Type author Bryman and names Bell here Business Research Methods 4th edition Chapter 1 The nature and process of business research © Oxford University Press, 2015. All rights reserved. Chapter Objectives This chapter introduces: • Business research methods in context. • The elements of the research process. • The messiness of business research. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Why do business research? Reasons for conducting business research include: • There is a gap in the literature; • There is inconsistency amongst studies; • There are unresolved issues; • Societal development prompts a research question; • To better understand a topic or phenomena Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Influences on business research Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Business Research in Context The following factors affect the context within which research takes place: – Academic theories – Existing knowledge – Researcher’s assumptions and views regarding the research process – Researcher’s assumptions regarding the nature of social phenomena – Quality criteria used to evaluate research – Values of research community – Political context of research study – Training and personal researcher values Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition The role of theory in research Which comes first, theory or research? Should we examine a problem, and then try to work out how it is caused, and how it might be solved (inductive reasoning)? OR Should we take a generally accepted theory of how things work and find evidence for it in the problem we examine (deductive reasoning)? Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Relevance of Research to Practice – An applied field understanding helps organizations and solving problems? – Has management research lost touch with the concerns of practitioners (Tranfield and Starkey, 1998)? – A resource for managers to make inform decisions based on scientific evidence (Rousseau, 2006:256)? – Can dynamic and changing nature of organizations challenge generally applicable best practices (Reay, et al, 2009)? Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Evidence-based management • Evidence-based management is the systematic use of the best available evidence to improve management practice (Reay, Berta and Kohn 2009). • The concept was developed to reduce variation in (clinical) practice. • Information comes, in part, from the expertise and judgement of managers working in individual firms. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Knowledge is ‘produced’ in two modes Mode 1 – traditional, universitybased – academic audience – pure and applied – built upon existing knowledge – more linear process – limited emphasis on dissemination Mode 2 – Involves academics, policymakers, and practitioners – trans-disciplinary – related to context (and therefore not easily replicated) – less linear process – more emphasis on dissemination and exploitation Based on Gibbons et al. (1994) Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition The Process of Business Research Literature Review Concepts and Theories Research Questions Sampling Data Collection Data Analysis Writing Up Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition The Process of Business Research Literature Review • What is already known about the topic? • What concepts and theories have been applied to it? • What research methods have been applied in studying it? • What controversies exist about the topic and about how it is studied? • What clashes of evidence (if any) exist? • Who are the key contributors to research on the topic? Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition The Process of Business Research Concepts • Concepts are the way that we make sense of the social world. • Concepts are labels that we give to aspects of the social world that seem to have significant common features. • Choice between deductive and inductive approaches Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition The Process of Business Research Research Questions Types of research question (Denscombe, 2010): • Predicting an outcome (does y happen under circumstances a and b?) • Explaining causes and consequences of a phenomenon (is y affected by x or is y a consequence of x?) • Evaluating a phenomenon (does y exhibit the benefits that it is claimed to have?) • Describing a phenomenon (what is y like or what forms does y assume?) • Developing good practice (how can we improve y?) • Empowerment (how can we enhance the lives of those we research?) Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition The Process of Business Research • Sampling – E.g. in survey research, or case study research • Data Collection – E.g. Structured interview or participant observation • Data Analysis – Transcriptions, coding, thematic analysis, secondary analysis • Writing up – Generally to include the literature review, research methods, results, discussion and conclusion Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition The Messiness of Business Research • The process of business research is not always so linear in reality – it can be much messier. • Flexibility is important as you navigate the research process. • Your own research community (i.e. classmates and/or supervisor, etc) is important to support you through the process. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Key Points • Business research and business research methods are embedded in wider contextual factors. • Business research practice comprises elements that are common to all (or at least most) forms of business research. • Attention to these steps is what distinguishes academic business research from other kinds of business research, such as market research conducted by private companies. • Although we can attempt to formulate general principles for conducting business research, we have to recognize that things do not always go entirely to plan. