governance. In a nutshell, UNDP’s e-governance approach has three main objectives:
• Increase the efficiency, transparency and accountability of public institutions
• Enhance information access and provision of basic services to the overall population, in particular the poor and most
vulnerable, thus forging a link to the MDGs
• Promote citizen and stakeholder participation in decision- and policy-making processes, particularly among the
poor and marginalized, women and youth.
Accordingly, the components of e-governance are not defined in traditional terms – that is, the impact of ICTs on public
administration (information, transaction, interaction, etc.). Rather, they are considered in relation to the area of public administration or governance where they are being deployed, and usually financed, by public resources. Based on its work in
developing countries, UNDP has identified six e-governance core and cross-cutting components (see Figure 1).
Core components of e-governance
• e-administration: Public investment in ICTs to foster transparency and accountability within both national and local
public institutions, to improve their functioning and
effectiveness
• e-service delivery: Public investment in ICTs to foster
the delivery of public services to all
• e-participation: Public investment in ICTs to foster interaction between public institutions and citizens to
promote better policies, services and public operations. This has three levels: information provision to
citizens, consultation with citizens, and dialogue between government and citizens. This component is
usually linked to voice and accountability, civil society
strengthening, and parliamentary development.
Needless to say, these components are linked. For example, if a
public institution prioritizes ICT investment in service delivery,
the required backend systems and internal organization and
administration need to also be addressed if the final goals are
to be achieved. Thus, sequencing and other overlapping issues
need to be taken into account.
9
Figure 1. The six components of e-governance
Cross-cutting components of e-governance
This set of components is relevant to any e-governance initiative or programme, but is not unique to e-governance:
• Policy environment and regulation: Public investment to support the creation and implementation of ICT for development (ICTD) and e-governance policies, legislation and regulation as well as to build the internal institutional capacities of the public entities involved in policy design, implementation and oversight. In principle, such policies should
be closely related to broader national development goals.
• Access to ICT and connectivity: This includes investments in public and private information infrastructure, connectivity
and equipment to foster wider use by people. Examples include telecentres and public Internet access points.
• Access to information (A2I): Public investment in ICTs to promote the digitalization and dissemination of public information among the general population. This is closely linked to the broader field of access to information, which in
UNDP parlance includes promoting the creation of national legislation, such as freedom of information acts.
Objectives of this report
The aim of this report is to distil lessons and good practices for e-governance development. It builds an understanding of
the link between e-governance and the broader development agendas of the countries in this report, including how the
projects and programmes relate to the MDGs and UNDP’s inclusive, pro-poor policies. Reviewing these case studies is critical
for understanding what UNDP can do to support future e-governance innovation, and what policy support is needed for new
initiatives to develop.
Conceptual framework & methodology
The framework for assessing the programmes and projects include a review of each country’s political and economic background, an assessment of the e-governance programme/project in the country, and an overall assessment of its consistency
with UNDP’s e-governance policies.
It should also be noted that data and country information in this report were compiled between 2009 and 2011 and represent data available at the time. Political and economic situations, Human Development Report (HDR) statistics and ICT data
may have subsequently changed.
Country background
Extensive background research was conducted for each country on the social, economic and political environment in which projects and programmes are operating. This political economy analysis helps contextualize issues related to implementation, and
elements of the governance regime that supported or facilitated success..
Programme/project assessments
The projects/programmes were evaluated for relevance, their fulfilment of objectives, efficiency, effectiveness, impact, sustainability, replicability and scalability, along the following lines:
• Relevance and fulfilment of project goals: Relevance, functionality and design of projects; appropriateness of projects
to operational environments; and the degree to which goals and outcomes were achieved
• Efficiency and effectiveness: Resources spent in achieving project results; how well inputs are converted into activities
in terms of quality, quantity and time; and the quality of the results achieved
• Impact: Impact in terms of the wider environment and the variety of outcomes experienced by each stakeholder and
beneficiary
• Sustainability: Survival of projects after their official end and follow-up activities
• Replicability: Feasibility of repeating projects in other locations
• Scalability: Feasibility of scaling projects up to national or organizational levels.
10
Overall assessment
This report considers whether the projects or programmes:
• Are consistent with UNDP’s e-governance and access to information policy
• Support MDG targets
• Are realistic given the governance regime and socio-economic background of the country.
These elements are critical for understanding whether UNDP’s e-governance policies are consistent and make sense for
future e-governance initiatives.
Case study selection
Projects/programmes were chosen from UNDP’s e-governance project database, developed as part of a mapping exercise
of all UNDP e-governance activities globally, and in consultation with UNDP Regional Service Centres and country offices.
Photo courtesy of UNDP Cape Verde
11
Photo courtesy of UNDP Bangladesh
Selection was based on the following criteria:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Financed and run by UNDP
Focused on e-governance, in particular on the use of ICTs for administration, service delivery and public participation
Ended no more than one year before the end of 2008 or is due to end
Is stable, with at least one phase of implementation complete, and has been in existence long enough to capture
sufficient user experience
Outcomes concerned with more than gains in technology
Operates beyond capital cities
Documentation on the project or programme is available, data can be collected and stakeholders are ready to cooperate
Promotes principles of democratic governance and/or is part of a larger democratic governance programme.
Methodology for review
The programmes and projects were assessed using the following approach:
• Review and analysis of major project documentation, including initial project documents, terms of reference, annual
work plans and progress reports, mid-term reviews and final evaluations
• Semi-structured interviews with UNDP country offices, government focal points and the individuals responsible for
project implementation
• Semi-structured interviews with key beneficiaries and project stakeholders
• Questionnaires filled out by relevant people involved with the projects
• Personal observations of reviewers.
Please see Annex III for the complete e-governance assessment methodology.
The assessments are intended to capture the impact and effectiveness of UNDP programmes on the ground, contributing to
a better understanding of e-governance practices overall and UNDP’S capacity to better plan and implement e-governance
projects in the future.
