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A M U L T I-G E N E R A T IO N A L W O RK PLA CE:
T H E D IFFE R E N T IA T IO N O F G EN ERA TIO N S B Y T H E
W O R K V A L U E S T H E Y POSSESS
A D issertation
Presented in Partial F u lfillm en t o f the Requirem ents fo r the
D egree o f D o c to r o f Philosophy
w ith a
M ajo r in E ducation
in the
C ollege o f G raduate Studies
U niversity o f Idaho
by
M ichael R ay E slinger
D ecem b er 2000
M ajor Professor: M ichael E. Tomlin, Ed.D.
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UMI Number; 3010898
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A U T H O R IZ A T IO N TO SU B M IT
D IS S E R T A T IO N
This dissertation o f M ichael Ray E slin g er, subm itted for the degree o f D o c to r o f Philosophy
with a m ajor in E ducation and titled "A M ulti-G enerational W orkplace: T h e differentiation
o f generations b y the w o rk values th ey p o ssess," has been review ed in final form, as
indicated by th e signatures and dates g iv e n below . Perm ission is n o w g ran ted to submit final
copies to the C ollege o f G raduate S tu d ies fo r approval.
M ich a e l E. Tomlin
C om m ittee M em bers
C aro ly n M /K eeler
D iscipline's
C ollege D ean
N. D ale Gentry
Final A pproval and A cceptance by the C o lle g e o f G raduate Studies
D ate 3 / 2 .
C h a rle s R. Hatch
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A B ST R A C T
The purpose o f this study was to m easure th e w ork values o f the S ilen t generation
bom 1925-1942, the B oom generation bom 1943-1960, and the T hirteenth generation bom
1961-1981 w ithin an organization to determ ine i f th e three generations could be
differentiated by th e ir w o rk values. The population o f this study w as the m em bers o f the
V eteran, B oom and T hirteenth generations in th e A m erican w orkplace at th e start o f the
tw enty-first century. T h e sample fo r this study w as a convenience sam ple o f 340 full-time
em ployees at an agricultural m arketing organization w ith a statistically sim ilar generational
distribution to that o f th e United States labor force.
D onald Super's W ork Values Inventory (WVT) was used to m easure the 15 work
values the study sam ple possessed. D ata collected from the WVT com pleted by 225
participants was analyzed using the statistical tech n iq u e o f M A N O V A to answ er two
research questions. 1.) C an the three generations in a m ultigenerational w orkplace be
differentiated by the w o rk values they hold? 2.) W hich w ork values are th e m ost useful in
discrim inating am ong th e three generations?
A nsw ering th e first research question w as accom plished by testin g the m ultivariate
null hypothesis: T here is no significant difference in the w ork values o f th e Silent, Boom,
and T hirteenth generations. The calculated W ilks' L am bda exact statistic fo r th e 15
discrim inant variables across the three generations w as significant (JJ = .801) at a/? < .05.
A s such, the three generations in a m ultigenerational w orkplace could be differentiated by the
w ork values they hold.
The null hypotheses that the means for each o f the 15 dependent v ariables (work
values) w ere equal fo r each generation becam e th e initial focus o f u n iv ariate analysis. The
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univariate tests fo r each variable w ere used the seco n d research question: W hich w o rk values
are the most useful in discrim inating am ong the th re e generations? The w ork values th at
differentiate the three generations w ithin the study o rg an izatio n w ere determ ined by
investigating Fisher's least significant difference (L SD ) pairw ise com parisons fo r each
variable across each generation. It w as found at a p < .05 that: 1.) The B oom generation
placed a higher value on Supervisor Relations and W ay o f L ife than did the T hirteenth
generation; 2.) T he Silent generation placed a h ig h er value on Surroundings than did the
Thirteenth generation; 3.) The Silent generation placed a higher degree o f im portance on
A ltruism than did either the B oom o r the Thirteenth generations.
