Race Ethnicity and Disaster

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Disasters,1999, 23(2):156^173 Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States: A Review of the Literature Alice Fothergill University of Colorado Enrique G.M. Maestas University of Texas JoAnne DeRouen Darlington Western Illinois University In this paper we synthesise past disaster research that addresses issues of race and ethnicity in the United States. Using an eight-stage typology to organise the findings, this literature review presents the results from a wide range of studies. The synthesis shows how various racial and ethnic groups perceive natural hazard risks and respond to warnings, how groups may be differentially affected, both physically and psychologically, and how disaster effects vary by race and ethnicity during the periods of emergency response, recovery and reconstruction. We show that studies have important findings, many illustrating that racial and ethnic communities in the US are more vulnerable to natural disasters, due to factors such as language, housing patterns, building construction, community isolation and cultural insensitivities. By presenting these studies together, we are able to witness patterns of racial and ethnic inequalities that may be more difficult to see or interpret in individual studies that take place in one specific time and place. We conclude the review with policy and research recommendations. Key words: race and ethnicity, United States, natural disasters. The environmental justice movement examines social and racial inequities in exposure to technological risks and hazards, monitors environmental racism in the siting of hazardous materials, and seeks to eradicate the disproportionate vulnerability faced by racial and ethnic communities in the US due to technological hazards (Bullard, 1990, 1994). Advocates of the environmental justice movement work to compile evidence to illustrate how certain racial and ethnic groups are disadvantaged in order to change policies and protect marginalised and less powerful communities in the US. As a result of their efforts, there is considerable national attention on this issue. While public concern grows over equity issues bound up with technological risks and hazards, less attention has been given to natural risks and hazards and the social inequities displayed in vulnerability to them. According to Blaikie et al. (1994), vulnerability may apply to a person or group in terms of their ‘capacity to anticipate, cope with, resist, and recover from the impact of a natural hazard’ (9). People’s vulnerability to natural hazards is determined not so much by the event itself but, by ß Overseas Development Institute, 1999. Published by Blackwell Publishers, Oxford OX4 1JF, UK and 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148, USA. Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States 157 social, economic and political processes, society creates different conditions under which people face hazards (Blaikie et al., 1994). In terms of racial and ethnic communities, we believe that there are links between racism, vulnerability and economic power in the disaster context that need to be explored. The disaster field has long acknowledged that natural disasters are ‘social’ events, having their foundation in the social structure, and recently the dialogue surrounding the vulnerability of racial and ethnic communities in the US has increased (Anderson, 1996; Peacock et al., 1997). None the less, a synthesis of the research outlining this vulnerability is lacking. As it stands, the existing studies on racial and ethnic differences cover such a wide spectrum of time, disaster event, place and racial group, that it is difficult to identify patterns and draw conclusions. The goal of this article is to review and synthesise the existing research literature on issues of race and ethnicity in times of disaster in the US in order to take stock of what is known and to identify gaps in our knowledge. The aim is to be as thorough, inclusive and exhaustive as possible in the review, and we draw on both qualitative and quantitative studies. The Natural Hazards Center Library at the University of Colorado was a starting-point for collecting all articles that focused on the social aspects of natural hazards and disasters. The majority of the articles reviewed here were identified by electronic searches of the database. We focused on the US, as previously much more attention has been paid to marginalised populations in other countries (see, for example Blaikie et al., 1994). We used the terms ‘race’ and ‘ethnicity’, but each study used a variety of social labels for different individuals and groups, such as Anglos (white Americans) or blacks, African-Americans and more recently ‘people of colour’. As each study used different racial and ethnic terms, we have made an effort to present the terms used in the original research, in order to stay closest to the authors’ original meanings. Similarly, if the authors failed to place their findings in the context of the larger population, the information from the original article did not permit us to do so in this review either. To present the findings, we use a typology based on the stages of a disaster event. Borrowing from Fothergill (1996), the typology expands the cyclical framework of the human ecological perspective which uses the following categories: preparedness, response, recovery and mitigation. The expanded typology consists of eight categories, based on the stages of a disaster: risk perception; preparedness behaviour; warning communication and response; physical impacts; psychological impacts; emergency response; recovery; and finally, reconstruction. This typology, designed for detailed literature reviews, uses refined categories as they provide more detail in the analysis, allow for more understanding of issues of stratification and help to pin-point the gaps in our knowledge base. We focus solely on climatological and geophysical hazards and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods and earthquakes. The results of the review follow; explanations for the findings are provided only if they were given by the original author. Research findings Risk perception This section examines how people viewed the risks and threats of disasters, and presents evidence of how groups held different risk perceptions. The