12
CHAPTER 3: Albania - Introducing Information &
Communication Technologies to Public Schools
Table 1: Albania Country profile
• Population: 3,216,0003
• Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP) (constant 2005 international
dollars): 7,4494
• Gross national income (GNI) per capita (constant 2005 international dollars): 7,8035
• Household final consumption expenditure per capita (constant 2000 international dollars): 1,2886
• Population living below $1.25 PPP per day (percent): 0.67
• Life expectancy at birth (years): 76.98
• Under-five mortality (per 1,000 live births): 159
• Expenditure on public health as a percentage of GDP: 2.910
• Adult literacy rate, both sexes (percent aged 15 and above): 95.9
• Mean years of schooling (of adults over age 25): 10.4 years11
• Combined gross enrolment ratio in education (both sexes, percent): 68.012
• Expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP: 4.913
• Gender Inequality Index: 0.27114
• Population with at least secondary education (female/male ratio): 0.93215
• Labour force participation rate (female/male ratio): 0.716
• Shares in parliament (female-male ratio): 0.19717
Country background
Social indicators
With a population of over 3.2 million and the second highest GDP per capita among the countries studied for this report
($7,449), Albania is ranked 70th (out of 187 countries) on the Human Development Index (HDI). Albania is a ‘high human
development’ country, according to the HDR, with less than two percent of its population living on less than $1.25 a day (according to World Bank estimates, however, around 12.4 percent of the population lives in poverty).18 Almost 96 percent of
Albania’s population is literate, outranked only by Bulgaria (98.3 percent) among the other countries in this report. It is also
above the median internationally on the Gender Inequality Index (GII) of the HDR, ranking 41 out of 146 countries. Albania
also has the highest life expectancy of the countries in this report, at 76.9 years, with the highest probability, at birth, of surviving to age 60. With approximately a quarter to a third of the population below the age of 15, and a median age of 29.9 for
both men and women, Albania is well placed to take advantage of new communication and networking technologies with
a population that will age in the digital era (see Table 1 and Annex 1 for a comparison of social and economic indicators by
country).19
Political structure and history
In 1991, Albania transitioned from a communist system of governance to an electoral democracy, a change that ushered in
several years of social unrest and economic upheaval.20 Yet now, 20 years later, Albania is a parliamentary democracy, with a
constitution that was renewed in 1998.21 The country holds elections every four years for a unicameral 140-seat chamber, the
People’s Assembly.22 According to the Economist Intelligence Unit’s (EIU) Democracy Index of 2010, Albania is considered a
‘hybrid regime’, 23 which means that, like other countries that have transitioned from authoritarianism to democracy in the
last 30 years, it lags behind in some political indicators, such as ‘participation’ and ‘political culture’. The index places Albania’s
political participation and political culture at 4.44 and 5.00, respectively (with 10 being the best and 0 the worst) – exactly
the same as Bangladesh, which ranks 83, just ahead of Albania. On civil liberties, Albania ranks 7.35, ahead of Indonesia and
Bangladesh (both at 7.06). In terms of electoral processes and pluralism, it ranks 7.42, equal to Bangladesh and just ahead of
Indonesia (6.92). In the functioning of government, Albania ranks 5.07, lagging behind all the other countries included in this
13
report. Albania ranks 84 overall, out of 167 – behind all the other countries in this report (though just behind Bangladesh,
which ranks 83) – with an overall ‘democracy’ score of 5.86 out of 10.
A succession of governments in Albania has attempted to deal with high unemployment, physical infrastructure challenges,
issues of transparency and lack of accountability as well as claims of electoral fraud in every election since the early 1990s.
In Transparency International’s 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index, Albania ranks 87 out of 178, with a score of 3.3 (where 10
represents highly transparent and 0 represents highly corrupt). This indicates marked improvement from earlier years, when,
at its lowest, in 2005, the country ranked 2.424. Albania is considered a potential candidate for accession to the European
Union (EU) if financial, economic, social and political reforms are accelerated. However, according to Transparency International, Albania must do more to ensure the implementation of anti-corruption laws if it is to be accepted by the EU. In 2009,
Albania joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), indicating a step in the direction of international acceptance.25
The 2005 general elections, which brought the centre-right Democratic Party of Albania and its allies to power, was thought
to be a potential turning point for the country. Yet, according to the EIU’s forecast for 2010-2011, the government, re-elected
in 2009, has only a small majority and may not be as stable as its predecessors. The prime minister, Sali Berisha, and the
Democratic Party of Albania have united with the Socialist Movement for Integration, a long-standing political adversary. In
a report released in June 2011, Transparency International noted that a stalemate between these political parties has stalled
important reforms, for instance of the judicial system, which is needed to ensure the accountability and professionalism of
the state’s judges and the overall independence of the judiciary.
The economy
Although Albania’s economy continues to grow, the country remains one of the poorest in Europe. With the 2009 election,
the government began to adopt reforms recommended by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), including the privatization of national industries and the implementation of a new budget that ostensibly cuts the deficit in half.26 The government
recently sold the state-owned oil refinery, and the state’s minority shareholding in a mobile telephone operator; it is in the
process of selling off the distribution arm of the state’s power sector and the state’s majority stake in the leading insurer
(although the sale was stalled). The IMF and other multilateral lenders continue to push for more structural and institutional
reforms, and for improvements in the business environment. Yet, according to the government, the economy is ‘mature
enough’ to manage without an IMF loan (having accepted a three-year loan agreement that expired in 2009). The country
plans to rely on commercial loans to finance its large external and fiscal deficits unless its currency continues to depreciate or
if the demand for Albanian merchandise exports and migrant workers is slower than forecast.27 On the other hand, according
to the EIU, “the investment climate in Albania is likely to remain one of the toughest in the region, owing to shortcomings
in the public administration and the legal system, widespread corruption, and inadequate (albeit improving) electricity supplies and infrastructure.” 28
Information & communication technology in Albania
The Albanian government has identified ICTs as significant enablers for both social and economic development and to undergird its accession to the EU. In 2003, the government adopted an ICT strategy to stimulate the development of an ICT
infrastructure and to develop the legal and fiscal framework needed to make the implementation of e-government, e-education and e-commerce initiatives possible. The strategy was revised in 2006 within the context of the overall National Strategy
for Social and Economic Development, the European Stabilization and Association Agreement, and subregional activities
under the EU Stability Pact. In June 2007, the National Agency for an Information Society was formed as a body under the
Council of Ministers, with the mission of promoting the development of an information society in Albania. The main tasks of
the agency include: implementation of the national ICT strategy as well as the development, coordination and administration of the state’s information systems. Then, in 2008, a new national ICT strategy – Information Society for Albania – was
developed and adopted, with the objective of serving society and improving communication between the public sector and
citizens of Albania.
