Biopsychology Exam 2 Chapter 6 Motivation and Regulation of Internal States-Chapter 6 Define Motivation Be able to identify and compare and contrast theoretical approaches to motivation (instinct theory, drive theory, incentive theory and arousal theory). Define homeostasis What is a set point? Be able to explain the mechanism for temperature regulation. What is the role of the preoptic area of the hypothalamus in regulating temperature? What are the five taste sensations? Where are the receptors for taste located? What are papillae? What is sensory-specific satiety? What is learned taste preference? What is learned taste aversion? Be able to explain the digestive process. Be able to compare and contrast the absorptive and fasting phase of digestion Understand the pathways for initiating hunger and inhibiting hunger (including all the following questions). Think specifically about which ones are related to hunger and which to satiety (you are full) What does the lateral hypothalamus do? What does the paraventricular nucleus do? What is glucoprivic hunger? What is lipoprivic hunger? What is the role of the accurate nucleus in hunger? What is the role of neuropeptide Y? What is the role of ghrelin? What is the role of AGRP (Agouti-related protein)? What is the role of the stomach receptors in hunger? What is the role of POMC (proopiomelanocortin)? What is the role of CCK? What is the role of PYY? What is the role of leptin and insulin? How many adults are overweight? How many people in the United States are obese? What is BMI? What BMI level signifies overweight and what level of BMI signals obese? What health risks are associated with obesity? What are the physiological explanations for obesity? Understand the contribution of heredity to obesity. What is basal metabolism? How is basal metabolism related to weight loss? What is the relationship between set point and weight? What are treatments for obesity? What are the problems with medication for obesity? 1 What is the relationship between serotonin and carbohydrate intake? Does loss of weight cure obesity? Define Anorexia Nervosa? From a physiological perspective—do anorexics lack hunger? Define Bulimia Nervosa. From a physiological perspective—are bulimics battling hunger? Does culture play a role in the development of bulimia and anorexia? How? What is the relationship between serotonin and bulimia? What is the relationship between serotonin and anorexia?? What is the evidence that obesity has a physiological cause? What are the common physiological deficits that obese individuals and drug abusers share? What are effective treatments for obese individuals? 2 Study Guide Chapter 9 Chapter 9-Hearing and Language What are frequency, amplitude and complexity? Understand the auditory mechanism for hearing (pinna, middle ear, inner ear). Know the structures of the pinna, middle and inner ear. What are the divisions of the cochlea? What is the role of inner hair cells in the cochlea? What is the role of outer hair cells? Understand how the cochlea transmits sounds to the auditory nerve. What areas of the brain are involved in hearing? Understand what can damage hearing Differences between hearing aid and cochlear implant What is dyslexia? Understand the physiological differences in the brains of individuals with dyslexia. What is the magnocellular hypothesis? What is the phonological hypothesis? Biopsychology Study Guide Chapter 10 Vision and Visual Perception Chapter 10 Why is vision and important sense? Do different wavelengths of light result in different colors? Be able to identify the following parts of the eye and their function (retina, pupil, Iris, cornea, lens, and fovea, blind spot, ciliary muscle) What is accommodation? How does the lens bend to see object at close range? How does the lens bend to see objects in the distance? What are the photoreceptors? Know the difference between rods and cones What is rhodopsin? What is Iodopsin? Are rods most concentrated in the fovea? What is visual acuity? Understand the processing between photoreceptors, bipolar cells and ganglion cells. What is the visual field? What is unique about the processing of vision in the brain? What is the visual pathway for processing of visual information (start with rods and cones end with visual cortex?) Understand trichromatic theory. Understand Opponent Process Theory. Understand the Combined Theory -Hurvich-Jameson Theory What is color-blindness? Why are feature detectors important? Define lateral inhibition. Why is it important? Why are ganglion cells important? What do simple cells do? What do complex cells do? What does the parvocellular system do? What does the magnocellular system do? Understand the ventral stream of visual processing Understand the dorsal stream of visual processing What is Prosopagnosia? What is Synesthesia? Psych 002- V01 19984 Psychology 002 Biological Psychology Fall 2018 9:40 a.m.