IN D EX W ORDS:
W ork V alues, G enerations, M ulti-G enerational W orkforce,
M ulti-G enerational W orkplace, Silent G eneration, B oom G eneration,
Thirteenth G eneration
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V
T A B L E O F C O NTEN TS
ii
A U T H O R IZ A T IO N TO SUBM IT------------------------------------------------------------------------------A B STR A C T-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Hi
TABLE OF C O N T E N T S -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
v
C H A PTE R O N E
IN T R O D U C T IO N --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
Statem ent o f the Problem------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
P urpose o f the Study------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2
Significance o f the Study------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4
L im itations--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6
D elim itations----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7
D efinitions--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7
Summary---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11
C H A PTER T W O
REV IEW O F T H E LITERA TU RE---------------------------------------------------------------------------
13
A m erican G enerations D efined----------------------------------------------------------------------
13
T he F o u r G enerations in T he Y ear 2000 W orkforce----------------------------------------
17
T he Silent Generation------------------------------------------------------------------------
18
T he B oom G eneration------------------------------------------------------------------------
19
T he Thirteenth G eneration------------------------------------------------------------------
20
M illennial G eneration------------------------------------------------------------------------
21
The M ulti Generational W orkplace in The Tw enty F irst C entury----------------------
21
G enerational Stereotypes-------------------------------------------------------------------
22
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VI
W ork V alues--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------24
M anagerial, Supervisory a n d A ssociate R elations------------------------2 4
E co n o m ic Rewards-----------------------------------------------------------------
25
T a sk V ariety, Independence, and Intellectual S tim ulation-----------
28
W ay o f Life----------------------------------------------------------------------------
28
Job Security----------------------------------------------------------------------------
29
C reativity ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
P restige----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
32
E sthetics and A ltruism --------------------------------------------------------------
32
S urroundings---------------------------------------------------------------------------
34
Instrum ents U sed To M easure W ork V alues----------------------------------------------------- 35
M innesota Im portance Q uestionnaire---------------------------------------------------
36
W ork V alues Inventory----------------------------------------------------------------------
37
Survey o f W o rk Values, Form U ---------------------------------------------------------
38
W ork A spect Preference Scale-------------------------------------------------------------
39
Life R oles Inventory---------------------------------------------------------------------------
39
V alues Scale: Second Edition--------------------------------------------------------------
40
Saba, G uerin, and W ills’ In strum ent----------------------------------------------------
42
Summary-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
46
C H A P T E R TH R EE
M E T H O D S ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
48
Population----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
48
Sample---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
49
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M easurem ent In stru m en t------------------------------------------------------------------------------
53
Data C ollection M eth o d s----------------------------------------------------------------------------------54
Data A nalysis-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
55
Sum m ary-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
58
C H A PT E R FO U R
FIN D IN G S------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Study R esponse R ate-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------R eliability o f the In stru m en t Questions-----------------------------------------------------------
61
62
63
Review o f V ariable C o rrelatio n ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
Statistical A ssum ptions o f M A N O V A ------------------------------------------------------------Independent O bservations------------------------------------------------------------------
65
65
N orm ality o f D a ta ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 66
H om ogeneity o f V ariance-------------------------------------------------------------------
68
Tests o f M ultivariate Significance------------------------------------------------------------------
69
D iscrim inant A nalysis------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
71
U nivariate A nalysis----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
74