14
Table 2: ICT in Albania
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Internet users (per 100 people): 41.2
Cell phones (per 100 people, 2009): 131.9
Personal computers (per 100 people, 2010): 12.0
ICT Price Basket 29 (2009): 4.30
Mobile phone sub-basket as a percentage a country’s monthly GNI per capita (2009): 4.18
Rank in e-government (2010): 85 out of 184 30
Rank in e-participation (2010): 86 out of 179 31
Networked Readiness Index32 (2010-2011): 87 (out of 138)
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Ranking: 33 92 out of 161.
In terms of its ‘networked readiness’ – a composite of policy environment, readiness and usage – Albania ranks 87 out of 138, putting it behind Indonesia (53), Bulgaria (68) and Cape Verde (84), but ahead of Bangladesh (115)34. In ICT access, Albania has 41.2
Internet users per 100 people, and 12 personal computers per 100 people. Cell phones, however, are more widely used, with 132
cell phones per 100 people (Bulgaria has 140 cell phones per 100 people, whereas Bangladesh, the lowest of the five case studies,
has 32.3 per 100). Widespread access is helped by the fact that Albania has a relatively low ICT Price Basket for fixed telephony,
mobile cellular and broadband Internet services (expressed as a percentage of average monthly GNI per capita) at 4.30 – behind
Bulgaria (3.37), but ahead of the other three case studies (although its mobile phone price basket remains the second highest of
the cases, at 4.18 percent of average monthly GNI). Based on the relative prices in the basket, its ITU Ranking is 92 out of 161, ahead
of Bangladesh (132), Cape Verde (105) and Indonesia (98) (see Table 2 and Annex 1 for a comparison of ICT indicators by country).
e-Schools programme
Project brief
Title: Support to the Ministry of Education and Science for the e-Schools Programme (e-Schools)
Description: The primary objective of the programme was to improve the quality and efficiency of the education system in Albania by introducing ICT tools in public schools. The programme has provided primary and secondary schools in Albania with
modern computer labs, equipped with high-speed, reliable Internet connectivity. It also offered training courses in the use of ICTs
to develop the capacity of primary and high school teachers. Specifically, UNDP supported the Ministry of Education and Science
with technical assistance to:
•
•
•
•
•
Equip schools with computer labs
Connect schools to the Internet
Build the capacity of teachers to use computer labs for education purposes
Impart a well-developed ICT curriculum to students
Develop a conceptual framework and pilot telecentres on the basis of e-schools to serve the needs of communes.
Total expenditure:
$910,638
2006:
$174,994
2007:
$301,940
2008:
$279,705
2009:
$151,966
2010:
$2,031
Start date:
8 March 2006
15
End date:
31 December 2010
Outputs & outcomes: The programme installed a total of 2,128 computer labs in public primary and secondary schools:
Primary schools:
1,749
Students trained:
450,000
Teachers trained:
25,000
Secondary schools:
379
Students trained:
139,000
Teachers trained:
7,700
Note that expenditures decreased in 2010 as the programme was closing down.
Partnerships: UNDP, the Ministry of Education and Science (through the Education Excellence and Equity Programme, financed by the World Bank), local government, the International Development Association, the European Investment Bank,
the Government of China (donated 1,360 computers), the Albanian Banking Association (donated $65,000), the Western
Union Corporation (donated $25,000), the Raiffeisen Bank (donated $45,000), one private university (donated one computer
lab), the ISSETI Corporation (donated one computer lab), and the Art Gold programme (donated one computer lab).
Assessment of the programme
Links to governance and the e-governance approach
The e-Schools programme equipped 2,128 public schools in Albania with modern computer labs, developing ICT-skills curricula
and training 32,700 of its information technology teachers and 589,000 primary and secondary school students to use the new
equipment and software. The programme mobilized resources from both UNDP and the World Bank and set up a Project Implementation Unit (PIU) in the Ministry of Education to coordinate activities in planning, designing and implementing the programme.
Deploying computers to public schools with Internet access supports UNDP’s overall e-governance framework by enhancing
access to information via ICTs, providing public services to people and connecting schools to the Internet. The programme
will continue to enhance students’ knowledge of and access to computers for many years, and the impact will be improved
as all the e-schools are brought online. (Note that universal Internet access was one critical objective that was not achieved
in the programme’s time frame.35) With computer and Internet access, young Albanians will have more educational access
Photo courtesy of UNDP Albania
16
and be more competitive in the marketplace, and as they graduate and move into the workplace, the ICT skills gained from
the computer labs will likely lead to more employment opportunities and entrepreneurship.
