Myth and Literature Exam One: Part II
Essay Questions
Directions Bring a typed 12 pt. font: document to class with your name on it to turn in at
11:30 AM
Part II: Select ANY TWO Questions from the list below. For EACH response three-four full
paragraphs. For an outstanding response, I expect 4-5 well developed paragraphs. All work must
contain full sentence and proper citation (Maurizio p#) or (Jones, Lecture)
Don’t forget you must answer two questions!!
Although this is a ‘take home’ exam in the sense that you don’t have to sit in class and respond
to the questions without access to notes, text or lectures on BB. BUT this does not that you can
use other resources on the internet to look up information regarding the important characters
or concepts in ANY of the questions. ALL INFORMATION NEEDED FOR THE EXAM IS CONTAINED
IN BOTH TEXTS (WILKINSON AND SIMPSON), YOUR LECTURE NOTES, AND POWER-POINTS. I am
the instructor NOT WIKEPEDIA!!
Yes, you will have to find the lectures that address the topic and combine that with notes and
text that address the question and then discuss the topic in your own words and understand;
and lastly, you will have to combine text and lecture to develop a response to the Essay
Questions.
I have taught this course for many years and I will know if any responses are PLAGARIZED
(taken from sources outside of those you are to use for the exam)
Repeat of Directions: Part II: Select ANY TWO Questions from the list below. For EACH
response three-four full paragraphs. For an outstanding response, I expect 4-5 well developed
paragraphs. All work must contain full sentence and proper citation (Maurizio p#) or (Jones, Lecture)
Don’t forget you must answer two questions!!
1. Discuss how Pandora is the archetype for the feminine in the Ancient World. How is she associated
with the ‘beautiful but dangerous’ motif?
2. How do relationships between Aphrodite and two of her mortal lovers: Adonis and Anchises reflect
how Greek gods view mortals? Consider various elements of the stories in your response.
3. According to the lecture “Nature of Myth” how are to read and study myth? In your response consider
the role of storytellers and oral presentation as well.
4. Discuss elements of Hades interactions with the dead in the Underworld. As you have already noted
that Tartarus is somewhat equivalent to contemporary notions of hell, how much do YOU think ancient
concepts of the underworld are still reflected today?
5. Examine how Hermes attainted the many attributes he was associated with him over a long period of
time. In your response consider how he became associated with these attributes, messenger, medicine,
travel, protector, medicine and Trickster. Discuss also the role Apollo plays in Hermes story line.
Nature of Myth
What is Myth?
• Mythology allows you to take a journey into
an exciting and mysterious world.
• In our travels we will encounter gods, heroes,
monsters, mythological locations.
• For pure story value, myth has no match
• Enriches your understanding of literary and
artistic works through the ages
What is Myth
• You will see that you have entered a living
tradition as we continue to incorporate
mythological themes into our culture today.
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The very stories have overtones of meaning
Achilles
Helen
Hercules
Ulysses
Daedalus
Medea
Multitude of Genres
• All of these areas are rich in myth and the stories
themselves transcend time in each one
• Poetry
• Drama
• Novels/Short Stories
• Film
• Sculpture
• Mosaic
• Canvas
Levels of Meaning in Myth
• We will not be satisfied to tell and retell these
stories for their own sake
• But we will consider what their meaning in
their own time, in ages past, and the present.
• What messages do they convey about the
people who created them? Did they know
they were timeless?
Myth as Story
• I. Myths are stories, legends, folklore.
• In every culture, from time immemorial people
have told stories
– a. Of these, perhaps the most captivating have been
sacred stores handed down as part of ‘religion’
– b. Narratives that explain and define the acts of
nations and rulers
– c. Usually these accounts are so old that their origins
are shrouded in mystery
– d. For us, part of their appeal is their evocation some
lost era in which members of the communities lives
were guided by the stories they held sacred.
Myth
Entertainment as Education
• As Northrop Frye puts it “the stories of
mythology are charged with a special
seriousness and importance”
• Storytellers made their living as a teacher of
sorts.
• Even secular tales included values and
perspectives that enlighten the audience.
Myth
Fact or Fiction?
• Many consider myth as false stories told by
primitive people to explain the nature of the
universe before scientific explanations entered
the scene
• BUT we must consider that their purpose was
NOT scientific but to integrate human nature,
nature around them, the cosmos and the very
investigation of death!
• As students of myth we will see that mythological
stories reveal the core of human nature as seen
by those untrained in psychology! Or were they!
Understanding Myth
• Some of the pleasure gained from an
examination of myth comes from an appreciation
of the literary style in which it was written
• In many cases the story is so old that they did not
use the written word to ‘record’ the myth they
stored it within a living mind with an active
memory.