research record 158 A. Fothergill, E. Maestas and J.D. Darlington shows that the findings for racial and ethnic groups’ perception of risk were mixed. Some illustrate that racial and ethnic communities in the US had a heightened perception of disaster risk, while others found no race or ethnicity differences. The specific research findings follow. In Ives and Furseth’s (1983) study of flooding in Charlotte, South Carolina, the results showed no significant difference in hazard perceptions along race lines. There was evidence that in the California earthquakes some immigrant groups had heightened perceptions of risk due to disasters they had previously experienced in Mexico. Prior to the Loma Prieta earthquake, the Watsonville residents who had experienced the Mexico City earthquake, or heard about it from relatives or friends, had more heightened perceptions of earthquake risks than other residents (Aptekar, 1990). Lindell et al. (1980), in research on flooding in a small town in 1978, found that Mexican-Americans tended to define a risk as high much less often than whites, even though they lived in equally hazardous areas. In terms of feelings of fatalism and risk perception, a study done by Turner et al. (1980) of earthquake threats in southern California, discovered differences between Anglos, blacks and Mexican-Americans. Their study found that blacks were much more fatalistic about earthquakes than Anglos, and felt that there was little or nothing one could do to protect against them. Mexican-Americans and white Anglos were about equal in their fatalistic feelings. However, some studies purport that white males as a category were the least worried about the risks of natural disasters. Palm (1996) discovered that white men were consistently the least concerned group about the risk to their homes in her study. Blanchard-Boehm (1997) reported that blacks were most likely to perceive the chances of a major earthquake seriously damaging their homes to be high or extremely high. Preparedness Preparedness is the stage of a disaster involving all pre-event preparation activities and mitigation efforts in advance of a specific warning. For example, preparedness behaviour includes stocking emergency supplies, mapping evacuation paths, response training, practice drills and disaster educational efforts. Little is known about differences in disaster preparation between racial and ethnic groups during this stage, but the limited literature suggests that there were some preparedness differences pertaining to race and ethnicity. In California, money had been allotted to preparedness after the Whittier-Narrows earthquake, yet information about these efforts were disseminated only in English (Tierney, 1993). Mejer (1994) explained that there is great cultural diversity in the ways families and communities enact a ‘culture of safety’ (201). Before Hurricane Andrew hit, black and Hispanic families were more likely than Anglo families to have been helped by relatives in preparing for the disaster (Morrow, 1997). Racial and ethnic communities were less likely to have had disaster educational opportunities in the earthquake-preparedness stage, and as such, they were also marginal to hazard preparedness (Faupel et al., 1992). Turner et al. (1980) studied various racial groups and their household preparedness and found several differences. Preparation, in their study, included having a flashlight, a battery-operated radio, a first-aid kit, stored food and water, putting latches on cupboards and giving children Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States 159 earthquake instruction. They found that white Anglos prepared more than blacks or Mexican-Americans. Mexican-Americans had less interest in earthquake insurance than blacks or white Anglos. In their sample, white Anglos had higher education levels, incomes and occupation levels of the household head than blacks or MexicanAmericans. Blanchard-Boehm (1997) found that whites were more likely than blacks, Hispanics and Asians to make structural changes to minimise the damage an earthquake might cause to their home. Of those that did not make improvements, the reason most often given was that it was too expensive. Blacks were the least likely to stockpile emergency supplies, and Asians the least likely to develop an earthquake plan. Whites were the most likely to buy earthquake insurance (Blanchard-Boehm, 1997). Warning communication and response The warning communication and response stage entails receiving warnings, such as emergency broadcasts and tornado sirens, or other risk communication of an immediate danger, and taking some type of action in response to this warning, such as evacuation. The warning response process is initiated by hearing the warning, which leads to consideration of various behaviours. There have been several studies examining racial and ethnic differences in the various components of the warning process; the results of these studies follow. Some research addressed the sources of disaster warnings. Perry and Mushkatel (1986) found that Mexican-Americans used social networks to relay warning information more than blacks or whites, and that urban residents, particularly Mexican-American ones, had higher levels of warning information exchange. Phillips and Ephraim (1992) reported that Anglos received formal information from Englishlanguage sources and Latinos received informal information from family and friends based on events they experienced in other countries. Blanchard-Boehm (1997) also found that Hispanics were more likely than whites, blacks and Asians to use social networks for disaster information. Before Hurricane Andrew, minority households were likely to report that relatives were an important information source (Morrow, 1997), while Gladwin and Peacock (1997) found that over 14 per cent of their subjects relied exclusively on Spanish-speaking television and 32 per cent listened to Spanishlanguage radio for Hurricane Andrew information. Perry and Nelson (1991) confirm more ethnic differences between Mexican-Americans, whites and blacks, in hazard information dissemination. Mexican-Americans used social networks more than the other two groups, and they preferred neighbourhood meetings more than the others. Both minority groups were more likely to prefer local television for hazard information than whites. Perry and Mushkatel (1986) discover that blacks and Mexican-Americans preferred neighbourhood meetings as a communication channel regarding hazards more than whites. Other studies examine warning source credibility. In one study, the three groups studied — blacks, whites and Mexican-Americans — found warnings from an authority to be reliable. Mexican-Americans found the mass media to be reliable, whereas blacks and whites found the media to be a less-reliable source. Whites with previous disaster experience believed more strongly in the warnings they heard, but this did not hold true for blacks and Mexican-Americans (Perry and Mushkatel, 1986). 