M ultiple Pairw ise C om parisons---------------------------------------------------------------------- 75
W ork V alues W ith Differences B etw een G enerations at p < .05------------W ork V alues W ith Differences B etw een G enerations at p >.05 and < . 10-
75
77
W ork V alues W ith Differences B etw een G enerations at p > .10-------------
78
M A N O V A M odel P o w e r Analysis and E ffect Size-------------------------------------------
80
Summ ary------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
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82
VIII
CH A PTER FIV E
D ISCU SSION , C O N C LU SIO N S, AND IM PLIC A TIO N S-----------------------------------------
84
D iscussion-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
84
C onclusions------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
90
Study Im plications---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
91
Study L im itations----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
93
R ecom m endations for Further Research----------------------------------------------------------
94
R EFER EN C ES------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
96
A PPEN D IX A
W O R K VALUES IN V EN T O R Y ----------------------------------------------------
107
A PPEN D IX B
R E Q U E ST TO R EPR O D U C E C O PY RIG H T M A TER IA L----------------
111
A PPEN D IX C
PE R M ISSIO N TO R EPR O D U C E C O PY R IG H T M ATERIA L------------ 112
APPEN DIX D
U N IV E R SIT Y OF IDAHO H U M A N SU B JEC TS REVIEW FO R M —
APPEN DIX E
M EM O R A N D U M FR O M T H E U N IV ERSITY O F IDAHO: H U M A N
1 13
A SSU R A N C ES C O M M ITT EE------------------------------------------------------- 114
A PPEN D IX F
R E Q U E ST FO R A CCESS TO TH E STUDY O R G A N IZA TIO N
115
APPEN DIX G
PE R M ISSIO N FO R A CCESS TO THE STU D Y O RG A N IZA TIO N —
116
APPEN DIX H
R ESEA RCH ER'S L E T T E R OF IN TR O D U C TIO N --------------------------- 117
A PPEN D IX 1
R E M IN D E R TO STU DY PA R TICIPA N TS-------------------------------------- 118
A PPEN D IX J
M A N O V A AND D ISC R IM IN A N T A N ALYSIS TERM IN O LO G Y —
119
A PPEN DIX K
D E SC R IPTIV E STA TISTIC S--------------------------------------------------------
122
APPEN D IX L
ITEM -TO TA L STA TISTIC S RELIA BILITY A N A LY SIS----------------- 124
A PPEN D IX M
SU M -O F-SQ U A RES AND C RO SS-PRO D U C TS M ATRIX
(H Y PO T H ESIS)---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 127
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IX
A PPEN D IX N
S U M -O F -S Q U A R E S AND C R O S S-P R O D U C T S M A T R IX
(E R R O R )----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 128
A PPEN D IX O
S IL E N T G E N E R A T IO N C O V A R IA N C E M A TR IX --------------------------- 129
A PPEN D IX P
B O O M G E N E R A T IO N C O V A R IA N C E M A TRIX ----------------------------- 130
A PPEN D IX Q
T H IR T E E N T H G EN E R A T IO N C O V A R IA N C E M A T R IX --------------- 131
A PPEN D IX R
P-P P L O T S --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------132
A PPEN D IX S
M U L T IP L E C O M PA R ISO N S----------------------------------------------------------- 135
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X
L IS T O F TABLES
Table 1 T h e G enerational D iagonal in th e T w entieth C entury-------------------------------------
16
Table 2
E ig h teen A m erican G enerations------------------------------------------------------------------
16
Table 3
T itles G iven to the Four C urrent W orkforce T w entieth-C entury G enerations—
18
Table 4
C o m parison o f Published V alue M easurem ent Instrum ents-----------------------------
43
Table 5
C o m parison o f W ork V alue D im ensions M easured---------------------------------------
45
Table 6
D istibution o f the Em ployed C iv ilian US Population B y G eneration---------------
48
Table 7
D istibution o f Study Sam ple E m p lo y ees By G eneration--------------------------------
50
Table 8
P ercen tag e Distibution o f Study Sam ple Em ployees and E m ployed Civilian
US P opulation in the Y ear 2000 B y G eneration--------------------------------------------
Table 9
52
D escriptive Statistics o f the Study Sam ple Versus the W o rk V alues Inventory
N o rm in g Sam ple--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
62
Table 10 S urvey R eturn Rate-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
63
Table 11 R eliability Analysis o f Q uestions if R em oved W ould Im prove Cronbach's
A lpha C oefficient for the A ssociated W ork Value----------------------------------------
64
Table 12 C o rrelatio n Coefficients and Significance Level A m ong the M easured W ork
V alu es------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
65
Table 13 S hapiro-W ilk Test o f N orm ality-----------------------------------------------------------------
67
Table 14 T e st o f H om ogeneity o f V ariance B ased on D ependent V ariable M eans----------
69
Table 15 M athem atical Representation and D escription o f M ultivariate T ests---------------
70
Table 16 M u ltivariate Tests o f the Null H y p o th esis----------------------------------------------------
70
Table 17 E igenvalues o f the C anonical F u n ctio n s------------------------------------------------------
71
Table 18 W ilks' L am bda o f the C anonical Functions--------------------------------------------------
72
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XI
T able 19 Structure M atrix and U nstandardized C anonical D iscrim inant Functions