-11:05 a.m., Mon/Wed BSC 106 INSTRUCTOR: Ruby R. Christian-Brougham, Ph.D. Office: Behavioral Sciences, Room 109 Phone: 818-947-2818 Email: christrr@lavc.edu (preferred mode of communication) DROP IN HOURS: Monday and Wednesday: 8:45am-9:15 a.m., and Monday: 11:10 a.m.– 11:45a.m. Tuesday: 8:45 a.m.–9:15 a.m., and Tuesday/Thursday 12:45–1:00 p.m. (or by prearranged appointment) PREREQUISTES: Psychology 001 with a grade of “C” or better. REQUIRED TEXT: You may use the 5th, 4th or 3rd edition: Garrett, B. (2018). Brain and behavior: An introduction to behavioral neuroscience. (5th Edition). Los Angeles, California: Sage Publications. ISBN number: 9781506349206 Garrett, B. (2015). Brain and behavior: An introduction to biological psychology. (4th Edition). Los Angeles, California: Sage Publications. ISBN number: 1-4522-6095-8 Garrett, B. (2010). Brain and behavior: An introduction to biological psychology. (3rd Edition). Los Angeles, California: Sage Publications. ISBN number: 9781412981682 An eTextbook digital rental of the textbook is available at: Etextbook rental website STUDENT LEARNING OBJECTIVES: This course investigates the relationship between the brain and behavior. This course will provide you with a foundation in basic nervous system anatomy and functioning. We will explore what is currently known about the biological basis of consciousness, perception, sleep, learning, eating behaviors, psychological disorders, sexual behavior, motivation, and emotion. After successfully completing this course, you will be able to distinguish various biological systems that are fundamental to behavior and experience. WEBSITE RESOURCES:     Course syllabus, written assignments, study guides, PowerPoint presentations, and other course relevant information will be posted at Haiku website . Instructions for using the website will be distributed in class. To maximize communication you need to regularly check your LACCD email account. The instructions for obtaining LACCD email address and password are at: LAVC email instructions You have access to e-learning tools at publisher site free e-tools ( https://edge.sagepub.com/garrett5e) 1 Psych 002- V01 19984  Supportive materials featured include an action plan, eflashcards, quizzes, and animations. In addition, tackling the key terms and quiz at the end of each chapter will help you learn the material well. IMPORTANT NOTE: Printing out PowerPoint presentations from Haiku website before class will help you to write less in class and participate more in class discussion (they are available in various formats). Course Requirements: Your grade will be determined in 6 ways: (1) three exams, (2) a final exam, (3) three quizzes, (4) one written assignment, (5) a library assignment, and (6) a group PowerPoint presentation. You may also participate in an extra credit assignment. Examinations: Four examinations will be administered during the course of the semester. The exams will cover material from lectures, assigned readings in your text, and videos. Exams will consist of multiple-choice and true/false questions. You are required to bring an 882ES Scantron and a #2 pencil to each exam. Do not fold, bend, crease, or crumple your Scantron form because this may cause the scanner to misread your test. Exams 1, 2, 3, 4 are worth 100 points each and the lowest exam grade will be dropped. There are no make-up exams You may bring one 8.5 x11 sheet of instructional notes (double-sided) to each exam. The instructional notes must be either hand written or typed. You may not bring Xeroxed, commercial products or other types of materials. The instructional notes may not be shared with another student during testing. The instructor will review all notes to ensure that they meet the requirements listed above prior to the examination. The instructional notes will be collected by the instructor at the end of the exam. During an examination you may not have access to any electronic device (cell phone) and you may not use a dictionary. IMPORTANT NOTE: If you want to review your exam you must come to an office hour within 2 weeks of the exam date. Final Examination The final exam is cumulative and may not be dropped. The final exam is worth 130 points. You may bring five 8.5 x11 sheets of instructional notes (double-sided) to the final exam. The instructional notes must be either hand written or typed. You may not bring Xeroxed, commercial products or other types of materials. The instructional notes may not be shared with another student during testing. The instructor will review all notes to ensure that they meet the requirement listed above prior to the examination. All instructional notes will be collected by the instructor at the end of the final exam. You are required to bring an 882ES Scantron and a #2 pencil to the final exam. Do not fold, bend, crease, or crumple your Scantron form because this may cause the scanner to misread