• Therefore: one of the ways we can glean the most
from the is to look at who studies it and why.
Who Studies Myth?
• Scientists
• To reexamine the way the universe works
– For example: a myth explains a journey taken by
hero that includes astronomy, geography, geology,
botany, zoology
– Star charts
– Navigation
– Ancient Disasters
Historians
• As I love to point out the last five letters of
history spell ‘story’, thus, myth provides
unique insight into particular peoples, areas,
events.
• Myth enlightens the historian with social
norms, religious beliefs, battles, language,
customs, ceremonies, art and architecture.
How Should We Read Myth?
• Remember that it was first an oral composition
• It will contain elements of repetition or words or
phrases and an abundance of names and titles that
reflects formulaic structure
• In some cases it is poetic in another language and
difficult to translate
• The story teller has constructed the tale to conform to
his world and his specific audience.
• Thus, our first readings regarding Homer and Hesiod
reflect their reshaped stories from time immemorial to
form them into unified works that correspond to the
world as they saw it in 800 BCE.
Ancient Greece and Rome
Myth in Art
Myth of Dirce
Hercules at Rest
Apollo in Bronze
Drunken Faun
Drunken Faun Roman
Hercules as a Babe
Farenese Collection – Dirce
Hermes at Rest
Hercules
Chapter 5
Classical Mythology in Context
History
Aphrodite, Hephaestus, and Ares
Love and Strife
• There are two stories of
Aphrodite’s birth: she is
either the daughter of Zeus
and Dione, or produced
when Uranus was castrated
by Cronus
• Her title of Philommedes
represents her association
with sexual desire
unmitigated by social
consideration
• It can also be translated as
‘laughter-loving’
5.2 Birth of Aphrodite. Detail of the Ludovisi Throne. Greek marble
relief. Circa 460–450 BCE. Museo Nazionale Romano (Palazzo
Altemps), Rome, Italy. Erich Lessing / Art Resource, NY, ART58590.
Duality of Aphrodite: Two natures
• Aphrodite Urania (celestial Aphrodite): sprung from Uranus alone –
with only heavenly attributes: aka Celestial
• Aphrodite Pandemos (of the people – common)
Aphrodite and Eros
• Aphrodite and Eros are
associated with desire and
romance
• Eros is either Aphrodite’s son
or companion
• Their behavior is fickle,
representing the nature of
desire
• They are also associated with
conflict and violence, as in
Sophocles’ Antigone
5.1 Eros playfully blindfolds a woman. Attic red-figure skyphos.
Workshop of the Ilioupersis Painter, c. 375–350 BCE. Museum of
Art, Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, Rhode Island.
RISD Museum Appropriation Fund, 25.089.
Marriage and Love
• Brides prayed to Aphrodite before their
wedding day
• Aphrodite is often depicted with Harmonia
(Harmony), Peitho (Persuasion), and the
Erotes (Eros, Longing, and Desire)
• Their winged nature indicates that the
emotions Aphrodite inspires are impossible
to restrain
• In Greek myths, the desire inspired by
Aphrodite disrupts marriage more often
than it sustains it
5.3 Aphrodite surrounded by Erotes and an attendant holding
a swan. Detail from a red-figure lekythos (oil flask). Circa late
fifth century BCE. Gianni Dagli Orti / The Art Archive at Art
Resource, NY, AA393928.
Humor and Laughter
• Among the gods, Aphrodite is often
connected with humor
• Aphrodite’s adulterous relationship
with Ares gets her laughed at, but
also represents the dangerous
consequences of infidelity
• The myth of Aphrodite and Adonis
furthered her association with
laughter, as represented in the
Adonia, a festival celebrated only by
women
5.4 Paris leads Helen by the wrist, while Aphrodite
adjusts her hair. Red-figured skyphos. Circa fifth century
BCE. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA /
Francis Bartlett Donation / Bridgeman Images,
BST487717.
Civic Harmony
• Aphrodite, with Peitho (Persuasion)played a traditional role in the
establishment and governance of cities
• Governance of cities required persuasion in courts and assemblies
• Aristotle compared the bonds of husbands and wives with the bonds
among citizens
• She was worshiped as Aphrodite Pandemos in Athens for her role as a
unifier
• She was frequently worshiped in ports and harbors, anywhere where
cooperation was necessary
Hephaestus
• Aphrodite’s husband was Hephaestus,
the god of metallurgy
• He has few sanctuaries and festivals and
was rarely worshiped
• Hephaestus was unique among the gods
because of his lameness
• He was associated with fire and
volcanoes, and manufacturing and
technology
• Hephaestus is an unlikely husband for
Aphrodite, the most beautiful of the
gods, and was frequently laughed at
5.5 The Return of Hephaestus to Olympus. Red-figured
stamnos. Group of Polygnotus, c. 440 BCE. bpk, Berlin /
Antikensammlung, Museumslandschaft Hessen Kassel,
Kassel, Germany/ Art Resource, NY, ART497600.