73
Table 20 Log D eterm inants for the Three Study G enerations------------------------------------------ 74
Table 21 U nivariate T ests---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
75
T able 22 W ork V alues W ith Differences B etw een G enerations at p .05 and < . 10-------
77
Table 24 W ork V alues W ith Differences B etw een G enerations at p > .10---------------------
78
Table 25 Sam ple Size N eeded in Three-G roup M A N O V A W ith 15 D ependent
V ariables fo r P ow er = .70, .80, and .90 fo r a = .05 and a = .01----------------------
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81
XII
LIST OF FIG U R E S
Figure 1
N um bers o f em ployed civilian US population in thousands (F ullerton, 1999)
plotted against th e Silent, Boom and T hirteenth generations.------------------------
Figure 2
N um ber o f study sam ple em ployees in the Silent, Boom and T hirteenth
G enerations.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 3
52
Territorial map o f canonical discrim inant function 1 plotted against
canonical discrim inant function 2.------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 5
50
Percentage o f study sam ple em ployees and em ployed civilian U S population
(Fullerton, 1999) in the Thirteenth, B oom and Silent G enerations.---------------
Figure 4
49
72
W ork Value M ean V alues for the Silent, Boom , and Thirteenth G enerations
at/? < .0 5 .----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 76
Figure 6
W ork V alue M ean V alues for the Silent, Boom , and Thirteenth G enerations
at/? > .05and < . 10.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Figure 7
78
W ork Value M ean V alues for the Silent, Boom , and T hirteenth G enerations
at/? > .1 0 .----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80
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1
C H A PTE R O N E
IN T R O D U C TIO N
Statem ent o f the Problem
M uch attention has been g iv e n to the com plexities o f th e A m erican w orkplace, o ften
referred to as th e Am erican m ulti-generational w orkplace because it em bodies em ployees
that represent tw o o r more generations each spanning a tw en ty -tw o year phase o f life (S trau ss
& H o w e , 1991; Zem ke, Raines an d Filipczak, 1999). A ccording to A m erican M anagem ent
A ssociation authors Zemke, R aines and Filipczak, the A m erican m ultigenerational w o rk p lace
“ ...is aw ash w ith conflicting voices and views o f the m ost ag e- and value-diverse w o rk fo rce
this country has k n o w n ...” (p. 10). T h e American w ork place is aging at a rate never
experienced b efo re in history. W o rk ers betw een the age o f 54 and 64 will increase by 9
million betw een 1996 and 2006 creatin g a graying o f the A m erican w orkplace (D ychtw ald &
Flow er 1988; W allner, 1999). T h e aging w orkforce w ill w o rk along side o f a younger
generation w ith very different rep o rted values. These value d ifferen ces have created a
stereotyped im age o f each gen eratio n (Z em ke et al.).
G eneral value profiles have been developed by m an ag em en t authorities (Z em ke et al.,
1999) and generational theorists (S u p e r & Sverko, 1995 and H o w e & Strauss, 1991) that
describe the h o w m embers o f d ifferen t generations vary in w h a t th ey value as a cohort.
These value profiles m anifest th em selv es as generational stereotypes. Research conducted
by Super and Sverko (1995) as a p a rt o f the W ork Im portance S tu d y indicated that a person's
values change o v e r tim e and people's values differ from d em ographic region to dem ographic
region. R esearch conducted by W agenknecht-Ivey in 1997 su g g ested that there was no
statistical difference in the w ork values o f Baby B oom ers (b o m betw een 1946 and 1960) and
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2
the Baby B usters (born after 1960).
The findings o f Strauss and Howe, S u p er and Sverko, Zem eke et al., and
W agenknecht-Ivey m ay have opened the d o o r fo r a plethora o f questions. H o w accurate are
the generational value stereotypes presented by th e generational authorities Strauss and
H ow e, and the m anagem ent authorities Z em eke e t al.? W hy did the w o rk values o f people o f
different generations vary from dem ographic area to dem ographic area and change over tim e
as reported by the w o rk im portance researchers S u p e r and Sverko? W hy w ere the work
values o f the tw o generations studied by W agenknecht-Ivey the sam e g iv en so much reported
evidence that they w ere different? The conflicting evidence reported by S u p er and Sverko,
and W agenknecht-Ivey challenged the generational stereotypes presented by Strauss and
H ow e, and Z em eke et al. The argum ent o f w h e th er o r not w ork value differences actually
exist between generations form ed the problem o f this study. K now ing such differences, if
they exist, may su p p o rt hum an resource professionals and organizational m anagers in
m eeting w hat em ployees o f different generations intend to attain o r achieve through their
work.
Purpose o f th e Study
The purpose o f this study was to m easure th e w ork values o f the S ilent generation
bom between 1925 and 1942, the Boom gen eratio n b o m betw een 1943 and 1960, and the
Thirteenth generation b o m betw een 1961 and 1981 (Strauss and H ow e, 1991) w ithin an
organization to determ ine if the three generations can be differentiated by th e ir w ork values.