your test. Quizzes: Four quizzes will be administered throughout the semester. Quizzes will consist of multiple choice and true or false questions. Questions will be drawn from class lectures and from your text. Each quiz is worth 5 points. There are no make-up quizzes; the lowest quiz grade will be dropped. Quizzes will take place in the first 10 minutes of class (be on time). A Scantron is not required for quizzes. IMPORTANT NOTE: The department of psychology has a strict policy regarding taking exams and quizzes on the days they are scheduled. The policy is as follows: there are NO make-up exams or quizzes. If an absence is known ahead of time, you must make arrangements one week before the scheduled date of the examination or quiz. Policies of the psychology department prevent me from offering makeup exams or quizzes. 2 Psych 002- V01 19984 Written Assignments: In order to further develop your critical thinking skills and assist you in learning concepts and applications of course material, you will be required to complete 1 of 3 written assignments. You may not complete a second written assignment for extra credit. Each written assignment is worth 35 points.  Written Assignment # 1: Biological Roots of Criminality: You will read a few chapters that argue for criminal behavior as biological in origin. You will also consider how the environment may contribute to criminal behavior.  Written Assignment #2: Motivation: Why you do the things you do? You will demonstrate that you understand the biopsychological mechanisms that motivate your behavior and how these mechanisms interact with learning and culture.  Written Assignment #3: Neurocognitive Enhancement. You will demonstrate that you understand the personal and societal costs and benefits associated with neurocognitive enhancement. Each of written assignment will be graded using the following criteria: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Demonstration of critical thinking, ability to identify important ideas and provide appropriate rationale for those ideas Appropriately supporting claims with textbook or reading Organization, comprehensiveness and completeness of your responses Adherence to the written instructions Spelling and grammar IMPORTANT NOTE: LATE ASSIGNMENTS ARE NOT ACCEPTED. If you have a printer problem you must email your assignment by 11:05 a.m. on the due date of the assignment. You must ask me to confirm receipt. This will be your official documentation of when you turned in your assignment. If requested, you must produce this documentation. You must bring a printed copy of the assignment to the next class. If the printed copy is different from the original copy you will receive “0” points on the assignment. It is also your responsibility to backup your assignments. LACCD offers free cloud backup services. Other webhosts (e.g., dropbox) also offer free cloud backup services. You should be knowledgeable about how to use these services and be able to retrieve any of your assignments from any device. If you need assistance with cloud backup, see me well in advance of due dates. I am happy to walk you through this process early in the semester during my office hours. Library Assignment You will be required to complete a library assignment. The library assignment will be worth 15 points. Group Project and Oral Presentation: Working in small groups, students will create a PowerPoint presentation that demonstrates the students’ ability to identify, organize, integrate, synthesize, and critically evaluate evidence. The topic for the PowerPoint presentation must involve the brain and behavior. For example, your topic could be compulsive buying and you could examine the changes in brain chemistry and brain activation that take place when you make compulsive purchases. The central objective of the PowerPoint project is to use research evidence to inform the class about your topic and to identify practical “real world” applications for the research you review. The instructor must approve the group’s topic. Groups will consist of 5-6 students. The PowerPoint presentation must have at least 2 peer-reviewed references, excluding your textbook. Each group member is responsible for a certain number of PowerPoint slides. You must use APA style citations and references in your project. To guide you in the use of APA style citations and references website information will be posted on Haiku website .You are required to turn in an electronic and a printed copy of your PowerPoint presentation. The hard copy is due on the date of your PowerPoint Presentation. You will have 15 minutes to present your group’s PowerPoint presentation. All members of the group must participate in the presentation. 