Moreover, transparency mechanisms built into the programme open new opportunities for accountability and service and
demonstrate the possibilities for online engagement more generally. Such mechanisms include, for example, a comprehensive
online database that tracks progress on e-Schools in terms of equipment, teacher-training data, computer usage and Internet
connectivity. By opening a venue for public accountability and participation, a secondary effect would be to enhance citizen
interaction with government.
e-Schools is currently the only ICT in education programme in Albania. It is a part of the Digital Albania initiative that includes
other projects and programmes, such as e-taxation and e-procurement, which enhance people’s access to services. Through
its integration with these other e-initiatives, e-Schools is part of a larger shift in Albania’s public administration that seeks to
increase the efficiency and accountability of governing institutions, another cornerstone of UNDP’s e-governance framework.36
Links to the Millennium Development Goals
The e-Schools programme meets the MDG challenge through its links to ICT access, education and gender equity. Specifically the programme links to MDG 8, Target 18, which is geared to making the benefits of new ICTs available. This was a core
goal of the programme, and in fact it succeeded in increasing access to computers and the Internet. It also furthers MDG 2,
Target 3, which seeks to improve the net enrolment ratio in primary education. The programme enhances primary education
through computer labs and skills-training which encourages young children to enrol and engage in school and drop out less
frequently. Finally it links to MDG 3, Target 4 which seeks to eliminate gender disparities in primary, secondary and tertiary
education by making computer labs accessible to both male and female students equally. Allowing girls equal access to ICTbased skills facilitates female empowerment, which will likely have the effect of improving the girl-to-boy ratio in schools.
The programme in context
Given Albania’s position as a high human development country and its advanced literacy rate, a programme providing ICT
access and infrastructure to improve education is an important strategy for Albania’s social and economic development. The
immediate impact of e-Schools was to widen students’ information access via the Internet and to provide extensive training for
teachers in primary and secondary schools. On the other hand, the programme’s uncertain future and its difficulties in providing
universal connectivity remain challenges. In particular, the programme is threatened by the lack of ownership over the PIU – a
cornerstone of the sustainability plan – which was intended to be managed by the Ministry of Education and Science. While
the PIU was highly regarded when it was independently supported by the programme, when it came to integrating it into the
ministry, there was a lack of support, and apparently also a lack of capacity by ministry personnel to take over the activities and
to follow up on the programme. This apparent lack of overall buy-in and capacity by the ministry is a well-known factor, one that
the programme should have taken into account in its overall strategy. Relying on the PIU’s integration into the ministry as the
only mechanism for sustainability was not the best strategy.
This points to larger issues within the Albanian government itself, the skills, capacity and willingness of which must be considered in building strategies for sustainability. Large-scale deployment of new ICTs require a relatively high skill set within the
institutions implementing such programmes as well as full awareness of the vital importance of undertaking such technology
investments in the public sector. One way to do this is to link deployment of ICTs to schools with parallel investments in systems
that facilitate the overall administration of education at the national level, including computer labs. The programme was not
integrated into a larger educational transformation that could have taken place had the capacity existed to foresee this.
Another not entirely successful strategy involved the telecentres component, which was meant to open 60 percent of schools to
local communities, and may have helped enhance access by the poor. School directors were not willing to open their schools to
the public without receiving support either to guard the computer rooms or to guide the people visiting the telecentres. In retrospect, this is a reasonable concern on the part of school directors, and should have been a consideration when the programme was
designed so that other means were created to open access to communities. Adding the telecentres component to an educational
initiative might have been too ambitious, and could have existed as an output on its own. As a component of a larger governmental
e-governance strategy, a telecentres project would have its own objectives, activities, outcomes, and management.37 While the
17
e-Schools programme could serve as a platform for transforming Albania’s national education system, there is no definite plan to
continue with the programme. In addition, further evaluations are needed to know if the quality and efficiency of education in
Albania has actually improved as a consequence of the programme.
Conclusions
The e-Schools programme has enhanced young people’s access to information via ICT in Albania by equipping 2,128 public
schools with modern computer labs, developing ICT skills curricula and training information technology teachers to use the
software and equipment. The programme supports UNDP’s overall e-governance framework, and through links to education,
gender equity and ICT infrastructure, furthers at least three MDGs (2, 3 and 8). At the same time, further evaluations are needed to understand if the overall goal of improving the quality and efficiency of education has been achieved. Computer labs
alone do not improve the quality and efficiency of education. Instead, education improves as part of a package of dynamic
educational policies, national goal-setting and innovative funding partnerships, in combination with improved teaching, upto-date curricula and engaged students.
The programme was not able to provide universal connectivity, which is a significant enabling factor for access and service
delivery, and would have given the programme greater social, economic and governance traction. A core issue was the lack
of engaged participation by the Ministry of Education and Science in planning and implementation. As a result, the driver
of the programme – the PIU – was not integrated into the ministry, as intended. This undermined the programme’s sustainability, and the lack of buy-in by ministry personnel also points to larger issues of interest, capacity and/or skill sets in the
government. These are known factors that could have been taken into account when the overall strategy was developed.
Large-scale deployment of new ICTs require a high skill set within the institutions implementing such programmes as well
as full awareness of the vital importance of undertaking such technology investments in the public sector. Linking the deployment of computer labs with parallel ICT investments in systems that facilitate the overall administration of education at
the national level would help usher in a larger educational transformation for Albanian society. Yet the programme was not
integrated into broader educational policy goals that could have taken place had the capacity existed to foresee this. Thus,
while e-Schools could serve as a platform for transforming Albania’s national education system, there is no definite plan in
place to continue with the programme. Furthermore, wider ICT access by the poor remains a challenge since issues such as
capacity, sustainability and national policy relevance have not been addressed.