The M illennium generation, bom from 1982 to th e present (Strauss and H ow e), was not
included in the study since this generation rep resen ted less than three percent o f the
civilian work force (F ullerton, 1999) at the tim e o f th e study.
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U nlike the research o f Strauss and H ow e (1991), Super and Sverko (1995), and
W agenknecht-Ivey (1997), this research focused on the w ork values o f three generations
found in the w orkforce at th e beginning o f the tw enty-first century. This research w as further
differentiated from previous in that only w ork values w ere studied. The research o f Zem ke et
al. (1999), Strauss and H ow e, and Super and Sverko explored the general values w hich
people have and not specifically their work values.
T w o research questions w ere answered to achieve the stated purpose o f this study.
First, can the three generations in a m ultigenerational w orkplace be differentiated by the
w ork values they hold? This w as accomplished u sin g the statistical procedure o f m ultivariate
analysis o f variance (M A N O V A ) to answer the null hypothesis that the mean v ectors o f the
15 w ork values measured by th e W ork Values Inventory (Super, 1970) were equal fo r the
Silent, Boom , and Thirteenth generations. M athem atically the null hypothesis is stated as:
H o.
fJ.! = p 2 = jn3
W here
M-l = CfJ-l 1-. M-12, M-13, Pl4, M-I5, —P i15)
Pi i = m ean score o f A ltruism fo r the Silent Generation
P i 2 = m ean score o f Esthetics fo r the Silent Generation
P 1 3 = m ean score o f C reativity fo r the Silent Generation
Pi 1 5 = m ean score o f W ay o f L ife for the Silent G eneration
JJ-2 = (P 2 1 , P 2 2 , (J-23, P 2 4 , P 2 5 , ...P 2 1 5 )
P 2 1 = m ean score o f A ltruism fo r the Boom Generation
P 2 2 = m ean score o f Esthetics fo r the Boom Generation
P 2 1 5 = m ean score o f W ay o f Life for the Boom G eneration
M-3 = (P31, P32, P33, P34, Pl5, ---P315)
p 3i = m ean score o f A ltruism fo r the Thirteenth G eneration
P 3 i 5 = m ean score o f W ay o f L ife fo r the Thirteenth G eneration.
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4
T he univariate tests for each variable w ere u sed th e second research question: W h ich
w o rk values are the m ost useful in discrim inating a m o n g th e three generations?
M athem atically the null hypothesis is stated as:
H a : (J-i = (J.2 = (43
W here
H o . (J-Ij = 142j = |43j
j = D ependent V ariables 1 - 1 5 .
Significance o f th e S tu d y
M anagem ent authorities suggested that th e c o m p lex ities o f the A m erican m ulti
gen eratio n al w orkplace may be ro o ted in the w o rk v alu es and w ork value differences o f the
d ifferen t generations that occupy the w orkplace (Z em k e e t al., 1999). Q uantifying th e w o rk
v alu es th at different generations w ithin an org an izatio n p o ssess may be useful fo r hum an
reso u rce professionals and organizational m anagers in desig n in g policies and program s
n ecessary to meet the needs o f each generation m an ifested through their w ork values (S aba,
G u erin & W ils, 1995). It was reported that progressive organizations integrate generational
w o rk value differences into their philosophy o f m an ag em en t, policy developm ent, and
program im plem entation. The reported results o f su ch an integration are organizations th at
fo s te r em ployee retention, im prove em ployee jo b satisfactio n , encourage em ployee w o rk -life
balance, increase em ployee productivity, meet em p lo y ee know ledge grow th, and im prove
em ployee relations (Saba et al., 1995; W allner, 1997; Z e m k e et al., 1999). Furtherm ore,
w h en organizations adopt policies and practices th at c le a rly address generational w o rk value
d ifferences the organizations em brace the “ A C O R N Im p erativ es” identified by Z em k e e t al.:
" 1.) A ccom m odate em ployee differences; 2.) C reate w o rk p la c e choices; 3.) O perate a
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sophisticated m anagem ent style; 4.) R esp ect com petence and initiative; an d 5.) Nourish
retention" (p. 156-158).