3 Psych 002- V01 19984 Participating in group projects leads to collaborative and supportive learning and facilitates the development of professionalism. Each group member is responsible for a certain number of PowerPoint slides. Individually, you will be expected to complete detailed peer evaluations of your group members. The group project is worth 65 points. You may not make-up a missed oral presentation. Specific Instructions for the project will be discussed in class and posted on Haiku website. Although the project is a group effort, each individual member will have a primary section that is his or her responsibility and will account for 70% of his or her project grade. The other 30% of the grade will reflect the group effort. The group facilitator will receive an additional 5 points. Class Attendance: Regular attendance is crucial to achieve the learning goals of your biopsychology class. You are expected to arrive on time and attend the entire session of each scheduled class. Attendance will be taken every class period. Two late arrivals to class will count as one absence. You may be excluded from class if you miss 4 hours of class. Notify the professor of any absence that is more than two classes. IMPORTANT NOTE: If you miss class it is your responsibility to find out what material and class announcements were missed. You are likely to be excluded from class if you miss the first two days of class. It is your responsibility to drop any classes that you no longer attend. If you do not drop the class and you stop attending you will receive a failing grade. Extra Credit Opportunities: There will be a number of opportunities to earn extra credit. Detailed instructions will be posted on Haiku website. You can earn up to 10 extra credit points. IMPORTANT NOTE: Up until the fourth week it is your responsibility to confirm enrollment in person when attendance is called as well as through the online student information system. It is your responsibility to keep a record of your enrollment and confirm your class schedule. If you are not officially enrolled in the class before census, you will not be able to continue attending or be eligible to add. Students who are not officially enrolled in class are not eligible to take exams or turn in work for credit of any kind, even if I have mistakenly graded assignments or exams. Grading: Requirements 4 Exams (each exam is worth 100 points, best 3 of 4 exams) Final Exam Quizzes (each is worth 5 points each, best 3 of 4 quizzes) Group Project and Oral Presentation (15 points topic assignment, 15 points slide, 35 points oral presentation) Written Project (1 worth 35 points each) Library Assignment Total Points Points 300 130 15 65 35 15 560 4 Psych 002- V01 19984 Grade Assignment: Letter Grade A B C D F Points 560-499 498-443 442-387 386-331 330 or below Class Conduct and Expectations: In order to create and maintain a supportive communication environment, I require the following: 1. You must refrain from side-conversations, reading non-related materials, and doing anything else that might make it difficult for you and others to hear/pay attention in class. 2. NO USE OF CELL-PHONES or anything else that would cause distractions will be permitted in class (please turn your phones off or leave them elsewhere when in class). This includes texting. 3. I heavily discourage coming late to class or leaving class early. This type of behavior is disruptive to the class. 4. You are here by your choice. I expect this class to be as important to you as your other obligations. 5. Please be respectful of your fellow students and me when participating in class discussions. I will not tolerate inappropriate outbursts or language. 6. You may use laptops in class ONLY for taking class notes. If I find that you are spending time online or are working on other things, I will ban laptops in class. 7. You will be asked to leave class if disruptive behavior occurs (this includes side conversations). 8. There are no substitutions for assignments. Academic Integrity: Cheating on examinations, plagiarism, or other forms of academic dishonesty will result in a failing grade for the test or assignment and potentially referral to the Vice President of Student Services for further disciplinary action, following due process. Both “taking” and “giving” improper assistance (such as not covering your paper when you know someone is looking at it) during examinations constitutes academic dishonesty. See Standards of Student conduct and Disciplinary action in the current schedule of classes. Plagiarism is the use of others’ words and/or ideas without clearly acknowledging the original source. Plagiarism includes copying an assignment from someone who has taken this class before, using quotes or information from a textbook, web source, journal or other source without proper citation. If you have any questions about plagiarism, ask me. Each assignment will provide hyperlinks to websites that explain how to cite and paraphrase. For further information on plagiarism, review the Writing Center website: plagiarism link Schedule: A tentative schedule of dates, topics, readings and exams are shown below. Some topics might be covered at a faster or slower rate than shown in this schedule, depending on the students' understanding of the material. IMPORTANT NOTE: Changes in course requirements, topics covered, and scheduling may be made at the discretion of the instructor. 