160 A. Fothergill, E. Maestas and J.D. Darlington Another study found that there were ethnic differences in the credibility of warning sources and in the warning confirmation process: minorities were more likely to value social networks as a source than whites, and minorities attempting to confirm the warnings contacted a greater number of sources than did whites (Perry and Lindell, 1991). Several studies explored the issue of the effectiveness of warnings and risk communication. Aguirre (1988), after researching failed tornado warnings in Texas, concluded that in the US disaster warning effectiveness ‘presupposes either a common shared language and culture or the adaptation of the warning system to a multilingual and multicultural social structure’ (73). Rogers (1992) focused on the communication of risk information between the US army and a native Polynesian culture. He determined that although they spoke the same language, the cultures failed to establish a risk communication dialogue because they did not share a common framework and had not developed shared meanings for effective risk communication. These different cultural perspectives led to frustration, a breakdown of credibility and an atmosphere of contempt. Rogers explains that the members of the native group saw this situation as just part of a larger victimisation of their people. Some research has addressed responses to warnings, such as evacuation and selfprotective behaviours. In the case of evacuation, Drabek and Boggs (1968) uncovered ethnic differences following warnings of the 1965 Denver flood. While both Anglos and Mexican families depended on kinship ties in the disaster, Mexican families had more involvement and dependence on family for warning information and evacuation. In another flood situation, Lindell et al. (1980) reported that Mexican-Americans are less likely to evacuate than whites, even if their trust in the warnings was equal, but Mexican-Americans were more likely than whites to undertake some protective action short of evacuation. Perry and Mushkatel (1986) found that for blacks and whites, but not Mexican-Americans, stronger belief in the warnings heard correlated closely with taking protective actions; in evacuation, residents, regardless of race and ethnicity, chose to go to friends and relatives’ homes, in preference to shelters. Several more recent studies have examined attitudes towards evacuation and selfprotective behaviour. Morrow (1997) found that in the case of Hurricane Andrew in Florida, Hispanics were the most likely to have evacuated relatives come and stay with them during the storm. Perry and Lindell (1991), with research based on a flood in Texas and a hazardous spill in Washington, found that while there were some ethnic variations related to evacuation, overall ethnicity had a nonsignificant statistical effect on warning compliance. Goltz et al. (1992), in a study of earthquake response behaviour, found that Mexican-Americans followed a pattern of response including self-protective action at home, work and while driving. The authors noted that this could be a result of strong interpersonal networks where families had discussed earthquake topics and warnings. Gladwin and Peacock (1997) found that blacks in the evacuation zone for Hurricane Andrew were less likely to evacuate than other groups. Physical impacts The physical impact stage is concerned with the actual and immediate effects of the disaster striking a community. Physical impacts include mortality, morbidity and injury rates, as well as economic losses. Very often these rates are directly related to Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States 161 safe housing. While many studies and reports do not break statistics on physical impacts down by race and ethnicity, there are several investigations that provide this information. In general, these data suggest that minority citizens experienced different consequences as a result of natural disasters than non-minority ones. Red Cross fatality counts indicated that disaster-connected deaths were disproportionately high among ethnic minorities (Trainer and Hutton, 1972). Bates et al. (1963) found that a disproportionate number of blacks died in Hurricane Audrey; the death rate there was 38 per thousand population for whites and 322 per thousand for blacks. Moore (1958) found similar discrepancies in a tornado; 4 per cent of the white families had at least one family member seriously injured while 12 per cent of the black families had seriously injured family members. Bolin and Bolton (1986) discovered that 10 per cent of the white victims had at least one friend injured, while 20 per cent of the black victims had the same. Schmidlin (1993) reports that from 1950 to 1989 most of the Ohio tornado victims were white. Only 3.2 per cent of all tornado victims were black, well below the state’s 9.1 per cent black population; however, few blacks lived in the tornado-affected area. Unequal impact may also have been due to housing factors. In the US many ethnic group members live in apartment buildings that are often older and contain unreinforced masonry (URM), which are among those most susceptible to damage in a disaster (Bolton et al., 1993; Cooper and Laughy, 1994). Indeed, URM buildings are so heavily occupied by low-income ethnic group members that researchers used Los Angeles’s list of URM buildings to locate low-income Latino households (Bolton et al., 1993). In a post-flood survey about risk perception comparing blacks and whites in similar areas, blacks were the only respondents to estimate over $2,500 in damages and higher rates of damage estimation over $1,000 due to flooding in Charlotte, North Carolina (Ives and Furseth, 1983). Bolin and Bolton (1986) found that in the Paris, Texas tornado, damage levels were