A ccording to Z em ke et al. (1999), accom m odation o f em ployee differences may be
found in policies and practices o f an organization. R esearch conducted by R osen and Jerdee
(1990) indicated that hum an resource professionals perceive that th ere w as a large gap
betw een existing policies and needed p olicies to address the career problem s o f older adults
representing the Silent and Boom generations. R osen and Jerdee also su g g ested that the gap
in policies w as a direct reflection in the m anagem ent practices o f an organization. Dennis
(1988) suggested that th e im pact the V eteran and B oom generations w ill have on creating an
aging w ork force dem and the need fo r m anagers and supervisors to b e tte r understand the
psychological and physiological processes o f life-span developm ent.
Progressive organizations m ay help th eir em ployees attain a stro n g w ork-life by
creating w orkplace choices that allow fo r quality tim e aw ay from w o rk and flexible w ork
schedules that allow an em ployee to care fo r th e ir aging parents o r y o u n g children. Cox
(1999) reported that m ore and more em ployees o f all ages desire a stro n g w ork-life balance, a
phenom ena once largely representative o f th e T hirteenth generation m em bers. B uonocore
(1992) suggested that people were an ch o red to th eir job but found a g re a te r level o f personal
satisfaction in interests outside o f their w o rk life.
M anagem ent authorities suggested th a t a sophisticated style o f m anagem ent be
adopted to prom ote em ployee job satisfaction given that younger m anagers value status,
success, pow er, money, and com petition m ay be managing older em ployees th at value
security, a sense o f belonging, com fort, pride and cam araderie. D ifferences in job
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6
satisfaction are m anifested th ro u g h value differences and account for the differing view s
older w orkers and younger m anagers have o f their jo b s (Z eltin, 1992; & Z em ke et al., 1999).
The suggested decline in vertical advancem ent w ithin organizations due to changes in
jo b skill requirem ents, increased autom ation, organizational restructuring, contingent
w orkers, the im pact o f the B oom generation, and changes in career expectations indicates the
need for organizations to respect em ployee com petence and initiative regardless o f age (K aye
& Farren, 1996). It has been suggested that the decline in vertical advancem ent w ithin
organizations m ay lead younger w o rk ers to develop resentm ent tow ard older em ployees
because they feel older w orkers are blocking their ability to be prom oted (Siegel, 1993).
R esearch conducted by C o le (1995) suggested th a t the business concern o v e r
recruiting and retaining technically astute employees, a phenom enon once reserved fo r the
high technology, has now becom e a concern for m any organizations not involved d irectly in
high technology. The research o f C ham bers, Foulton, H andfield-Jones, Hankin, and
M icahels (1989) identified that few com panies realize th ey have a retention problem because
they focus only on the retention o f top executives.
Lim itations
The follow ing lim itations w ere made in o rd er to conduct the research and sh o u ld be
kept in mind w hen interpreting th e results o f the research:
1. The results o f this study m ay be generalized only to the study organization.
2. The m easurem ent instrum ent to be used in this research may not m easure all know n
w ork values an individual m ay possess.
3. The m easurem ent instrum ent used in this research collected inform ation th ro u g h selfreport and the instrum ent questions w ere open fo r participant interpretation.
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7
D elim itations
The follow ing delim itations w e re m ade in order to co n d u ct the research and should be
kept in mind w hen interpreting the results o f the research:
1. T h e study participants cam e from a convenience sam ple.
2. To m aintain com plete anonym ity o f the study participants, all study participants
w ere sent two rem inders to com plete and return th e survey.
3. T his study included only fu ll-tim e employees o f th e study organization.
4. S tudy participants w ere not required to participate in th e study.
D efinitions
Boom G eneration: People bom b etw een 1943 and 1960.
Cohort: All p ersons bom in the sam e y e ar (Strauss & H ow e, 1991, p. 429).
C ohort-G roup: All persons bom w ithin a limited span o f consecutive years
(S trauss & Howe, 1991, p. 429).
C onvenience Sam ple: A sam ple that suits the purpose o f the stu d y and that is convenient
because o f its location, accessibility, and fam iliarity to th e researcher (Gall, B o rg &
Gall, 1996, p. 227-228).
Discrim inant A nalysis: A statistical technique w hich allow s th e researcher to study the
differences betw een tw o o r m ore groups o f objects w ith respect to several variables
sim ultaneously (Klecka, 1980, p. 70).
