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Chapters 18, 19, 20, 21 o Describe Break Even pricing o Describe Elasticity of Demand. How does Price influence this? o Describe the impact of the Unfair Trade Practices, Price Fixing, Price Discrimination and Predatory Pricing. o Discuss some of the "Other Pricing Tactics" and how they are used. o Discuss the 7 steps in the Selling Process o Discuss the objectives of a Pricing Strategy o Discuss the various promotional tools, their use and objectives o How can you Capture, Store and Analyze Customer data to identify the Best Customers? o How can you fine tune price? o How do the objectives for Promotions differ from those of Advertising? o How does Personal Selling differ from the other promotional mix tools? o How does the stage of the Product Life Cycle influence pricing? o What are some Trade Promotions? o What are the 3 pricing strategies outlined in the notes/book? o What is CRM? o What is meant by Customer Focused? o What is Relationship Selling? o What's the difference between a Variable and a Fixed cost? o Why focus on Loyal Customers? 1 Sales Promotion and Personal Selling CHAPTER 18 Marketing Designed by Eric Brengle B-books, Ltd. 10 Lamb, Hair, McDaniel Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Prepared by Amit Shah Frostburg State University 1 LOI Sales Promotion Sales Promotion Marketing communication activities, other than advertising, personal selling, and public relations, in which a short-term incentive motivates a purchase. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 2 LOI Sales Promotion Advertising Reason to buy Sales Promotion Incentive to buy Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 3 Objectives of Sales Promotion LOI Type of Buyer Desired Results Sales Promotion Examples Loyal Customers •Reinforce behavior •Loyalty marketing •Increase consumption •Bonus packs •Change purchase timing Competitor’s Customers •Break loyalty •Persuade to switch •Sampling •Sweepstakes, contests, premiums Brand Switchers •Persuade to buy your brand more often •Price-lowering promotion •Trade deals Price Buyers •Appeal with low prices •Supply added value •Coupons, price-off packages, refunds •Trade deals Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 4 Tools for Consumer Sales Promotion LO2 Coupon A certificate that entitles consumers to an immediate price reduction. Rebate A cash refund given for the purchase of a product during a specific period. Premium An extra item offered to the consumer, usually in exchange for some proof of purchase. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 5 LO2Tools for Consumer Sales Promotion Loyalty Marketing Program A promotional program designed to build long-term, mutually beneficial relationships between a company and key customers. Frequent Buyer Program A loyalty program in which loyal consumers are rewarded for making multiple purchases. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 6 LO2Tools for Consumer Sales Promotion Contests Sweepstakes Promotions that require skill or ability to compete for prizes. Promotions that depend on chance or luck, with free participation. http://www.online-sweepstakes.com/ Online Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 7 LO2 Tools for Consumer Sales Promotion Sampling A promotional program that allows the consumer the opportunity to try a product or service for free. 8 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved LO2 Point-of-Purchase Promotion • Build traffic • Advertise the product • Induce impulse buying Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 9 LO2 Online Sales Promotion Effective Types of Online Sales Promotion • Free merchandise • Sweepstakes • Free shipping with purchases • Coupons Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 10 LO3 Benefits of Trade Promotions ▪ Help manufacturers gain new distribution ▪ Obtain wholesaler and retailer support for consumer sales promotions ▪ Build or reduce dealer inventories ▪ Improve trade relations Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 11 LO3 Trade Allowance Trade Allowance A price reduction offered by manufacturers to intermediaries, such as wholesalers and retailers. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 12 LO3 Push Money Push Money Money offered to channel intermediaries to encourage them to “push” products--that is, to encourage other members of the channel to sell the products. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 13 LO4 Personal Selling Personal Selling is more important if... Advertising & Sales Promotion are more important if... Product has a high value. Product has a low value. Product is custom made. Product is standardized. There are few customers. There are many customers. Product is technically complex. Product is simple to understand. Customers are concentrated. Customers are geographically dispersed. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 14 LO5 Relationship Selling Relationship (Consultative) Selling A sales practice that involves building, maintaining, and enhancing interactions with customers in order to develop longterm satisfaction through mutually beneficial partnerships. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 15 LO5 Traditional Selling and Relationship Selling Traditional Personal Selling Relationship Selling Sell products Sell advice, assistance, counsel Focus on closing sales Focus on customer’s bottom line Limited sales planning Sales planning is top priority Discuss product Assess “product-specific” needs “Lone wolf” approach Build problem-solving environment Conduct discovery in scope of operations Team approach Profit impact and strategic benefit focus Long-term sales follow-up Pricing/product focus Short-term sales follow-up Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 16 LO6 Steps in the Selling Process Generate Leads Qualify Leads Probe Customer Needs Develop Solutions Handle Objections Close the Sale Follow Up Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 17 LO6 Generating Leads Advertising Publicity Direct Mail/ Telemarketing Cold Calling Internet Web Site Referrals Networking Trade Shows/ Conventions Company Records http://www.linkedin.com http://www.ryze.com Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Online 18 LO6 Qualifying Leads Recognized need Buying power Receptivity and accessibility Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 19 LO6 The Preapproach Process Product or service Salesperson must know everything about... Customers Competition Industry http://www.hoovers.com http://www.dnb.com Online Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 20 Handling Objections ▪ View objections as requests for information ▪ Anticipate specific objections ▪ Investigate the objection with the customer ▪ Be aware of competitors’ products ▪ Stay calm ▪ Use the objection to close the sale LO6 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 21 LO6 Closing the Sale Look for customer signals Keep an open mind Negotiate Tailor to each market Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 22 LO7 Sales Management Responsibilities Define sales goals and sales process Determine sales force structure Recruit and train sales force Compensate and motivate sales force Evaluate sales force Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 23 LO7 Defining Sales Goals Clear Precise Measurable •Sales Volume •Market Share •Profit Level •Quota Time Specific Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 24 LO7 Sales Force Structure Geographic region Product line Marketing function Market or industry Individual client or account Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 25 LO7 Training the Sales Force Company policies and practice Selling techniques Training includes... Product knowledge Industry and customer characteristics Nonselling duties Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 26 Compensating the Sales Force Commission Combination Plans Salary LO7 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 27 LO7 Motivating the Sales Force Rewards and incentives include: ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ Ceremonies Plaques Vacations Merchandise Pay raises Cash bonuses Stock options Tuition assistance Product discounts Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 28 LO7 Evaluating the Sales Force Sales volume Contribution to profit Calls per order Sales or profits per call Call percentage achieving goals Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 29 Pricing Concepts CHAPTER 19 Marketing 10 Lamb, Hair, McDaniel Designed by Eric Brengle B-books, Ltd. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Prepared by Amit Shah Frostburg State University 1 LOI The Importance of Price To the seller... Price is revenue To the consumer... Price is the cost of something Price allocates resources in a free-market economy Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 2 LOI What Is Price? Price Price is that which is given up in an exchange to acquire a good or service. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 3 LOI The Importance of Price to Marketing Managers Revenue Profit The price charged to customers multiplied by the number of units sold. Revenue minus expenses. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 4 LO2 Pricing Objectives Profit-Oriented Sales-Oriented Status Quo Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 5 LO2 Profit-Oriented Pricing Objectives Profit-Oriented Pricing Objectives Profit Maximization Satisfactory Profits Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Target Return on Investment 6 LO2 Sales-Oriented Pricing Objectives Sales-Oriented Pricing Objectives Market Share Sales Maximization http://www.target.com http://www.walmart.com http://www.jcpenney.com Online Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 7 LO2 Status Quo Pricing Objectives Status Quo Pricing Objectives Maintain existing prices Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Meet competition’s prices 8 LO3 The Demand Determinant of Price Demand Supply The quantity of a product that will be sold in the market at various prices for a specified period. The quantity of a product that will be offered to the market by a supplier at various prices for a specific period. http://www.ubid.com Online Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 9 The Demand Curve LO3 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 10 The Supply Curve LO3 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 11 LO3 How Demand and Supply Establish Price Price Equilibrium The price at which demand and supply are equal. Elasticity of Demand Consumers’ responsiveness or sensitivity to changes in price. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 12 Price Equilibrium LO3 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 13 LO3 Elasticity of Demand Elastic Demand Inelastic Demand Unitary Elasticity ▪ Consumers buy more or less of a product when the price changes. ▪ An increase or decrease in price will not significantly affect demand. ▪ An increase in sales exactly offsets a decrease in prices, and revenue is unchanged. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 14 LO3 Elasticity of Demand Elasticity (E) = Percentage change in quantity demanded of good A Percentage change in price of good A If E is greater than 1, demand is elastic. If E is less than 1, demand is inelastic. If E is equal to 1, demand is unitary. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 15 LO3 Factors that Affect Elasticity of Demand Availability of substitutes Price relative to purchasing power Product durability A product’s other uses Rate of inflation http://www.columbiahouse.com Online Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 16 LO5 The Cost Determinant of Price Types of Costs Variable Cost Fixed Cost Varies with changes in level of output Does not change as level of output changes Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 17 Break-Even Pricing Break-Even Quantity Fixed cost Contribution LO5 = = Total fixed costs Fixed cost contribution Price - Avg. Variable Cost Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 18 LO6 Other Determinants of Price Stages of the Product Life Cycle Competition Distribution Strategy Promotion Strategy Perceived Quality Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 19 LO6 Stages in the Product Life Cycle Introductory Stage Growth Stage Maturity Stage $ $ $ High Stable Decrease Decline Stage $ Decrease Stable High Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 20 LO6 The Competition • High prices may induce firms to enter the market • Competition can lead to price wars • Global competition may force firms to lower prices Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 21 LO6 The Impact of the Internet Product selection Second opinions from expert sites Shopping bots Internet auctions Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 22 LO6 Promotion Strategy/Price Guarantee Promotion Strategy • Price used as promotional tool • Pricing can also be a tool for trade promotions Price Guarantee • Match any competitor’s price • Signals to target market it is positioned as a low-price dealer Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 23 LO6 The Relationship of Price to Quality Prestige Pricing Charging a high price to help promote a high-quality image. http://www.vivre.com http://www.ashford.com Online Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 24 Setting the Right Price CHAPTER 20 Marketing Designed by Eric Brengle B-books, Ltd. 10 Lamb, Hair, McDaniel Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Prepared by Amit Shah Frostburg State University 1 LOI How to Set a Price on a Product or Service Establish pricing goals Estimate demand, costs, and profits Choose a price strategy Fine tune with pricing tactics Results lead to the right price Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 2 Establish Pricing Goals Profit-Oriented Sales-Oriented Status Quo LOI Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 3 LOI Choose a Price Strategy Price Skimming A firm charges a high introductory price, often coupled with heavy promotion. Penetration Pricing A firm charges a relatively low price for a product initially as a way to reach the mass market. Status Quo Pricing Charging a price identical to or very close to the competition’s price. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 4 LOI Price Skimming Inelastic Demand Situations When Price Skimming Is Successful Unique Advantages/Superior Legal Protection of Product Technological Breakthrough Blocked Entry to Competitors Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 5 LOI Penetration Pricing Advantages ▪ ▪ ▪ Discourages or blocks competition from market entry Boosts sales and provides large profit increases Disadvantages ▪ Requires gear up for mass production ▪ Selling large volumes at low prices ▪ Strategy to gain market share may fail Can justify production expansion http://www.iflyswa.com Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Online 6 LOI Status Quo Pricing Advantages ▪ Simplicity ▪ Safest route to longterm survival for small firms Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Disadvantages ▪ Strategy may ignore demand and/or cost 7 LO2 The Legality and Ethics of Price Strategy Unfair Trade Practices Laws that prohibit wholesalers and retailers from selling below cost. Price Fixing An agreement between two or more firms on the price they will charge for a product. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 8 LO2 Price Discrimination The Robinson-Patman Act of 1936: 1. There must be price discrimination. 2. Transaction must occur in interstate commerce. 3. Seller must discriminate by price among two or more purchasers. 4. Products sold must be commodities or tangible goods. 