Ares
• Ares is a war god, the son of Zeus
and Hera
• He and Aphrodite have three
children: Deimos (Terror), Phobos
(Fear) and Harmonia (Harmony)
• He represents aggression and
destruction rather than courage or
strategy
• His affair with Aphrodite
represents the dangers of
powerful emotions like lust and
aggression
5.6 Ares and Aphrodite. Marble votive relief. Circa late fifth
century BCE. bpk, Berlin/Museo Archeologico, Venice,
Italy/Alfredo Dagli Orti/Art Resource, NY, ART332617.
Eros
• Eros was either Aphrodite’s son or her companion
• He is the animating force that propels all creatures
to reproduce and thrive
• He is shown with arrows which were believed to
induce love
• Aphrodite and Eros attracted the attention of many
philosophers, who treated them as metaphors to
explain passion, love, and lust
5.7 Eros in the role of archer. Red-figure lekythos, c. 500–480 BCE. Kimbell Art
Museum, Fort Worth, Texas / Art Resource, NY, ART334291.
Eros:
• Symbolism: male counterpart of Aphrodite
• Of course he has a dual aspect to his birth: He is referred to as an
early cosmic deity in Hesiod or his parents could be Ares and
Aphrodite
• Often depicted as an attendant of Aphrodite
• Attributes: May represent all aspects of desire and love, also the god
of male homosexuality.
• Shown often as a very handsome young man – the model for
masculine beauty in the Classical Period (500-400BCE)
From Eros to Cupid
• In Classical Athens, Eros was depicted as an
adolescent boy
• He represented a social practice wherein older
men developed sexual relationships with
younger men, which was thought to benefit
their development into mature citizens
• Later he was transformed into a group of infants
• By Roman times, infant Cupids had little
association with Eros’ role as a god of desire
5.8 Eros chases Atalanta. Detail from a red-figure
lekythos. Attributed to Douris, c. 500 BCE. Cleveland
Museum of Art, OH, USA / Leonard C. Hanna, Jr. Fund /
Bridgeman Images, CVL1761955.
Classical Mythology in Context
Theory
Aphrodite, Hephaestus, and Ares
Priapus: Son of Aphrodite
• Parentage unknown: Pan, Hermes, Dionysus, Adonis or even Zeus
• Male fertility symbol, in Archaic to Classical Period (700-400BCE)
• Later Roman Empire often referred to in comedy and used for sign of
fertility
Symposia
•
Symposia were usually held in private homes in specially designed
dining and party areas. The guests (from as few as 3 or 4 to as many
as 12 or 20) reclined on couches arranged in a circle. An entire
service of ornamental cups, bowls, plates, and vases were set out for
the occasion. After dinner, amid hearty servings of wine, the guests
would converse, engage in song contests, enjoy the professional
entertainment, or, as in the case of Plato’s The Symposium, compose
speeches or deliver mock orations.
Aristophanes: Concept of Eros
• Amusing and wise he explains that there were three sexes, but Zeus
decided to cut them in two: men who love women and women who
love men. He further cut some human women who love women, and
men who were cut further loved other men.
• Thus like our ancestors, we pursue our other half in the longing to
become whole once again.
• Eros is the yearning desire of lover and beloved to become the one
person in life and death.
How Myths Challenge Social Norms
• Anthropologists have discovered that men and
women often participated in and interpreted social
practices differently, especially in sex-segregated
societies like ancient Greece
• Classicist John J. Winkler tries to explore how
individual women might use myths and rituals like
the Adonia to criticize social norms
• He suggests that the laughter associated with the
Adonia may have represented women laughing at
male impotence
Aphrodite
and
Adonis
• Most textual evidence from ancient Greece was 5.10
accompanied by Eros and a woman.
written by men, and therefore is not a reliable
Red-figured aryballesque-lekythos.
Circa 410 BCE. Louvre Museum, Paris,
depiction of the lives of women
France. © RMN-Grand Palais / Art
Resource, NY, ART433916.
Cupid and Psyche
• Best of the story is told in Ovid’s Metamorphoses .
• Not Platonic relationship
• Motif of: mysterious bridegroom, taboo of identification, hostile mother
figure, jealous sisters, heroine’s forgetfulness, impossible labors done only
with divine assistance, descent into Hades and of course the triumph of
romantic love.
• All of these are present in the tale. (told on pp. 219-221)/
Classical Mythology in Context
Comparison
Aphrodite, Hephaestus, and Ares
Nature and Appearance of Aphrodite
• Cyprus and Cythera are the two islands associated with her. Both islands claim her throughout antiquity and
temples are found on both.