Photo courtesy of Nele Leosk
18
CHAPTER 4: Bangladesh - Harnessing Digital
Opportunities for Development
Table 3: Bangladesh Country profile
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Population: 150,493,700
GDP per capita in PPP terms (constant 2005 international dollars): 1,286
GNI per capita (constant 2005 international dollars): 1,529
Household final consumption expenditure per capita (constant 2000 international dollars): 389*
Population living below $1.25 PPP per day (percent): 49.6
Life expectancy at birth (years): 68.9
Under-five mortality (per 1,000 live births): 52
Expenditure on public health as a percentage of GDP: 1.1
Adult literacy rate, both sexes (percent aged 15 and above): 55.9
Mean years of schooling (of adults over 25): 4.8
Combined gross enrolment ratio in education (both sexes, percent): 48.7
Expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP: 2.4
Gender Inequality Index: 0.550
Population with at least secondary education (female/male ratio): 0.784
Labour force participation rate (female/male ratio): 0.711
Shares in parliament (female-male ratio): 0.228
Sources: * World Bank World Development Indicators, 2012. All other figures from UNDP’s Human Development Report 2011. See
Table 1 for further explanation of categories.
Country background
Social indicators
Bangladesh has a population of 150.5 million, making it one of the most densely populated countries in the world. Its GDP
per capita is $1,286, the lowest among the countries studied in this report, and is ranked 146 (out of 187) in the HDI, making Bangladesh a ‘medium human development’ country. Nearly 50 percent of the population lives on less than $1.25 a day.
Adult literacy stands at almost 56 percent, the lowest of any country in this study. In other comparable life indicators, Bangladesh has the lowest life expectancy at 68.9 years – with almost 25 percent of the population not expected to survive to
age 60. Government expenditure on health care as a percentage of GDP is low, at only 1.1 percent, compared, for instance, to
Bulgaria’s 4.2 percent (the highest of the five countries). On the GII of the HDR, Bangladesh ranks 112 (out of 146), placing it
below the median internationally and the lowest among the countries studied for this report (see Table 3 and Annex 1 for a
comparison of social and economic indicators by country).
Political structure and history
Bangladesh is a parliamentary democracy, governed by a constitution drafted in 1972 after its independence from Pakistan.38
Citizens elect members to a 345-member unicameral parliament (called the Jatiya Sangsad) every five years.39 The power
of state is held by the prime minister, who acts as the head of government, selects the cabinet and runs the daily affairs
of state. The prime minister is appointed by the president, who is elected by the legislature every five years as the chief
of state. The presidential post is ceremonial except during the ‘caretaker government’ periods when presidential power
is expanded, as it was for two years from 2007 to 2009 (see below).40 In addition to the prime minister, the president also
appoints the Supreme Court.
According to the EIU’s Democracy Index of 2010, Bangladesh, like Albania, is considered a hybrid regime. This means that it is still
in the process of transitioning from authoritarianism to democracy and lags behind so-called ‘flawed democracies’ in political
participation and political culture (in this report, Bulgaria, Cape Verde and Indonesia are also considered flawed democracies).41
The index places the political participation and political culture of Bangladesh at 4.44 and 5.00, respectively (with 10 being the
19
best and 0 the worst) – exactly the same as Albania. On civil liberties, Bangladesh ranks 7.06, equal to Indonesia and behind the
other countries. In electoral processes and pluralism, it ranks 7.42, equal to Albania, and ahead of Indonesia (6.92). In the functioning of government, it ranks 5.43, ahead of Albania, but behind the other three countries. Bangladesh ranks 83 overall, out of
167; this is just ahead of Albania, but behind the other countries in this study, with an overall ‘democracy’ score of 5.87 out of 10.
Bangladesh’s political history since independence in 1971 has been tumultuous, with several coups and political assassinations
that have rocked both the economic and political stability of the country.42 Even though the country instituted an electoral
democratic process in 1991, Bangladesh has continued to experience political unrest as parliamentary victory has passed uneasily between the two major political parties.43 Up to now, successive governments have struggled with the political turbulence.
According to Transparency International, Bangladesh ranks 134 out of 178 in the 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index – the lowest
score among the five countries in this report, coming in at only 2.4 (where 10 represents highly transparent and 0 represents
highly corrupt). However, it is interesting to note that while 46 percent of people surveyed believe corruption has increased in
the country, a full 61 percent of respondents believe the government’s actions to fight corruption are effective.44
In January 2007, a caretaker government was appointed for two years, until the country was able to hold relatively free and
fair elections in December 2008.45 This election ushered Sheikh Hasina of the Awami League back into the seat of prime minister at the start of 2009. If it is able to retain support of the security forces, it is thought that the Awami League will be able
to control parliament for the next few years, although concern is growing over escalating social unrest, sparked by shortages
in food, power and water, as well as militant violence.46
The economy
According to the EIU’s 2010 forecast for Bangladesh, real GDP growth will remain fairly stable, averaging 5.8 percent over
the next few years.47 Even with substantial growth, however, the government will be unable to balance the budget as it
tries to address a range of domestic issues, including power, water and gas shortages and spending on social services.
Bangladesh has one of the lowest tax revenue collection rates in the world, which strains public financing and makes state
budgeting an ongoing challenge for the government. The EIU forecasted that consumer price inflation would average
Photo courtesy of UNDP Bangladesh/A2I
20
7.8 percent, compared with 5.4 percent in 2009, with food prices expected to exert the strongest (upward) pressure on
inflation as global commodity prices increase. Energy remains one of the biggest economic challenges for Bangladesh,
and increases in global oil prices will strain public finances.48 For instance, as prices for gas increase globally, agricultural
production costs (the largest sector in Bangladesh) also increase, since the manufacture of fertilizer uses large amounts
of natural gas. This in turn puts pressure on farmers, who rely on chemical fertilizers to maximize yields. These increased
costs in the production cycle are then passed onto consumers. To avoid sharp price increases, the Awami government will
likely have to continue subsidizing electricity tariffs.