directly related to ethnicity. Their research showed that blacks, due to their older, poorly built homes, had higher levels of physical damage than whites, but lower dollar losses. They posit that structural damage is related to race and ethnicity because of segregated residential patterns and the economic restraints on safe construction. One study, however, found that in California earthquake-fault areas, while they were racially and ethnically diverse, did have slightly more white residents than in the state as a whole, and these resided in newer housing (Grow and Palm, 1981). Psychological impacts This section examined work on the emotional stress, trauma and other psychological impacts of a disaster event. Research carried out on race and ethnicity and the psychological impacts of a disaster is somewhat limited. Green (1993), in her review of psychological impacts in disaster studies, speculated that there were very few studies perhaps since researchers were uncomfortable with the topic or maybe samples are too homogeneous in terms of race. Yet, the studies that have been done have found some important correlations. Aptekar (1990) found that social class and race contributed to residents’ psychological reactions to the disasters, specifically in regard to the importance of 162 A. Fothergill, E. Maestas and J.D. Darlington collective memories. In a small South Carolina town, founded on slave labour, the African-American victims recalled — in the context of needing assistance from others after the storm — their grandparents’ stories of slave days. In particular, they recounted how their ancestors were dependent on the white plantation masters and slave owners. In Perry and Perry’s (1959) research on children’s emotional symptoms after tornadoes in rural Mississippi, they found the black children who survived fared better than white children in a different disaster. They attributed this to the black children having more support beyond the immediate family and that they had more household and farm responsibilities. These helped stabilise the children and made them feel more important to the family. This study also found that the community had trouble coming to terms with the tornado killing only blacks, as the disaster challenged their view that a just God does not discriminate between white and black. In research concerned with fear associated with earthquakes, Goltz et al. (1992) determined that the highest levels of fear about the earthquake were expressed by people with lower incomes and educational levels, women and Hispanics. The authors reported that the least fearful were whites and Asians. Garrison (1985), in a literature review on stress and disaster relocation, also found a correlation between class/ ethnicity and stress reactions. Her study found that for the poor and minorities the relocation after a disaster was also stressful. The critical variables, she found, included perceptions about increased indebtedness and the degree of control. A lack of control over the situation and the future led to feelings of helplessness and of being trapped. Shoaf (1998) related that blacks and Latinos reported the most emotional injuries in a survey done after the Northridge earthquake. A recent study (Khoury et al., 1997), examined the effects of the problems and stress from Hurricane Andrew on minor deviant behaviour among adolescents. Race and ethnicity were not related to posthurricane deviance for boys, although they were for girls; Hispanic and AfricanAmerican girls in the sample were more likely to engage in minor deviant behaviour than white non-Hispanic girls, both before and after the disaster. In a study of the psycho-social recovery of older people who survived a tornado, Bolin and Klenow (1988) also discovered race differences. They found that a higher proportion of elderly whites were psycho-socially recovered eight months after the disaster than their black counterparts, even though their housing had sustained an equal amount of damage; but elders in general recovered faster than younger people. Bolin and Klenow concluded that the black elderly had slower psycho-social recovery than whites mainly because they had fewer economic resources with which to obtain permanent housing and thus avoid multiple moves in and out of temporary housing. It is hard to know if the difference in recovery was a result of class, race or a combination of the two. Bolin and Klenow (1988) also found that family was not associated with recovery for white victims, but was positively associated with recovery for black victims. In a study of the Buffalo Creek dam collapse disaster, Gleser et al. (1981) presented some interesting findings on race and emotional recovery. In the original studies done on the community two years after the disaster, blacks fared better than whites and demonstrated less impairments as a result of the disaster. Yet, this could be attributed to the fact that the blacks lived lower down in the valley, and their community was less destroyed and suffered no fatalities. Blacks and whites in this event had similar class status. Green et al. (1990) performed a follow-up study on this community 14 years after the dam collapse and found that more blacks had delayed post-traumatic stress Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States 163 disorder (PTSD) than whites. The authors speculated that initially many blacks felt that God had protected them during the flood. Later, more prejudicial attitudes resurfaced in the community, which increased the risk among blacks for PTSD (Green et al., 1990). Emergency response The emergency response stage of a disaster is the post-impact period. It is the immediate aftermath of a disaster, the first hours, days, sometimes up to one week, depending on the event and surrounding circumstances. The material reviewed illustrates that race and ethnicity are significant variables in the stage. During the emergency response period the interactions of relief workers and victims of different races and ethnicities deserve attention, as that relationship may determine the subsequent recovery of a community. There is some indication that emergency personnel who arrive in a disaster setting to offer assistance may be culturally insensitive. Following Loma Prieta, the Red Cross brought in volunteers from the East Coast who were not sensitive to the cultural needs of the Hispanic population (Katayama, 