5 Psych 002- V01 19984 CAMPUS RESOURCES: Open Computer Labs: Library Computer lab is located in the library and open to any Valley College student. Services for Students with Disabilities: If you are a student with a disability and require classroom accommodations, contact Services for Students with Disabilities (SSD) in a timely manner. SSD is located in Student Services Annex Room 175. For further information, contact SSD at (818) 947-2681 or (818) 947-2680 (TTY) or LAVC Students with Disabilities Website If SSD has already sent a memo confirming accommodations; please meet with me to discuss arrangements. Transfer Associate Degree: The psychology department now offers an Associate Degree in Psychology for transfer. See Website for transfer degrees What does the Associate Degree for Transfer program do for me? • Creates an Associate Degree for Transfer that guarantees your admission with junior standing to the California State University system. • Defines this associate degree as having 60 transferrable units that include a minimum of 18 units in a major or area of emphasis and an approved general education curriculum (either IGETC or GE Breadth). • Provides you with priority admission consideration to your local California State University campus and to a program or major that is similar to the major or area of emphasis you studied at your community college. • Prohibits the California State University from requiring you to repeat courses that are similar to those completed at your community college as part of your Associate Degree for Transfer. • Prohibits the California State University from requiring you to take more than 60 units to complete a 120-unit baccalaureate degree. 6 Psych 002- V01 19984 Tentative Course Schedule: Week 1-Aug. 27 2-Sept. 3 3-Sept. 10 4-Sept. 17 5-Sept. 24 6-Oct. 1 7-Oct. 8 8-Oct. 15 9-Oct. 22 10-Oct. 29 11-Nov. 5 12-Nov. 12 13-Nov. 19 14-Nov. 26 15-Dec. 3 Mon. Dec.10, 9:3011:30a.m. Topic Introduction/ What is biopsychology Holiday-Sept. 3 (Labor Day) Communication within the Nervous System Communication within the Nervous System The Organization and Functions of the Nervous System The Organization and Functions of the Nervous System Quiz 1 (chapters 1-2)-Sept. 19/Methods and Ethics of Research Sept. 24- Exam #1(chapters 1-3) Drugs, Addiction and Reward Sept 26-(PowerPoint Presentation forming groupsSpeed teaming will take place last 15 minutes of class) Sept. 26 -Written Assignment #1 due Motivation and the Regulation of Internal States/Biology of Sex and Gender Oct. 3- PowerPoint group work last 20 minutes of class) Oct. 8- Library Instruction/Library Assignment Motivation and the Regulation of Internal States Biology of Sex and Gender/Emotion and Health Oct. 10-Quiz 2 (chapter 4-5) Oct. 15-Exam #2 (Chapters 4-6) Emotion and Health/ Hearing and Language Oct. 17-Library Assignment Due/ Vision and Visual Perception/ Body Senses and Movement Oct.24-Topic Assignment For PowerPoint Presentation (one topic assignment from each group and one abstract and APA reference from each group member) Oct. 29-Written Assignment #2 due Body Senses and Movement /Learning and Memory Oct. 31 Quiz 3-(chapters 7-8) Learning and Memory Nov. 7- Exam #3 (chapters 7-9) Nov. 12-Veteran’s Holiday Intelligence/Psychological Disorders Intelligence/Psychological Disorders Nov. 21-Written Assignment #3 due/ Nov.21PowerPoint slide (one from each group member) due Psychological Disorders/Sleep Disorders/ Nov. 26- Quiz 4 (Chapters 9-10)/ Nov.28-Exam #4 (Chapters 9, 10-12) Group Presentations Hard copy of PowerPoint’s due on presentation date Extra Credit DueDec.5 Cumulative Final Exam (Chapters 1-15)/ Peer Evaluations due on final date 7 Reading due date Lecture/Chapter 1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 (106-120) Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 (263-278; 282-292) Chapter 10/ Chapter 11 (340-362; 362364)/ Chapter 11 (340-362; 362-364)/ Chapter 12 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 (422-432) Chapter 14 Chapter 13 (422-432) Chapter 14 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 (481-498) PowerPoint Presentations Biopsychology Study Guide Chapter 11 and 12 The Body Senses and Movement Chapter 11 What causes pain? What is the difference between A-delta fibers and C fibers? Why is it important that you be able to detect pain? What does substance P do? Understand Melzack and Wall’s gate control theory During pain what does the periaqueductal gray do? What activates the endorphin circuit besides pain? Define chronic pain. What changes occur in the