Information & communication technology in Bangladesh
Table 4: ICT in Bangladesh
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Internet users (per 100 people): 0.4
Cell phones (per 100 people, 2009): 32.3
Personal computers (per 100 people, 2010): 2.2
ICT Price Basket (2009): 35.55
Mobile phone sub-basket as a percentage a country’s monthly GNI per capita (2009): 3.05
Rank in e-government (2010): 134 out of 184
Rank in e-participation (2010): 102 out of 179
Networked Readiness Index (2010-2011): 115 out of 138
ITU Ranking: 132 out of 161
In Bangladesh, ICTs are valued as important tools for enhancing economic development and social transformation. Mobile
connectivity alone has expanded by 300 percent annually, and the mobile phone sub-basket is relatively low in comparison
with the other cases in this report at 3.05 percent of monthly GNI per capita; only Indonesia is less expensive, at 1.67 percent.
The rest of the telecommunications network has been rapidly expanding as well, with fixed-line telecommunications connectivity growing annually by nearly 30 percent.49 In the last 15 years, the digital telephone network has also grown, with
data networks and communication services now available throughout the country. Cooperation between the governmentowned Bangladesh Telephone and Telegraph Board and private telecommunications operators has connected the country’s
64 districts and allowed the National Data Network to operate as a single digital network. According to the Horizon Scan
Report 2007 (produced as part of the A2I programme), the use of mobile phones, computers and the Internet is increasing
everywhere in Bangladesh – in urban and rural areas alike. Eighty-one percent of people surveyed use mobile phones, not
only for personal communication but also for business and, increasingly, education; 20 percent use computers, even though
nearly half of these users do not own the computer, 10 percent use the Internet, and 90 percent watch television.
Even with the relatively low mobile price basket, Bangladesh’s ICT Price Basket is the highest of the case studies – at 35.55 – in
part because the figure includes broadband Internet, which remains very expensive at 116.31 percent of GNI per capita. The
price basket also includes fixed telephony, which is 3.61 percent – the highest of the case study countries. Based on the relative prices in the basket, Bangladesh’s ITU Ranking is 132 out of 161; Cape Verde is the next highest at 105, behind Indonesia
(98), Albania (92) and Bulgaria (77). Its networked readiness ranking – a composite of policy environment, readiness and usage – is 115 out of 138 – well behind Indonesia (53), Bulgaria (68), Cape Verde (84) and Albania (87). Bangladesh’s ICT needs
include infrastructure development, policy coordination and market mechanisms to lower overall ICT costs for its citizens
(see Table 4 and Annex 1 for a comparison of ICT indicators by country).
To that end, government has adopted many ICT initiatives over the past five years, commencing numerous projects in different ministries for infrastructure, networking and applications. The government instituted a wide range of regulatory and
legal instruments, including: the National ICT Policy, an Amendment of the Copyright Act 2000, the Information and Communication Technology Act, the 1998 Telecommunication Policy, and the 2001 Telecommunication Act. As soon became clear,
there was a need to coordinate and expedite incompatible e-government initiatives (and was one of the baseline indicators).
The government subsequently created an e-governance ‘cell’ in the prime minister’s office to lead and coordinate the effort,
with technical support from UNDP Bangladesh. The cell formed an ICT Task Force with stakeholders from the public and private sectors to seek out and implement publicly funded ICT pilot projects. The office also undertook a publicly funded project
21
– Support to the ICT Task Force – to implement
pilot ICT projects.50 The Bangladesh Telecommunication Regulatory Commission now regulates
telecommunications infrastructure development
and encourages private sector participation. The
government assigned the Ministry of Science,
Information, and Communication Technology
to manage all science- and ICT-related activities.
In turn, the ministry has formed the Bangladesh
Computer Council to oversee all ICT-related activities in the country.
The development of ICT skills within the government and in Bangladeshi society remains a
challenge. A programme has been initiated to
integrate ICT learning in primary, secondary and
higher education, and several private sector ICT
training institutes have been established.51 Currently, Bangladesh has five specialized science
and technology universities, 28 public universities, 54 private universities, six institutes of technology and some national university-affiliated
post-graduate institutes and colleges that offer
courses related to computer science and information technology. More than 200 colleges have
introduced computer science as an optional
subject. Thirty polytechnic institutes, mostly in
Dhaka, are offering four-year diploma courses in
information technology. Bangladesh Open University is now offering three-semester diploma
courses in computer applications. Yet in spite of
Photo courtesy of UNDP Bangladesh/A2I
this growth in ICT education, a serious shortage
of skilled labour exists.52 Thus, Bangladesh has a need to expand the number of institutions offering ICT skills-development
and to develop the infrastructure to meet its future ICT needs.
Access to Information (A2I) Programme
Project brief
Title: Harnessing Digital Opportunities for Development (A2I programme)
Description: The A2I programme aims to:
• Ensure the appropriateness of new initiatives in e-governance within the context of national priorities
• Support the development of new projects for ICT for development and provide technical assistance for monitoring
and evaluating these projects
• Prioritize and mainstream ICTs into the national development policy and assist in the development of a national egovernance vision and strategy that would harness digital opportunities for development
• Identify emerging opportunities for ICT for development initiatives in support of priorities in the national e-governance vision.
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Total expenditure:
$3,876,441 (as of end-2011)
Year
Budget
Expenditure
2007:
$404,000
$370,885
2008:
$428,201
$393,138
2009:
$1,442,700
$1,063,545
2010:
$2,071,655
$1,372,755
2011:
$1,311,890
$676,118
Start date:
December 2006
End date:
Ongoing
Outputs & outcomes
Projects:
• Sixty ‘quick win’ projects were initiated in 2010 to support service-delivery innovation; fairs were hosted nationally
and locally and awards were given to recognize and encourage innovation in public and private sector service
delivery.
• The Union Information and Service Centres (UISCs) were scaled-up from 32 to 4,501 in all Union Parishads (municipalities).