1992). Language is often an issue. Several studies showed that emergency agencies have either too few or no bilingual personnel for bilingual populations (Phillips and Ephraim, 1992). Subervi-Velez et al. (1992) found that agencies had too few bilingual staff for Spanish speakers and were even less prepared for Asian victims. After Hurricane Andrew, much of the early relief information was provided only in English, preventing area Latinos and Haitians from receiving needed food, medical supplies and assistance information (Yelvington, 1997). In addition, some house tags, placed on homes to alert residents of the building’s status, were printed in English only (Phillips and Ephraim, 1992). After the Whittier Narrows earthquake, some Latinos reported that the English-language radio tended to have better information than the Spanish-language stations; the sole Chinese newspaper was out of date and the Hispanic radio stations focused on human-interest stories which resulted in these ethnic communities getting incorrect information (Bolton et al., 1993). Problems can also arise between victims and relief workers due to conceptual differences. For example, in Hawaii after a hurricane, research found there were difficulties in locating victims’ homes on maps, as Hawaiians and mainland Americans have different conceptions of spatial relations (Mitchell, 1985). Research illustrates that the interactions between relief personnel and racial and ethnic communities play out the pre-existing social problems and structural stratification. Following Hurricane Frederick, for instance, response workers restored power in black areas only after it was restored in white areas, and black communities received less emergency shelter, ice, food and assistance (Beady and Bolin, 1986). After the Whittier Narrows earthquake, authorities placed signs reading ‘Not Fit for Occupancy’ on buildings with English-speaking tenants, while the Spanish translation read ‘Entry Illegal’, and was posted on the buildings of Spanish-speaking residents (Cooper and Laughy, 1994: 7). Indeed, after Loma Prieta, shelters in well-off neighbourhoods had more volunteers than homeless and received visits from the mayor, while at a low-income emergency shelter it was reported that Anglo volunteers made racist remarks and the mayor paid no visits (Dhesi, 1991). 164 A. Fothergill, E. Maestas and J.D. Darlington Food and meal preparation is another area in which cultural awareness is necessary. Following the Loma Prieta earthquake, many Latinos became sick from the Anglo food prepared by relief workers as the unfamiliar ingredients were difficult for them to digest (Phillips, 1993). In the aftermath of Hurricane Hugo, Mexican women and the military relief workers held a ‘cook-off’ at a shelter site to end disagreements over which food was preferred by the hurricane victims; they chose the Mexican fare (Morrow and Enarson, 1994). Media coverage also affects the rate to which a community progresses in the response, recovery, and reconstruction periods (Rodrigue and Rovai, 1994). Recent studies show that ‘media narratives of disaster are not particularly reliable in their representation of damages in socio-economically and ethnically diverse areas’ (op. cit.: 6). Subervi-Velez et al. (1992) suggested that the English-language news focused on San Francisco, and not on Watsonville, with its large minority population. The existing media bias, with more media attention and overall coverage to wealthier, whiter communities, largely contributed to the fact that these communities recovered more quickly (Rodrigue and Rovai, 1994). The researchers posited that ‘the socioeconomic structure, together with and reinforced by the media, clearly affect the abilities of communities to recover from disaster: poorer communities recover more slowly than more prosperous (especially whiter) ones’ (op. cit.: 6–7). Specifically, the emergency and disaster management personnel often assessed the hardest-hit areas immediately after a disaster by turning to the media coverage and then responding to those areas featured. Recovery For the purposes of this review, the recovery stage is considered the one-year period following a disaster. It is usually characterised as a time of returning to ‘normality’ and of rebuilding, allocating resources, finding housing and repairing lifelines in a community. The material reviewed found significant patterns in terms of race, ethnicity and recovery. Socio-economic factors contribute to the marginalisation of some communities of colour during the recovery stage. Many minorities had greater difficulties recovering due to lower incomes, fewer savings, greater unemployment, less insurance and less access to communication channels and information (Bolin and Bolton, 1986; Cooper and Laughy, 1994; Peacock et al., 1997). After Hurricane Andrew, racial differences in insurance settlement claims were found. Blacks and non-Cuban Hispanics were more likely than Anglos to receive insufficient settlement amounts, although there were no differences between Hispanics and Anglos if they had insurance with a major company. The results showed that black neighbourhoods were not likely to have insurance with major companies, which may be due to red-lining practices (Peacock and Girard, 1997). Bolin’s (1993) earthquake research found that Anglo employment was more severely disrupted because Anglos dominated the employment of the central business district, which was largely destroyed; Hispanics faced other economic troubles. Hispanics were unlikely to have household insurance, and they were more likely to have moved more frequently after a disaster than Anglos. Non-whites were more likely than whites to cite churches and the Red Cross as helpful sources of information during recovery, and less likely than whites to report that television, radio Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States 165 or newspapers were useful (McDonnell et al., 1995). After the Northridge earthquake, many Latinos faced political and cultural marginalisation, and limited housing and employment opportunities (Bolin and Stanford, 1998). Studies have also addressed racial and ethnic differences in who received recovery assistance. Upper-middle-class victims were more likely to know how to work through the government system, fill out forms, and manoeuvre within the relief system — with the result that they were more