body due to pain? What is phantom pain? How can phantom pain be treated? How does marijuana alleviate pain? Learning and Memory Chapter 12 What is learning? What is Long-Term Potentiation? What is Long-Term Depression? What does glutamate do? What do AMPA receptors do? What do NMDA receptors do? What does CaMKII do? How does memory consolidation happen? How does Long-Term Potentiation change the brain? Understand the differences between reconsolidation, forgetting and Extinction Does short-term memory change the strength of connections at already existing synapses? When does the hippocampus transfer information to other parts of the brain? What changes occur in the brain as part of normal aging? Define dementia? How many people are affected by dementia? Define Alzheimer’s disease. What are the symptoms? What causes Alzheimer’s disease? What changes occur in the brain of individuals with Alzheimer’s disease? What does treatment for Alzheimer’s disease change? What are the treatments for Alzheimer’s disease? How Alzheimer’s disease detected? What is the Reserve hypothesis? 1 Chapter  11  and  12  –Body  Senses,   Learning  and  Memory   The Body Senses • Pain – free  nerve  endings  are  s;mulated     – intense  pressure     – temperature  or  by  damage  to  ;ssue. • Types   – A-­‐delta  fibers:  Large  myelinated  fibers  transmit  immediate,   localized  sharp  pain.   – C  fibers:  Small,  unmyelinated  fibers  transmit  slower,  diffuse,   dull  and  aching  pain.     • Melzack  and  Wall’s  gate  control  theory.   – Pressure  triggers  inhibitory  message,  closing  a  neural  “gate”   in  pain  pathway.     •  Gate  Theory   – Pain  causes  endorphin   release  from  the   periaqueductal  gray  (PAG)   – Inhibits  substance  P   release   – Pain  ”gate”  closed  in  spinal   cord.   • Endorphin  circuit   ac;vated  by   – Cingulate  cortex  during   placebo  administra;on   –  Amygdala  during  fear.   The Body Senses • Endorphins     – Act  at  opiate  receptors   – Effect  reversed  by  naloxone  (antagonist)   • Pain  causes  the  release  of  endorphins  during   – Inescapable  shock   – Physical  stress   – Acupuncture   – Vaginal  s;mula;on  (linked  to  childbirth)   – Placebo  administra;on.   Chronic pain Persists after healing has occurred Reduced pain threshold increases susceptibility Loss of gray matter as a result (prefrontal cortex and thalamus) • Phantom  Pain   • 80%  to  90%  of  amputees.   • Neurons  from  other  body  areas   invade  the  area  that  normally   receives  input  from  the  missing  limb.   The Body Senses – cannabinoids • internal pain relievers – share the neural gating system used by endorphins. Learning as the Storage of Memories • • Learning – a form of neural plasticity that changes behavior by remolding neural connections   – Long  Term  Depression    (LTD):  Decrease  in                  strength  of  synapse                  over  ;me     LTP  versus  LTD   – Rate  of  s;mula;on  ma^ers   • High  frequency  s;mula;on  elicits  LTP  (Theta  waves  -­‐  4  to  7  Hz)   • Low  frequency  s;mula;on  elicits  LTD     8   • LTP  versus  LTD     Learning  as  the     Storage  of  Memories     – Rate  of  s;mula;on  ma^ers   • High  frequency  s;mula;on  elicits  LTP  (Theta  waves  -­‐  4  to  7   Hz)   • Low  frequency  s;mula;on  elicits  LTD   • Memories   • LTP   – LTP-­‐  forming  and  recalling  memories   LTD   – LTD-­‐  forgebng,  dele;ng  incorrect  informa;on,  making   space  for  new  memories   9   Brain Changes in Learning • In most locations the neurotransmitter involved in Long Term Poten3a3on (LTP) is glutamate. • There are two types of receptors that detect glutamate: 1. The AMPA (alpha-­‐amino-­‐3-­‐hydroxy-­‐5-­‐methyl-­‐4-­‐ isoxazole  propionic  acid) receptor 2. The NMDA receptor (N-­‐methyl-­‐D-­‐aspartate  receptor) 10   Brain Changes in Learning • Glutamate activates AMPA receptors – NMDA receptors are blocked by magnesium ions. • During LTP induction – activation of the AMPA receptors • dislodges the magnesium ions • NMDA receptors can then be activated – resulting in an influx of sodium and calcium ions – Calcium activates CaMKII » enzyme that is necessary for LTP » acts as a binary switch to change the strength of a synapse 11   12   Brain Changes in Learning • • • Long Term Potentiation (LTP) During  LTP   – Postsynap;c  nitric  oxide  release  (retrograde)  triggers  increased   presynap;c  neurotransmi^er  release   Structural  changes  include:   – Increased  number,  enlargement,  and  growth  of  dendri3c  spines 13   Brain Changes in Learning • Recent research has supported psychologists’ belief that LTP plays a fundamental role in learning – Learning is improved by chemically increasing LTP – Decreasing the number of NMDA receptors in mice (Sakimura, 1995) • reduced LTP in the hippocampus and impaired learning of water maze 14   Brain Changes in Learning • Short-term Memory – Changing the strength of connections at already existing synapses – hippocampus transfers information to the cortex during times when the hippocampus is less occupied, for example, during sleep. 