5. Products sold must be of like grade and quality. 6. There must be significant competitive injury. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 9 LO2 Predatory Pricing Predatory Pricing The practice of charging a very low price for a product with the intent of driving competitors out of business or out of a market. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 10 LO3 Tactics for Fine-Tuning the Base Price Discounts Geographic pricing Special pricing tactics Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 11 LO3 Discounts, Allowances, Rebates, and Value-Based Pricing Quantity Discounts Promotional Allowances Cash Discounts Rebates Functional Discounts Zero Percent Financing Seasonal Discounts Markdown Money Value-Based Pricing Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 12 LO3 Value-Based Pricing Value-Based Pricing Setting the price at a level that seems to the customer to be a good price compared to the prices of other options. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 13 Pricing Products Too Low 1. Managers attempt to buy market share through aggressive pricing. 2. Managers tend to make pricing decisions based on short-term (current costs, current competitor prices, and short-term share gains) rather than on long-term profitability. LO3 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 14 LO3 Other Pricing Tactics Single-Price Tactic All goods offered at the same price Flexible Pricing Different customers pay different price Professional Services Pricing Used by professionals with experience, training or certification Price Lining Several line items at specific price points Leader Pricing Sell product at near or below cost Bait Pricing Odd-Even Pricing Price Bundling Two-Part Pricing Lure customers through false or misleading price advertising Odd-number prices imply bargain Even-number prices imply quality Combining two or more products in a single package Two separate charges to consume a single good Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 15 LO5 Pricing during Difficult Economic Times Describe the role of pricing during periods of inflation and recession Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 16 LO5 Inflation Cost-Oriented Tactics High Inflation Demand-Oriented Tactics Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 17 Cost-Oriented Tactics Problems with Cost-Oriented Tactics ▪ A high volume of sales on an item with a low profit margin may still make the item highly profitable. ▪ Eliminating a product may reduce economies of scale. ▪ Eliminating a product may affect the price-quality image of the entire line. LO5 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 18 Demand-Oriented Tactics Cultivate selected demand Strategies to Make Demand More Inelastic Create unique offerings Change the package design Heighten buyer dependence LO5 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 19 LO5 Recession Value-Based Pricing Bundling or Unbundling Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 20 LO5 Supplier Strategies During Recession Renegotiating contracts Offering help Keeping the pressure on Paring down suppliers Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 21 Customer Relationship Management (CRM) CHAPTER 21 Marketing 10 Lamb, Hair, McDaniel Designed by Eric Brengle B-books, Ltd. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Prepared by Amit Shah Frostburg State University 1 LOI Customer Relationship Management Customer Relationship Management A company-wide business strategy designed to optimize profitability, revenue, and customer satisfaction by focusing on highly defined and precise customer groups. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 2 LOI Customer Relationship Management Cycle Identify customer relationships Leverage customer information Understand interactions with current customer base Identify best customers Capture customer data based on interactions Store and integrate customer data using IT Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 3 LO2 Identify Customer Relationships Customer-Centric The company customizes its product and service offering based on data generated through interactions between the customer and the company. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 4 LO2 Knowledge Management Experiential observations Comments Collected Information Includes: Customer actions Qualitative facts Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 5 LO3 Interactions of the Current Customer Base Current transaction Channel Customer Past Relationship Requested Service Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 6 LO3 Interactions of the Current Customer Base Touch Points All possible areas of a business where customers communicate with that business. Point-of-Sale Interactions Communications between customers and organizations that occur at the point of sale, normally in a store. http://www.bestbuy.com Online Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 7 LO4 Capture Customer Data Store visits Conversations with salespeople Interactions via the Web Traditional phone conversations Wireless communications http://www.geico.com Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved Online 8 LO6 Identifying the Best Customers Data Mining A data analysis procedure that identifies significant patterns of variables and characteristics that pertain to particular customers or customer groups. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 9 LO6 Data Analysis Customer segmentation Recency-frequency-monetary analysis Lifetime value analysis Predictive modeling Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 10 LO6 Customer Segmentation • The process of breaking large groups of customers into smaller, more homogeneous groups • Generates a “profile” or picture of the customers’ similar demographic, geographic, and psychographic traits • Focuses on best customers Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 11 LO6 Recency-Frequency-Monetary Analysis 1. Identifies customers mostly like to purchase again 2. Identifies and ranks “best customers” 3. Identifies most profitable customers Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 12 LO6 Data Manipulation Techniques Lifetime Value Analysis A data manipulation technique that projects the future value of the customer over a period of years. Predictive Modeling A data manipulation technique in which marketers try to determine what the odds are that some other occurrence will take place in the future. Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 13 LO7 CRM Marketing Database Applications Campaign management Reinforcing customer purchase decisions Retain loyal customers Inducing product trial by new customers Cross-selling other products and services Increasing effectiveness of distribution channel marketing Designing targeted marketing communications Improving customer service Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 14 Retaining Loyal Customers Retaining an additional 5 percent of customers increases profits by as much as 25 percent Improving customer retention by 2 percent can decrease costs by as much as 10 percent Loyalty programs reward loyal customers for making multiple purchases Loyalty programs provide information about customers and trends LO7 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 15 Cross–selling other products and services • CRM provides opportunities to cross-sell related products •Cross-sell to customers with demographic, lifestyle, or behavioral characteristic matches •Internet companies use product and customer profiling to reveal cross-selling opportunities LO7 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 16 LO7 Targeted Marketing Communications Infrequent Users • Offer direct incentives, such as a price discount Moderate Users • Offer more reinforcement of past purchase decisions Heavy Users • Design around loyalty and reinforcement of purchase Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 17 LO7 Reinforcing Customer Purchase Decisions •Cognitive dissonance is the feeling consumers experience when they recognize inconsistency between values and opinions and their purchase behavior •Thanking customers help cement a long-term, profitable relationship •Update customers periodically on the status of their order Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 18 Increasing Effectiveness of Distribution Channel Marketing RFID technology Multichannel Marketing CRM Databases http://www.kidsdadsmoms.com LO7 Online Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 19 Improving Customer Service •Level of customer service is influential in customer retention •Customer retention – the percentage of customers that repeatedly purchase products from a company LO7 Copyright ©2009 by Cengage Learning Inc. All rights reserved 20
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Student name
Course title
Instructor’s name
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Chapters 18, 19, 20, 21
o Describe Break Even pricing
Break-Even Quantity= Total fixed costs/Fixed cost contribution where fixed cost
contribution=Price-Avg. variable cost.
o Describe Elasticity of Demand. How does Price influence this?
The elasticity of demand is consumers’ responsiveness or sensitivity to changes in price.
If a price is so low that it is an inconsequential part of an individual’s budget, demand
will be inelastic and people are not sensitive to the price increase.
o Describe the impact of Unfair Trade Practices, Price Fixing, Price
Discrimination, and Predatory Pricing.
The impact of these malpractices that are illegal is that small firms will be driven out of
business by bigger firms such as Wal-Mart and Target who operate on razor-thin margins
because small firms will be forced to sell their products below the cost of production.
o Discuss some of the "Other Pricing Tactics" and how they are used.


Single-Pricing Tactic is where all goods are offered at the same price



Flexible pricing is where different customers pay a different price



Professional services pricing used by professionals with experience, training or
certification



Price lining is where several line items are set at specific price points



Leader pricing involves selling products at near or below cost



Bait pricing is luring customers through false or misleading price advertising



Odd-Even Pricing-Odd-number prices imply bargain while Even-number prices
imply quality.



Price-Bundling is combining ...


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