likely to receive aid than non-whites and poor victims (Aptekar, 1990). Bolin and Bolton (1986) concluded that blacks and Hispanics were more likely to be left out of the formal aid network and to recover economically more slowly. Yet, another study finds that Mexican-Americans, as they had higher losses and fewer resources, were more likely to use federal aid and housing programmes (Bolin, 1993). Another study also found that minorities might have used more federal aid (Bolin and Stanford, 1991). They might also have used mass shelters more; after Hurricane Andrew, the tent cities population was roughly 50–60 per cent Latino and 30 per cent black (Yelvington, 1997). Some research addressed housing issues during recovery. In the recovery following Tropical Storm Agnes in 1972, one study found that initially housing was assigned along racial lines: whites were assigned to a new suburban housing development and blacks were assigned to a high-rise housing project, a discriminatory practice that was uncovered and stopped. Otherwise the researchers found little evidence of racial discrimination, although they criticised the federal agencies for not setting up mechanisms to prevent racial discrimination in future post-disaster situations (American Friends Service Committee, 1972). Bolin (1993) disclosed that landlords, wanting to avoid rent-control rules, evicted tenants for late rent after the earthquake, which occurred on the first of the month. Relocation after a 1970 tornado in Texas placed Anglo, Negro and Mexican-Americans in one neighbourhood, whereas prior to the disaster the three ethnic groups were highly segregated residentially. The researchers found language barriers to be a large factor in the adjustment of the groups, but the majority had favourable attitudes towards the new post-disaster integration. The least willing to adjust to the new neighbours were Anglos, and children of all groups intermingled more than adults with other racial groups (Minnis and McWilliams, 1971). Studies have also covered issues of residence status and household structure. Many undocumented immigrants were concerned over the unclear Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS) policy, and thus, shied away from recovery assistance for fear of deportation (Subervi-Velez et al., 1992; Bolin, 1993; Cooper and Laughy, 1994). After Hurricane Andrew, this fear of immigration officials may be one reason for the low occupancy rates at the tent cities when the military first opened them (Yelvington, 1997). Non-traditional family structures may be a problem with officials in disaster aftermaths. Following Hurricane Andrew, FEMA had trouble with some of south Florida’s family structures, particularly Haitian families, who often had several families in one household. FEMA’s temporary assistance was set up for nuclear households with one head of household (Morrow, 1997). The relationship between the recovery agencies and the disaster victims also illustrates the relevance of race, ethnicity and cultural perceptions. After the villagers of two Alaskan villages lost their homes to an earthquake and tsunami, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) did not take into account the native culture and lifestyle (Davis, 1986). While the villagers centred family life in the kitchen, not the living-room, BIA 166 A. Fothergill, E. Maestas and J.D. Darlington built houses with very small kitchens and large living-rooms, which remained unused or became storage areas after the villagers moved in. In addition, the new houses were equipped with bathtubs, another feature that went unused or to store canned goods, as the villagers used steam baths (Davis, 1986). The aftermath of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake, Watsonville contains a useful illustration of the importance of avoiding an us-and-them relationship. While the Latino population of Watsonville was 60 per cent, the city decision-makers and Red Cross officials were predominantly white — a situation that contributed to the conflict. One study cited the example of an engineer who told the residents they had 15 minutes to remove their belongings before he condemned their buildings. He later admitted he exercised this power only for his own convenience and he felt that if he gave them more than 15 minutes they would bring out ‘unimportant’ items (Aptekar, 1990). After Hurricane Andrew, many non-Englishspeaking women of colour, especially single women in desperate need of home repairs, were vulnerable to the dishonest practices of construction contractors (Enarson and Morrow, 1997). In San Francisco, community-based organisations invited the Red Cross to work with them to do outreach in low-income and non-English-speaking communities, but the Red Cross declined (Subervi-Velez et al., 1992). Recovery workers must account for a community’s culture, history and prior experience, as overlooking these factors may lead to more problems in recovery. Following several earthquakes, many of the Latino victims had experienced or had been told, through family and friend connections, of earthquakes in their countries of origin, such as the Mexico City 1985 earthquake and the deadly aftershocks, and thus shunned the temporary shelters (Bolton et al., 1993; Phillips, 1993). In Miami, immigrants from countries with a history of political repression, such as El Salvador and Guatemala, were averse to getting help (Enarson and Morrow, 1997). In California, some residents of Central American origin found the National Guard tents and fences to be reminders of death camps in their native countries and refused to use them (Phillips, 1993). In the tent cities erected after Hurricane Andrew, there were many ethnic conflicts; one tent occupant, for example, continually played a tape of a song with lyrics containing racial slurs (Yelvington, 1997). Reconstruction The final stage in the typology is reconstruction, the last period in the disaster cycle and one that is sometimes neglected. The reconstruction phase follows recovery, thus extending from approximately the first year after the event to several years later. Reconstruction surrounds a community’s long-term restoration, including rebuilding, replacing infrastructure, obtaining loans and assistance, and locating permanent housing. Once again, the disaster record illustrates the influence of race and ethnicity during reconstruction. The successful