15   Brain Changes in Learning • Consolida3on  (medial  temporal  lobe)  involves   two  enzymes  (Declara;ve  memories)   – CaMKII  (establishment  of  LTP)   – protein  kinase  M  zeta  (maintains  long-­‐term   memory)   – Prolonged  consolida;on  process   Foot shock memory 16   Learning  Deficiencies     and  Disorders   • Normal Aging – loss of myelin sheath – certain circuits in the hippocampus do lose synapses and NMDA receptors as animals age. • Evidence for impairment of Long Term Potentiation in elderly rats • Learning is slower, forgetting more rapid 17   Learning  Deficiencies     and  Disorders   • Dementia – – – – Substantial loss of memory and other cognitive abilities Affects 10% of people over 65 50% of people over 85 have dementia Alzheimer’s disease • 5.3 people • 172 billion in annual costs • 7th leading cause of death • 10.9 million unpaid caregivers 18   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders • Alzheimer’s disease • progressive brain deterioration • impaired memory and other mental abilities – Language, visual-spatial functioning, and reasoning are particularly affected • The earliest and most severe symptom – impaired declarative memory • Behavioral problems and Personality changes – aggressiveness – wandering away from home. 19   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders • Alzheimer’s brain – Plaques • clumps of amyloid – a type of protein, that cluster among axon terminals and interfere with neural transmission. 20   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders • Alzheimer’s brain. – Neurofibrillary tangles • abnormal accumulations of the protein tau inside neuron • associated with neuron death 21   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders 22   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders 23   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders • Alzheimer’s – brain, gyri are smaller and the sulci are wider than in the normal brain. • lesions are located in the temporal lobe. – effectively isolate the hippocampus from its inputs and outputs • Plaques and tangles in the frontal lobes – Attention, motor and behavioral difficulties. Enlarged Ventricles 24   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders • Alzheimer’s disease – Late onset >60 years of age – genes 1, 4, 19 (ApoE4) increases risk 3-8x, associated with plaques and tangle formation – lower levels of serotonin and noradrenaline – Pronounced decrease in Acetylcholine-releasing neurons • Critical attention and learning 25   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders • Alzheimer’s disease – Treatments focus » preventing the breakdown of acetylcholine at the synapses (Aricept-cholinesterase inhibitors) » provide modest relief for both memory and behavioral symptoms in mild cases of Alzheimer’s » Little improvement when degeneration is advanced. 26   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders • Memantine – first drug approved for use in patients with moderate and severe symptoms. – Dying neurons trigger glutamate overproduction (neurotoxicity) – limits the neuron’s sensitivity to glutamate, reducing further cell death. – Studies indicate moderate slowing of deterioration and improvement in symptoms. 27   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders — Another  approach  is  to  induce  an  immune   response  to  amyloid.    Injec;ng  amyloid  cleared  plaques  but  did  not  affect    cogni;on.       28   Learning Deficiencies and Disorders • Detec;ng  Alzheimer’s  Disease   – Brain  scans  (PET,  MRI)  can  reveal     • Atrophy  in  temporal  and  parietal  areas   • Measuring  AΒ42    and  tau  in  cerbeospinal  fluid  (30  years  of  age)   – Biomarkers  for  plaques  is  much  more  promising   • 25%  of  individuals  with  plaques  contract  Alzheimer’s  within  3   years   • Low  levels  correlate  to  2%  risk  of  Alzheimer’s   – Reserve  Hypothesis   • High  Idea  density  (greater  brain  capacity)  in  early  life  delays   onset  of  symptoms   • 80%  of  low-­‐scoring  Roman  Catholic  nuns  eventually  contracted   Alzheimer’s  (Nuns  of  Mankato)   • Life-­‐long  learning  increases  cogni;ve  capacity  and  neurogenesis,   providing  protec;ve  effects  against  demen;a   29   Vision and Visual Perception Chapter 10 1 Light and the Visual Apparatus • Electromagnetic Spectrum – Includes a variety of energy forms. • Visible light (adequate stimulus for vision) only 1/70 th of spectrum – Light is described by its wavelength • Visible light ranges from ~300 nm to 800 nm 2 Light and the Visual Apparatus Violet 400 nm Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red 700 nm Different wavelengths of light result in different colors. 