• In 2010, 200,000 sugarcane farmers benefitted from e-Purjee – a system that relies on SMS (text messaging) to
alert farmers when to bring their cane to market; over two million utility bills were paid through mobile phones;
an online general diary system was extended to all police stations; 30,000 taxpayers assessed their taxes using
an online tax calculator; vulnerable groups in Sirajgonj and Cox’s Bazaar were alerted to disasters via SMS; over
130,000 students applied for admission to Shahjalal and Jagannath universities using SMS, and 22 universities will
adopt similar systems by mid-2011.
• A One-Stop Service Centre was established in one deputy commissioner’s office and eight upazilas.
Training, workshops & information sessions:
• Four government ICT-orientation sessions were held for 17 secretaries, 35 joint secretaries, 15 deputy commissioners, and 60 Upazila Nirbahi officers from each of the seven divisions; sensitization and capacity development
workshops were also conducted – from high-level ministers to Union Parishad representatives (including 64 deputy commissioners, 64 additional deputy commissioner generals, 483 Upazila Nirbahi officers, 481 upazila chairmen and 1,100 Union Parishad representatives).
• Seven interactive dialogues were organized for the media in collaboration with the Press Institute of Bangladesh.
Institutional partnership with the official news agency of Bangladesh was developed to promote e-services. Three
docu-dramas were produced to raise awareness of the benefits of e-initiatives.
• Two hundred-fifty government officers were trained on Bangla Unicode standards for document interoperability.
Policy development:
• Digital Bangladesh’s strategic priorities were identified through 14 national consultations with public and private
stakeholders chaired by relevant secretaries, in partnership with the General Economics Division of the Bangladesh Planning Commission and with online consultations with ICTD experts and practitioners around the world.
• A ‘Strategic Priorities of Digital Bangladesh’ document was mainstreamed into the national development plan.
• National e-governance architecture was developed.
• Security policy and guidelines were drafted.
• Comprehensive government web portals are under development.
• A detailed design, process and budget for the National Population Register is under development.
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Photo courtesy of UNDP Bangladesh/A2I
Resources and partners:
• Over $53 million was mobilized through partners, including $3.3 million from the private sector, $43 million from the
government and $6.7 million from development partners.
• Partners include: Cabinet Division, National Institute of Local Government, Bangladesh Computer Council, Ministry
of Information, Ministry of Science and ICT, Ministry of Planning, Ministry of Establishment, the Election Commission,
and the Bangladesh Association of Software and Information Services.
Assessment of the programme
Links to governance and the e-governance approach
Starting in 2006, the A2I programme began to create favourable ground for effective ICT programming, starting with a series
of surveys and studies that included the e-Governance Horizon Scan Report in 2007 and policy-envisioning documents in
education, health, agriculture and local government.53 The programme also established a core group of ICT ‘champions’ in all
the major agencies of government and designed and developed e-governance ‘driver’ projects54 and ‘enabling environment’
projects.55 Then, in 2009, when the Awami League came to power, the A2I programme began supporting the government’s
national e-governance initiative called Digital Bangladesh. The A2I programme and its support for Digital Bangladesh has
since become a pillar of UNDP’s work in the country.56 Digital Bangladesh and the A2I programme are both run from the Office of the Prime Minister, giving them high public status and almost daily press coverage. Given that the priorities of Digital
Bangladesh are aligned with UNDP’s pro-poor policy goals for enhancing access to information and improving the delivery
of basic services, the A2I programme is progressively meeting UNDP’s overall pro-poor policy goals.
In particular, Digital Bangladesh and the A2I programme have launched numerous ‘quick win’ projects with key national
ministries. One project supported the establishment of UISCs, half of which are run by women. The centres have since spread
24
to all the Union Parishads across the country and provide crucial access to services – such as university e-admission portals,
online agriculture permits, e-tax services and digital classroom access.57 In 2010, the new UISCs were inaugurated in a live
broadcast with Helen Clark of UNDP and the prime minister. The programme is also holding capacity development sessions
(another programme inaugurated by the prime minister herself ) for district and sub-district (upazila) administrators. The A2I
programme continues to contribute to policy and legal frameworks, including the National ICT Policy 2009, which accelerates the use of ICTs in the public sector. Policy support carried out through the A2I programme has laid the groundwork for
e-governance development in Bangladesh. As it advances, it is expected to further enhance citizen participation, increase
the efficiency and transparency of government, improve service delivery, open opportunities for public investment, and support the creation of e-governance/ICTD policies. In fact, the title of the programme – Access to Information, which implies a
‘right’ to information – is somewhat misleading, since this programme has a strong e-service delivery component and is now
less focused on the legal institutional structures that undergird the right to information.
Links to the Millennium Development Goals
In terms of meeting MDG targets, the outcome of the A2I programme – providing strategic guidance for developing egovernance in Bangladesh – brings new ICTs to the country and expands ICT access for all Bangladeshis. In particular, A2I is
helping Bangladesh meet MDG 8, Target 18 by expanding telephone, mobile and Internet access. The A2I programme also
has a secondary impact on MDG 1, Target 1 – which aims for full and productive employment as a means to eradicating poverty and hunger – by expanding skills and access to information, particularly for women and young people.
The programme in context
Of all the countries studied in this report, Bangladesh is the poorest, with half of its population living below $1.25 per day.
It also has the lowest literacy rate and the highest overall ICT costs – although its mobile phone price basket is one of the
lowest, which opens many possibilities for mobile-based initiatives. Through its support for Digital Bangladesh, the A2I programme has broadened the impact of ICTs among poorer members of Bangladeshi society and has made lasting strides in
the development of ICT tools for citizen empowerment.