reconstruction of a community often depends on many structural factors, playing out primarily in the field of housing options. If a community is suffering from poverty, unemployment and homelessness prior to a disaster, for example, it will face many related obstacles, such as housing crunches, following the event. Overall, while some very poor victims were better off in the short-term recovery (Aptekar, 1990), it appears that communities of colour were more likely to have experienced a decline in their standard of living than white communities in the Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States 167 long term (Bolin and Stanford, 1991). In Watsonville, California after the Loma Prieta earthquake, the town lost 8 per cent of its housing stock (Phillips, 1993). In a black community in Florida, Hurricane Andrew created housing and economic problems on top of existing poverty, a limited economy and negligible political power (Dash et al., 1997). A 20-year follow-up study of two Alaskan villages of native populations found that the village that was growing prior to the earthquake and tsunami was able to recover completely and prosper in the long run. However, the village that was declining before the disaster had ceased to exist 20 years later (Davis, 1986). Bolin (1993) remarks that post-earthquake problems included housing shortages and rent increases, which were especially problematic for low-income and minority populations in Los Angeles; many Hispanics were attached to their neighbourhoods and did not want to relocate. After Hurricane Andrew, blacks were less likely than Anglos to relocate, and data show that blacks remained in badly damaged areas. This may have happened because of economic constraints as well as the barriers of residential segregation (Girard and Peacock, 1997). Members of racial and ethnic minorities are less likely to qualify and receive various types of aid, including Small Business Association (SBA) loans, and to have trouble with the housing process. A study of the aftermath of a Texas tornado, for example, found that whites were much more likely to qualify and receive SBA loans than blacks (Bolin, 1986; Bolin and Bolton, 1986). After the Northridge earthquake, FEMA and SBA loans and grants were not very accessible to ethnic-minority households (Bolin and Stanford, 1998). In the Loma Prieta reconstruction, those who had illegal housing prior to the event were ineligible for disaster aid (Phillips, 1993). Minority groups may also have trouble securing permanent housing for reasons other than purely economic ones. Phillips (1993) also reported that there were allegations of racism in the housing process. Language, too, is cited as a barrier in the housing market, as well as in the aid and relief system. Bolin (1993) found that the majority of Latino victims could not speak English well enough to use the relief system. In Watsonville, language surfaced again as a housing problem, as those in need of a place to live were Spanish-speaking and the rental market was dominated by Anglos (Phillips, 1993). The reconstruction stage of a disaster may be a time of opportunity for change. There is some indication in the literature that communities may become politicised due to the social disruption and inequities of the disaster. Enarson and Morrow (1997) reported that Mexican farmworkers, Haitian immigrants and African-American church women ‘galvanized their neighborhoods into action’ (128). Indeed, after Andrew, women representing all of the major ethnic and racial groups formed an emergent political coalition, in response to the official, homogeneous, organisation formed for Miami’s reconstruction (Enarson and Morrow, 1997). Bolin (1993) found that during reconstruction the evidence of social inequality led to political and social conflict and litigious actions of citizens against officials, which, in turn provided an opportunity for change. His study discovered that coalitions of community activists, federal agencies and private organisations pushed to build low-income housing as part of the planned reconstruction in Santa Cruz County. These integrated efforts were very effective and some Latinos ultimately experienced an improvement in their living conditions. Other studies found that disasters can open political dialogues on social inequalities (Bolin and Stanford, 1991) or create an enhanced sense of ethnic identity (Davis, 1986). Peacock and Ragsdale (1997) reported that there is the possibility that Hurricane 168 A. Fothergill, E. Maestas and J.D. Darlington Andrew played a role in post-disaster elections in which several African-Americans were elected to public office. Simile (1995) found that after a hurricane in South Carolina, white church groups gave charity and sympathy to poor, rural black victims, while in Watsonville, California, following the Loma Prieta earthquake, Latinos engaged in collective action against the white power structure. According to this research, disasters may provide the opportunity for contentious collective action, but only groups engaged in such action before a disaster will be likely to engage after the disaster. Finally, Barry (1997), in his recent book on the 1927 Mississippi flood, argues that the mistreatment of blacks during the flood affected the black shift from the Republican to the Democratic party, as well as the migration of blacks to northern states. Discussion and conclusion This synthesis of findings from previous studies allows us to see what a natural disaster means in terms of race and ethnicity. The studies presented, taken as a whole, paint a picture of increased vulnerability and risk to disasters for racial and ethnic communities in the US. Given these current — albeit incomplete — data, there are some policy changes that can be initiated in order to decrease the inequitable risk and vulnerability. However, this literature review also points to gaps in the knowledge base and the need for more extensive research. Therefore, we will briefly discuss our recommendations for future policy, based on what we now know, and future research, based on the identified knowledge gaps. In light of the findings and the evidence of racial and ethnic inequities, we have several policy recommendations. First, that large-scale organisations and agencies working on disasters should understand the specific diversity issues of each area, plan for changing demographics of