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Business Research? ✓ Cooper and Schindler (2001, p. 15): “A systematic enquiry that provides information to guide business decisions.” ✓ Zikmund (1997, p.6): “The systematic and objective process of gathering, recording, analyzing data for aid in making business decisions.” ✓ Research is systematic, disciplined and focused on gathering information to understand a phenomena, answer questions or solve research problems. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Pure vs. Applied Research • Pure Research: Also known as basic research. Research that is done for the sake of knowledge or to develop and extend understanding of specific phenomena within a field of study. There is no immediate managerial decisions and implications to be made. • Applied Research: Has a practical problem-solving emphasis. Directed much more to making immediate managerial decisions. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Pure vs. Applied Research Figure 1.1 Basic and applied research Source: Authors’ experience; Easterby-Smith et al. (2012); Hedrick et al. (1993) Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Purpose of Research • Reporting: The most elementary level to provide an account or summation of some data or to generate some statistics. • Descriptive: To discover or verify answers to the questions who, what, when, where, and, sometimes, how. Does not have the potential for drawing powerful inferences. • Explanatory: Goes beyond description and attempts to explain the reasons for the phenomenon that the descriptive study only observed. Grounded in theory and theory is created to answer why and how questions. Provide a plausible explanation for an event after it has happened. • Predictive: Rooted in theory as explanation to predict when and in what situations the event will occur. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition What is Good Research? (Cooper & Schindler, 2001, pp.16-19) • Purpose clearly defined • Research process detailed • Research design thoroughly planned • High ethical standards applied • Limitations frankly revealed • Adequate analysis • Findings presented unambiguously • Conclusions justified • Researcher’s experience reflected Type author Bryman and names Bell here Business Research Methods 4th edition Chapter 2 Business Research Strategies © Oxford University Press, 2015. All rights reserved. Chapter Overview This chapter explores: • the nature of the relationship between theory and research; • epistemological issues; • ontological issues; • how these issues relate to the widely used types of research strategy, quantitative and qualitative research; • the ways in which values and practical issues are also central to business research. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Check List! • Deductive and Inductive approaches • Deduction process • Abductive approach • Epistemological considerations • Positivism • Interpretivism • Realism • Ontological considerations • Objectivism • Constructionism Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition • Research strategies • Quantitative • Qualitative • Mixed Theory and Research • Business research does not exist in isolation – Link between social reality and research – Link between business research methods and practice connect with wider social relations • Understanding the link between theory and research – There are two key issues here: • What form of theory is being referred to? • Is data collected to test theories or build them? Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Deductive and Inductive Theory • Deductivism: – Theory → data – Explicit hypothesis to be confirmed or rejected – Quantitative research • Inductivism: – Data → theory – Generalizable inferences from observations – Qualitative research /grounded theory Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition The process of deduction Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Types of reasoning There are three types of reasoning in organizational research: 1. Theory-testing research: this involves developing hypotheses from a priori theoretical considerations, enabling them to be confirmed or disconfirmed through statistical inference. 2. Inductive case research: this involves theory being developed in a ‘data-driven manner’ using qualitative data, often taking a grounded theory approach. 3. Interpretive research: while this also involves qualitative data, theory is developed in quite a different way involving a dialogical process between theory and the empirical phenomenon; this results in the production of ‘reflexive narratives, not explanatory models or theoretical propositions’ (Mantere and Ketokivi, 2013: 75). Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Abduction • An increasing popular approach • Neither inductive or deductive: abductive as a third way • Based on Pragmatist approach • Starts with a puzzle or surprise and then seeks to explain it • Involves the researcher selecting the ‘best’ explanation from competing explanations or interpretations of the data (Mantere and Ketokivi 2013) Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Epistemological considerations • What is (or should be) considered acceptable knowledge? • Can the social world be studied ‘scientifically’? • Is it appropriate to apply the methods of the natural sciences to social science research? • Positivism and interpretivism are contrasting approaches Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Positivism • Only phenomena and hence knowledge confirmed by the senses can genuinely be warranted as knowledge (phenomenalism). • The purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested and that will allow explanations of laws to be assessed (deductivism). • Knowledge is arrived at by gathering facts that provide the basis for laws (inductivism). • Science must (and can) be conducted in a way that is value free (i.e. objective). • There is a clear distinction between scientific statements and normative statements and the former are the true domain of the scientist. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Interpretivism • Interpretivism is taken to denote an alternative to positivism. • It is predicated upon the view that a strategy is required that respects the differences between people and the objects of the natural sciences and therefore requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action. • Derives from: –Weber's notion of Verstehen; –the hermeneutic-phenomenological tradition; –symbolic interactionism. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Realism • Realism shares two features with positivism: – a belief that the natural and the social sciences can and should apply the same approach to data collection and explanation; – a commitment to the view that there is an external reality to which scientists direct their attention (in other words, there is a reality that is separate from our descriptions of it). • There are two forms of realism: – Empirical realism simply asserts that, through the use of appropriate methods, reality can be understood. – Critical realism is a specific form of realism which recognizes the reality of the natural order and the events and discourses of the social world. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Ontological considerations • Social ontology: the nature of social entities • What kind of objects exist in the social world? • Do social entities exist independently of our perceptions of them? • Is social reality external to social actors or constructed by them? Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition What is objectivism? • Objectivism is an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent of social actors. • It implies that social phenomena and the categories that we use in everyday discourse have an existence that is independent or separate from actors. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition What is constructionism? • Constructionism is an ontological position which asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being accomplished by social actors. • It implies that: – social phenomena and categories are produced through social interaction – social phenomena and categories are in a constant state of revision – Researchers' own accounts of the social world are constructions – Knowledge is indeterminate • Also referred to as constructivism Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition What is the role of a paradigm? A paradigm is a cluster of beliefs and dictates that influences: – What should be studied; – How research should be conducted; – How results should be interpreted. Social science consists of competing paradigms. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Social paradigms Radical S u b j e c t i v i s t Radical humanist Radical structuralist Individuals need emancipation from the social arrangement of organizations. Structural power relationships result in conflict. Interpretative Functionalist Organizations do not exist apart Problem-solving orientation from the perceptions of people leading to rational explanation. working in them – study their experiences. Regulatory Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition O b j e c t i v i s t Research strategy: quantitative research Quantitative research is a research strategy that emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data and that: • entails a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, in which the emphasis is on the testing of theories; • has incorporated the practices and norms of the natural scientific model and of positivism in particular; and • takes a view of social reality as an external, objective reality Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Features of quantitative research • A measurement of social variables • Common research designs: surveys and experiments • Numerical and statistical data • Deductive theory testing • Positivist epistemology • Objectivist view of reality as external to social actors Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Research strategy: qualitative research Qualitative research is a research strategy that emphasises words rather than quantification in the collection and analysis of data and that: • predominantly emphasizes an inductive approach to the relationship between theory and research, in which the emphasis is placed on the generation of theories; • has rejected the practices and norms of the natural scientific model and of positivism in particular in preference for an emphasis on the ways in which individuals interpret their social world; and • takes a view of social reality as a constantly shifting emergent property of individuals’ creation. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Features of qualitative research • Understanding the subjective meanings held by actors (interpretivist epistemology) • Common methods: interviews, ethnography • Data are words, texts, and stories • Inductive approach: theory emerges from data • Social constructionist ontology Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Mixed methods research • It is possible to combine quantitative and qualitative strategies within a research project. • Holmberg et al’s (2008) study of leadership shows how combining quantitative and qualitative research provided a more rounded and complete picture. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Factors influencing researchers’ choice of methods • • • • • • Organizational Historical Political Ethical Evidential Personal Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Practical considerations • May influence or determine choices on: – research strategy – design – method – resources and costs • May be influenced or determined by: – nature of the topic – people being investigated – political acceptability Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Key Points • Relevance to practitioners and the fundamental purpose of business research. • Quantitative and qualitative research constitute different approaches to social investigation. • Theory can be depicted as something that precedes research or as something that emerges out of it. • Epistemological considerations influence research strategy. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods, 4th edition Type author Bryman and names Bell here Business Research Methods Chapter 3 Research Designs © Oxford University Press, 2015. All rights reserved. Chapter Objectives This chapter’s explores: • Reliability, replication, and validity are presented as criteria for assessing the quality of business research. • Five prominent research designs are then outlined: – experimental and related designs (such as the quasi-experiment); – cross-sectional design, the most common form of which is social survey research; – longitudinal design and its various forms, such as the panel study and the cohort study; – case study design; – comparative design. • Each research design is considered in terms of the criteria for evaluating research findings. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Research designs and methods • A Research Design provides a framework for the collection and analysis of data. Choice of research design reflects decisions about priorities given to the dimensions of the research process. – – – – – Experimental Cross- sectional Longitudinal Case Study Comparative • A Research Method is simply a technique for collecting data. Choice of research method reflects decisions about the type of instruments or techniques to be used. • Assessment Criteria • • • Reliability Replicability Validity Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Types of validity • Measurement (or construct) validity – do measures reflect concepts? • Internal validity – are causal relations between variables real? • External validity – can results be generalized beyond the research setting? • Ecological validity – are findings applicable to everyday life? Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Alternative criteria in qualitative research Trustworthiness (Lincoln and Guba (1985) : • Credibility, parallels internal validity - i.e. how believable are the findings? • Transferability, parallels external validity - i.e. do the findings apply to other contexts? • Dependability, parallels reliability - i.e. are the findings likely to apply at other times? • Confirmability, parallels objectivity - i.e. has the investigator allowed his or her values to intrude to a high degree? Relevance (Hammersley 1992) : • Importance of a topic in its field • Contribution to the literature in that field Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods 1. Experimental design elements • Random assignment of subjects to experimental and control groups, • Pre-testing of both groups, • Independent variable manipulated; all other variables held constant, • Post-testing of both groups, • Computation and analysis of group differences • Manipulation: in order to conduct a true experiment, it is necessary to manipulate the independent variable in order to determine whether it does in fact have an influence on the dependent variable. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Threats to internal validity • Other (non-experimental) events may have caused the changes observed (‘history’) • Subjects may become sensitized to ‘testing’ • People change over time in any event (‘maturation’) • Non-random ‘selection’ could explain differences • ‘Ambiguity about the direction of causal influence’ because sometimes the temporal sequence is unclear Based on Campbell (1957) and Cook and Campbell (1979) Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Threats to external validity 1. Interaction of selection and treatment 2. Interaction of setting and treatment 3. Interaction of history and treatment 4. Interaction effects of pretesting 5. Reactive effects of experimental arrangements Based on Campbell (1957) and Cook and Campbell (1979) Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods 2. Cross-sectional design A cross-sectional design entails the collection of data on more than one case (usually quite a lot more than one) and at a single point in time in order to collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data in connection with two or more variables (usually many more than two), which are then examined to detect patterns of association. Cross-sectional design is - Mostly associated with survey method - But can be used with other methods: structured observation, content analysis, official statistics, and diaries -Key principles •More than just one case •At a single point in time •Quantitative or quantifiable data •Patterns of association Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Evaluating cross-sectional research •Reliability and Measurement Validity are not connected to the design, as such; •Replicability will be high as long as the researcher specifies all the procedures; •Internal Validity is weak, because co-relations are much more likely to be found than causality; •External Validity will be strong if the sample is truly random; •Ecological Validity may be compromised by the instruments used. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods 3. Longitudinal design • survey of the same sample on more than one occasion • typically used to map change in business and management research – in a panel study (e.g. WERS – Research in focus 2.14- same managers surveyed in 2011) – or a cohort study (e.g– all graduates from a business studies course in the same year) Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Evaluating longitudinal research Overall, the characteristics are very similar to cross-sectional research designs. Special problems: •Attrition, because managers leave the study or companies merge or go out of business •Knowing when is the right time for the next wave of data collection. •The first round may have been badly thought out, which leaves the later rounds in a bit of a mess •A panel conditioning effect may creep in to the research. Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods 4. Case study design • Detailed and intensive analysis of one case – e.g. a specific person, event, organization or community • Often involves qualitative research • Case is the focus of interest in its own right location/setting just provides a background • Types of case: critical, unique, extreme, revelatory, exemplifying Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Evaluating case-study research •Biggest issue concerns external validity, because it is impossible to generalize the findings. •The point of the research is to examine particulars rather than attempt to generalize? •Cases may be extended longitudinally or through a comparative design. •Types of case Critical case Unique case Revelatory case Representative or typical case Longitudinal case Single v mulitple site case Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods 5. Comparative design • Using the same methods to compare two or more meaningfully contrasting cases • Can be qualitative or quantitative • Often cross-cultural comparisons – Hofstede’s (1984) study of IBM managers in different countries • Includes multiple case studies • Problem of translating research instruments and finding comparable samples Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Evaluating comparative design •The characteristics are identical to those of cross-sectional design, because the comparative design is essentially two or more cross-sectional studies carried out at the same point in time. •Comparing two or more cases can show circumstances in which a particular theory will or will not hold. •Level of analysis •More than just one case •At a single point in time •Quantitative or quantifiable data •Patterns of association Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Bringing research strategy and research design together • Both quantitative and qualitative strategies can be executed through any of the research designs covered in this chapter – although experimentation is rarely used in qualitative research. • Use of comparative design (for example): – quantitative: Brengman et al’s (2005) study of Internet shoppers in the United States and Belgium – qualitative: Hyde et al’s (2006) evaluation study of role design in the NHS Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods Key Points • There is a distinction between a research method and a research design. • There are three key technical terms for evaluating research: reliability, validity, and replicability • There are five key research designs: experimental, cross-sectional, longitudinal, case study, and comparative • There are various potential threats to validity in non-experimental research. • Although the case study is often thought to be a single type of research design, it has several forms. Key issues concerned with the nature of case study evidence in relation to issues such as external validity (generalizability). Bryman & Bell: Business Research Methods 2. Briefly discuss a topic (or more) that may be suitable for a research project, listing pros and cons of the topic(s). [300 words]. (Note: The purpose is to brainstorm possibilities and seek the best option available for a research project within the organization. You may also include up to two relevant documents if you wish, but it is not mandatory). Activity 2 Go through the included Chapter 2 slides, then read the chapter in the textbook. Consider also the included multimedia material. Considering your proposed research topic, this activity requires you to examine how epistemology and ontology issues can affect your project. Using this forum, please create one entry that includes the following details: 1. Explain how epistemology and ontology are relevant to your project, i.e. consider their definitions and what they mean in the context of your project. [200 words]. 2. Do you expect issues with collecting data and examining knowledge in your project as per your findings above? Why or why not? [200 words]. Activity 3 Go through the included Chapter slides, then read the chapter in the textbook. Considering your proposed research topic, this activity requires you to examine which research design framework is most suitable: Experimental, Cross-sectional, Longitudinal, Case Study, Comparative, or a combination of more than one. Using this forum, please create one entry that includes the following details: 1. Explain the differences between the five research frameworks. [150 words]. 2. Explain which framework(s) are most suitable for your research. [150 words]. Research Methods – Assignment 1 Research Questions Learner Name: ID Number: I. Research Topic (or objective) (50 words max) II. Why is this topic important? (100 words max) III. Research Questions (150 words max) 1 Lack of Effective Communications Introduction: Every organization has its own culture which informs how people communicate, how information is shared across individuals and departments and how people interact. Organizational culture is developed over time by organizational leadership and becomes a reflection of how the day-to-day operations of the organization are carried out. Positive organizational culture fosters productivity and improves the work environment. Communication forms a very important aspect of organizational culture as it impacts how information is exchanged and hence the smooth running of internal processes. Problem Identification: • Lack of good communication between various stakeholders in the organization • There are no proper reporting relationships within the organization • The leadership is completely cut from the rest of the employees • The result is a culture of mistrust, lack of consensus and management- employee disconnect. Method: Key Issue: The methods of analyzing these problems were based on primary sources including the following: • Interviews • Questionnaires • Observation area. There are no proper reporting relationships in the organization. This has led to frustrations among junior employees who feel the environment is not suitable to offer job satisfaction. Further, teamwork is nonexistent due to mistrust where every employee is disconnected from the rest.
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