3 Light and the Visual Apparatus 4 Light and the Visual Apparatus 5 Light and the Visual Apparatus 1. Cornea: Transparent tissue where light enters the eye. 2. Pupil: Light enters the eye through the pupil 3. Iris: Muscle that expands and contracts to change the size of the opening (pupil) for light. 4. Lens: Focuses the light rays on the retina. 6 Light and the Visual Apparatus Accommodation: the lens changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina. 7 Light and the Visual Apparatus 8 Light and the Visual Apparatus • Retina: – Light-sensitive inner surface of the eye – contains receptor rods and cones – These receptors contain photopigments, which break down in the presence of light. 9 Light and the Visual Apparatus Cones are most concentrated in the fovea, a 1.5-mm-wide area in the middle of the retina fovea has higher visual acuity, or ability to distinguish details 10 Light and the Visual Apparatus 11 Light and the Visual Apparatus • Receptors: • Most active without light -light strikes -sodium and calcium channels close (reduce glutamate release) • Bipolars: – Released from inhibition – Stimulate ganglion cell • Inhibition of neighbor cells (contrast) – Horizontal cells – Amacrine cells 12 Light and the Visual Apparatus • Ganglion cell axons form two optic nerves. – Blind spot where they exit the retina. • Optic nerves join for a short distance at the optic chiasm. – Left visual field to right brain – Right visual field to left brain • Nerves synapse in the lateral geniculate nuclei (LGN). • LGN to Visual Cortex. 13 Color Vision • Trichromatic theory (Young and von Helmholtz) – three color processes (red, green, and blue) account for all the colors we are able to distinguish. Standard stimulus Comparison stimulus Max Medium Low Blue Green Red 14 Color Blindness • Colorblindness – People who lack one or more cone types 15 Opponent-Process Theory • • Opponent Process Theory – R/G cone photopigment • Broken down by red light • Regenerates in green light. – Y/B cone photopigment • Broken down in yellow light • Regenerates in blue light. This theory explained – Yellow as a primary color – Complementary colors – Negative Color Aftereffect 16 Opponent-Process Theory 17 Hurvich-Jameson Theory • • • Combined trichromatic theory and opponent process theory: Three receptors – Red – Green – Blue Three ganglion types – Yellow/Blue – Red/Green – Black/White • not shown 18 Vision-Hermann Grid Illusion • Contrast Enhancement & Edge Detection – Lateral Inhibition by horizontal cells 19 Form Vision Ganglion cells are the light-dark contrast detectors in the retina. 20 Form Vision • Simple cells respond to a line or an edge that is at a specific orientation and at a specific place on the retina. • Complex cells continue to respond when a line or edge moves to a different location. 21 Form Vision • A Retinotopic map – A map of the retina is located in the visual cortex 22 Form Vision • Feature Detectors – Nerve cells in the visual cortex respond to specific features, such as edges, angles, and movement. 23 Form Vision-Simple Cell • Response greatest when line closest to preferred vertical orientation (middle and bottom 24 Form Vision-Simple Cell • Simple cells of Visual Cortex – Input: ganglion cells with linear overlap of receptive fields – Respond to line or edge at a specific • Orientation • Place on the retina. 25 Form Vision-Complex Cells • Complex cells of visual cortex – Input from simple cells with same field orientations near each other – Position changes, but not orientation changes 26 The Perception of Objects, Color, and Movement Two pathways of visual analysis • Parvocellular system – Parvocellular ganglion cells located in the fovea. – Small, color-opponent circular receptive fields – Discrimination of fine detail and color • Magnocellular system – Ganglion cells in the periphery – Large, brightness-opponent receptive fields – Brightness contrast and movement 27 The Perception of Objects, Color, and Movement 28 The Perception of Objects, Color, and Movement • Ventral Stream (“What”)- Identify objects – Parvocellular system to Primary visual cortex→temporal lobe →prefrontal cortex 29 The Perception of Objects, Color, and Movement – Dorsal stream (“Where”)- Movement and location of objects – Magnocellular system Primary visual cortex→V5/Medial temporal (motion) → Posterior Parietal cortex (locate)→prefrontal cortex 30 The Perception of Objects, Color, and Movement • Object agnosia is the impaired ability to recognize objects. • Prosopagnosia is the inability to visually recognize familiar faces. – object agnosia and prosopagnosia • damage to the inferior temporal cortex – fusiform gyrus • temporal lobe • Facial recognition 31 Synesthesia – Synesthesia • Stimulation in one sense triggers (e.g., spoken words) an experience in another (e.g., see color) 32
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