the area and ensure that members of all communities are involved in the disaster-reduction process. For example, agencies could forge connections with neighbourhood associations, churches and other community groups, so that the community, and not outside organisations, can decide what its needs are in a disaster. It is important that groups are not left out of the disaster-reduction process; people who are marginalised in the early stages are marginalised later — they need to be part of the planning from the beginning. In addition, we recommend the multilingual dissemination of information in all eight stages of a disaster. These efforts will help remove language barriers and promote cultural sensitivity: two problems that surfaced in the review. Our suggestion does not imply, however, that agencies are not working in this area; several agencies have made a concerted effort to incorporate better policies for a diverse population. The Red Cross, for example, after receiving criticism in the Loma Prieta earthquake, worked to improve and become more aware of diversity issues before making changes in their organisation. The Association of Bay Area Governments (ABAG) and the United States Geological Survey (USGS), after a Bay-area earthquake, produced a large newspaper insert about the risk in a dozen languages. FEMA, which also publishes materials in several languages, recently showed more flexibility and increased sensitivity in their disaster-assistance process. The California Governor’s Office of Emergency Services (OES) has also made strides to educate, prepare and assist those in their diverse region. These efforts and others not mentioned should be applauded, and we recommend more efforts in this area. Race, Ethnicity and Disasters in the United States 169 We strongly recommend that policy-makers address the issue of housing. One of the most consistent and significant findings in the review is that racial and ethnic communities in the US face enormous housing problems in a disaster. These problems include living in unsafe buildings which expose them to greater risks and dealing with housing shortage obstacles following a disaster. The lack of affordable, safe housing after a disaster is partly due to the fact that the private housing market hinders the reconstruction of low- and moderate-income rental unit rebuilding — perhaps due to red-lining by insurance companies. We recommend that policies are initiated to assist vulnerable populations with housing, such as ordinances to require landlords to make mitigative improvements, or provide incentives or tax breaks to ensure that they do so voluntarily, and policies that require insurance companies to cover minority communities. We also recommend that cities establish and enforce rent-control policies, to ensure that rents do not skyrocket when they have been repaired or upgraded. The literature review, while exhibiting certain patterns of inequalities that merit policy change, also illustrates that many gaps exist in our disaster literature on the topic of race and ethnicity in the US. We wish to make several recommendations about the direction of future research. Many believe that the vulnerability of racial and ethnic communities to disasters is mainly due to economic status and resources, and argue we should be addressing class issues, not those of race and ethnicity (Mileti et al., 1992; Mileti, 1999). It is true that racial and ethnic communities are disproportionately poor in the US, and that the proportion of poor among racial and ethnic minorities in the nation are growing. Yet, it is important that we do not dismiss issues of race and ethnicity. While in many ways they cannot be separated from issues of economic resources and power, in other ways they explain marginalisation in the disaster experience in a manner that socioeconomic factors cannot. For example, there is evidence in this review of cultural ignorance, ethnic insensitivity, racial isolation and racial bias in housing, information dissemination and relief assistance. We recommend that more detailed, in-depth qualitative research be done to uncover the ways in which race and ethnicity contribute to vulnerability in a disaster. For example, we need to explain why racial and ethnic communities may have higher-risk perception, but lower preparedness levels. In terms of subjects, we need more research about Asians and Native Americans. We also recommend that future research be developed in conjunction with practitioners working in local communities. It has been found that research geared towards a particular community with specific needs is more likely to be useful, constructive, and thus, implemented. For example, as a community recovers from a disaster, various service providers need to know if their outreach work is successful, and social scientists have the tools to assess the extent and outcome of their efforts. As a research community invested in reducing the vulnerability of marginalised individuals, groups and communities, we need to work with people in the field and gear our research projects towards the needs of practitioners and community members. In addition, work in these research projects needs to acknowledge and take into account the historical and cultural context and be careful with generalisations. We hope that this review and recommendations will help to steer a productive course towards ending the vulnerability of many minority communities in the US to disasters. Like the environmental-justice field, the disaster community is concerned about issues of justice and equity. We hope that disaster scholars follow the 170 A. Fothergill, E. Maestas and J.D. Darlington environmental-justice researchers and focus more efforts on issues of racial equality. In the last decade the disaster research community has begun more thoroughly to document racial and ethnic inequalities in disaster risk and vulnerability in hopes of improving the situation and taking measures to prepare for future events. This literature synthesis, while the depth of the findings vary for each stage, provides us with enough evidence to conclude that racial and ethnic communities are more vulnerable to natural disasters and that the reasons for this are complex, at times enigmatic, and finding solutions will be an arduous but worthwhile challenge to all who work in the disaster field. 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