On the other hand, recent infrastructure assessments have indicated a low level of ICT preparedness in Bangladesh, including
poor ICT infrastructure, minimal penetration and low usage. This means that plans for wider connectivity and service delivery
may be delayed while the infrastructure catches up with ambitious goals. Bangladesh’s rank in e-government – drawn from
the United Nations Global e-Government Survey 2010, and representing a composite scoring of online services, telecommunications infrastructure and human capital – is the lowest of the countries in the report, at 134 out of 184.58 Its e-participation
capacity, drawn from the same survey and based on e-info-sharing, e-consultation and e-decision-making, is also low at 102
out of 179.59
The effective implementation of new policy goals will be crucial to the success of the A2I programme and its work with
Digital Bangladesh. For instance, the government must strengthen its regulatory framework to ensure adequate data privacy
and security for citizens and reform its internal processes to allow for a fuller e-governance platform, such as web portals
that provide multiple services to citizens. Due to the charged political tension between the two ruling parties, there is also
concern about the sustainability of Digital Bangladesh overall, and the quick win projects in particular, beyond the tenure
of the current administration. Given that Digital Bangladesh is associated with the Awami League, there is concern that the
entire ICT agenda could be suspended or terminated should the Awami League lose power.60 This could be a consideration
for the A2I programme as the next elections approach. On the other hand, because of the overwhelming benefits of ICTs for
Bangladesh, support for their development will continue to grow among the population and foster ownership in the society
and governing institutions. There are also enduring issues with governance accountability and concerns with sustainability
when formal UNDP support comes to an end. Yet new regulatory and institutional initiatives (passing the 2009 ICT Act and
instituting high-level committees to support the proliferation of ICTD) show an institutional change in the government’s
relationship with technological development that is likely to foster growth in the ICT sector.
25
Conclusions
In Bangladesh, UNDP has achieved its immediate aim of providing strategic direction for the government to integrate egovernment schemes. This has helped to further MDG targets by expanding telephone, mobile and Internet access (Goal 8,
Target 18) and could also demonstrably impact MDG 1, Target 1, which relates to full and productive employment through
the expansion of skills and access to information. The initiatives launched as part of Digital Bangladesh, such as the 4,501
UISCs established across the country, indicate the strong pro-poor priorities of the government. In fact, among the projects
in this report, the A2I programme has demonstrated the strongest sustainable pro-poor linkages – a policy priority for UNDP.
In addition, the government’s commitment to capacity development for district administrators (through training sessions)
shows an accelerating commitment to the use of ICTs in the public sector, in line with the stated aims of the A2I programme
and UNDP’s e-governance goals in general. The A2I programme’s strategic work, such as the e-Government Interoperability
Framework – will have a long-term impact on e-governance development in Bangladesh, as will support for the e-government cell in the Office of the Prime Minister, since it seeks to support the national e-governance vision. On the other hand,
Bangladesh has a low level of ICT preparedness, including poor ICT infrastructure, minimal penetration and low usage. This
means that the infrastructure must catch up with Digital Bangladesh’s ambitious goals. The government must continue to
strengthen its regulatory framework to ensure adequate data privacy and security for citizens and reform its internal processes to allow for a fuller e-governance platform, such as web portals that provide multiple services to citizens. It is hoped
that the overwhelming benefits of ICTs for Bangladesh will foster ownership among the population and in the bureaucracy,
ensuring the sustainability of Digital Bangladesh beyond the tenure of the current ruling party (the Awami League). Indeed,
the formal structure of the e-government cell will need to be strengthened with permanent officials from the government
who will work closely with the A2I programme and be able to carry on the work after UNDP support ends. Overall, the A2I
programme is continuing to meet and fulfil its original aims, and supports UNDP’s e-governance vision for ICT development.
26
CHAPTER 5: Bulgaria - Raising Digital Literacy through a
Country-wide Network of Telecentres
Table 5: Bulgaria Country profile
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Population: 7,446,100
GDP per capita in PPP terms (constant 2005 international dollars): 11,456
GNI per capita (constant 2005 international dollars): 11,412
Household final consumption expenditure per capita (constant 2000 international dollars): 1,796*
Population living below $1.25 PPP per day (percent): 1.0
Life expectancy at birth (years): 73.4
Under-five mortality (per 1,000 live births): 10
Expenditure on public health as a percentage of GDP: 4.2
Adult literacy rate, both sexes (percent aged 15 and above): 98.3
Mean years of schooling (of adults over 25): 10.6 years
Combined gross enrolment ratio in education (both sexes, percent): 78.1
Expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP: 4.1
Gender Inequality Index: 0.245
Population with at least secondary education (female/male ratio): 0.979
Labour force participation rate (female/male ratio): 0.787
Shares in parliament (female-male ratio): 0.263
Sources: * World Bank World Development Indicators, 2012. All other figures from UNDP’s Human Development Report 2011. See
Table 1 for further explanation of categories.
Country background
Social and economic indicators
Bulgaria is the wealthiest of the countries in this study, with a per capita GDP of $11,456 and a population of almost 7.5 million. It ranks 55th on the HDI and, like Albania, is also considered a ‘high human development’ country by the HDR. Perhaps
owing to its relative wealth, less than two percent of the population lives on less than $1.25 a day, although 10.6 percent lives
below the poverty line.61 Like Albania, Bulgaria also has a high adult literacy rate, at 98.3 percent. In terms of gender equity,
Bulgaria ranks 40 out of 146 countries in the GII of the HDR, just above Albania (41) and above the median internationally.
Bulgaria falls slightly below Albania in other life indicators, having the second highest life expectancy of the countries in this
report, at 73.4 years, and the second highest probability at birth of surviving to age 60 (see Table 5 and Annex 1 for a comparison of social and economic indicators by country).
Political structure and history
Like Albania, Bulgaria was part of the Eastern Bloc of communist states in Eastern and Central Europe until 1989. In 1990,
it began its transition to a parliamentary democracy, passing a new constitution, instituting multi-party elections and
opening the economy to market-driven reforms. The ruling communist party (which became the Bulgarian Socialist Party)
won the first elections in 1990. In 1991, the first fully democratic parliamentary elections were held, bringing the Union of
Democratic Forces to...
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