• Cypriot Aphrodite and Cythera the violet crowned are the common names you will see with her.
• Attendants of Aphrodite
• Graces (or Charities)
personification of loveliness.
• Horae (Hours) ultimately the four seasons
Ishtar and Aphrodite
• Aphrodite was associated with the island of
Cyprus, the place of her birth, where the
Phoenician goddess Astarte was also worshiped
• Over time the traits of these goddess blended in
a process called syncretism
• Statues of Aphrodite from Cyprus closely
resemble those of Astarte
5.11 Cypriot Aphrodite-Astarte. Terracotta figurine. Anonymous. Circa
late seventh century BCE. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,
Massachusetts, USA / Bridgeman Images, BST1762524.
Ishtar and Aphrodite
• Astarte shares many attributes with the
Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar, which are
then transferred to Aphrodite
• Both are associated with fertility, sexuality,
war, and the sea, both have a male consort
who dies
• Both have powers which are contained by or
associated with their clothing
5.12 Cypro-Archaic Astarte II. Terracotta
figurines. Circa 600–480 BCE. Image copyright
© The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Image
source: Art Resource, NY, ART500335.
Classical Mythology in Context
Reception
Aphrodite, Hephaestus, and Ares
Bust of Sappho – Kerakomykos
Sappho and The Lyric/Melic Age
•
Sappho – Home is Mytilene (Lesbos)
•
The bookish schoolmistress
•
The Tenth Muse
•
The 20th century Sappho the lesbian and feminist figurehead
•
There is Sappho the beautiful and tragic
•
She has been the inspiration of philosophers and pornographers
•
Clerics and Popes banned her and Catullus honored her in his life and poetry
•
Actually women in the poetry of Sappho existed in very social world, a world devoid of men, until the moment of
marriage.
•
In these spaces women shared intimate and lonely times together sharing bonds that were only available to them
not between men and women. What Sappho does is give life and language to this period.
Pygmalion
• Ovid will tell the well-known story of the sculptor who desired a pure
woman; unlike the women of Cyprus.
• He sculpted a beautiful marble statue and prayed to Aphrodite at her
festival
• When he returned home his beautiful statue had come to life to
honor his loyalty and piety.
Pygmalion in Hollywood
• Ovid tells the story of Pygmalion, a sculptor who is disgusted by
prostitution associated with the worship of Aphrodite
• Instead of a real woman, Pygmalion creates a statue of a beautiful
woman and falls in love with it
• Aphrodite brings the statue to life, and Pygmalion marries her
• The tale of Pygmalion has been a popular theme in contemporary
cinema, and has been used to consider both social questions and
questions of romance and desire
• Pygmalion ensures his own emotional autonomy by loving an object,
not a woman
Pygmalion in Hollywood
• George Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion
attempted to lampoon the British
class system rather than the
romantic foibles of his lead
character
• Pretty Woman focuses instead on
the romantic relationship between
the two characters and the
potential for Vivian to redeem
Edward from being emotionally
dead
5.13 Playbill from George Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion,
1940. Everett Collection. MSDPYGM EC001.
• In Lars and the Real Girl, Lars’ relationship with a doll leads to real relationships that eventu
Unrequited Love: Aphrodite and Adonis
• Adonis: son of the incestuous relationship between Cinyras and Myrrha.
• Lover of Aphrodite who is killed in a boar hunt his blood become the
anemone
• He represents the archetype of the dying and rising consort of a mothergoddess/fertility deity
• Has origins in Asia Minor with matching myths for Astarte. Ceremonial
worship with the singing of dirges and wailing.
• Persephone and Inanna: Adonis was kept in a box for Persephone to guard
but she can’t resist keeping him so Zeus settles it with seasonal
resurrection.
Cybele and Attis
Myth of the Great Mother and her consort
Cybele originally a bisexual deity
Her severed organs were transplanted and
Became Attis
He loved another but Cybele was so jealous
She drove him mad. In his madness he
Castrated himself.
Cybele repents and Zeus allows the body of
Attis to never decay.
Archetype of a vegetation rebirth celebrated
In Spring.
Aphrodite and Mortal Men
• Adonis becomes and anemone and Anchises becomes the father of
Aeneas.
• Zeus’ revenge is to have Aphrodite fall in love with a human as she has
bragged about her power over the other deities regarding their love lives
• In the story of Anchises exemplifies the short life span of humans in the
view of the gods. He will grow old and frail as she never ages. Their love
produces the Trojan Hero Aeneas and founder of the later Romans. …if you
could live on as you are now, and if you could be called my husband, then
grief would not cloud my anxious heart. ..soon you will be enveloped by
pitiless old age…and is despised by the gods.” (p. 209)
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