Dom inant and R ecessive G eneration: A dom inant generation (Idealistic or Civic)
encounters social m ovem ents w hile entering rising ad u lth o o d and again while
entering elderhood; a recessive generation (A daptive o r Reactive) encounters social
m ovem ents w hile entering y outh and again w hile entering m idlife (Strauss & H ow e,
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1991, p. 430).
G eneration: A cohort-group w hose length approxim ates the span o f a p h a se o f life and
w hose boundaries are fixed by peer p erso n ality (Strauss & H ow e, 1991, p. 429).
G enerational C ycle: A set o f consecutive g en eratio n s beginning w ith an Idealist-type and
ending w ith an A daptive-type; alternatively, a set o f constellation eras, beginning
with an A w akening era and ending w ith an O uter-D riven era ((S trau ss & H ow e,
1991, p. 430).
G enerational D iagonal: T he diagonal form ed by any generation w hen a g e is plotted on the
vertical axis and th e d ate on the horizontal axis (Strauss & H ow e, 1991, p. 429).
G enerational T ypes: F o u r basic types o f peer personalities and life-cycles, determ ined by
age locations relativ e to social m ovem ents; th ey norm ally recu r in th e follow ing fixed
order:
An Idealist g en eration encounters a spiritual aw akening entering risin g adulthood
and a secular crisis entering elderhood.
A Reactive gen eration encounters a spiritual aw akening entering y o u th and a secular
crisis entering m idlife.
*
A Civic gen eration encounters a secular crisis entering rising ad u lth o o d and a
spiritual aw akening entering elderhood.
An A daptive gen eration encounters a secu lar crisis entering y o u th and a spiritual
awakening entering m idlife. (Strauss & H o w e, 1991, p. 430).
Phases o f Life: T w enty-tw o-year age brachets d efin ed according to central social role:
Elderhood: A ge 66 and over; central role: stew ardship.
Midlife: Age 44-65; central role: leadership.
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9
R isin g A dulthood: A ge 22-43; central role: activity.
Y o u th : A ge 0-21; central role: dependence (Strauss & H ow e, 1991, p. 429).
Peer P erson ality: A generational p erso n a recognized and d eterm in ed by: 1.) com m on age
location; 2.) common beliefs and behaviors; and 3.) perceived m em bership in a
co m m o n generation (Strauss & H ow e, 1991, p. 429).
Silent G en eration : People bom b etw een 1925 and 1942.
Social M ovem en t: A brief eras (typically about a decade) w h en people perceive that historic
events are radically altering th e ir social environm ent. T here are tw o types o f social
m ovem ents:
S ecu la r C risis: W hen society focuses on reordering th e o u te r w orld o f institutions
and p u blic behavior.
S p iritu al A w akening: W hen society focuses on ch an g in g the inner world o f values
and private behavior (Strauss & H ow e, 1991, p. 430).
T hirteenth G eneration: People b o m betw een 1961 and 1980.
Value: A n objective, either a psychological state, a relationship, o r a material condition, that
one seeks to attain o r achieve (S u p er & Sverko, 1995, p. 64).
W ork V alue: A n objective, either a psychological state, a relationship, o r a material
condition, that one seeks to attain o r achieve through th e ir w ork (Super & Sverko,
1995, p. 64).
Note: D onald S uper defined the follow ing 15 w ork values in 1970 in his W ork Values
Inventory M anual (p. 8-10).
A ltruism : P resen t in w ork that enables one to contribute to th e w elfare o f others.
Esthetics: Inherent in work that perm its one to make beautiful things and create beauty in the
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world.
Creativity: A ssociated w ith w ork that perm its one to invent new things, design new
products, o r develop new ideas.
Intellectual Stim ulation: Associated with w o rk th at provides opportunity fo r independent
thinking and fo r learning how and w hy new things work.
Achievem ent: A ssociated w ith w ork that gives one the feeling o f accom plishm ent in doing a
job well.
Independence: A ssociated w ith w ork that perm its one to w ork in his o r h er ow n way as fast
or as slow ly as desired.
Prestige: A ssociated w ith w ork that that gives one standing in the eyes o f others and evokes
respect.
M anagem ent: A ssociated w ith work that perm its one to plan and lay out w ork for others to
do.
Econom ic R ew ards: A ssociated with w ork w hich pays well and enables one to have the
things he o r she w ants.
Security: A ssociated w ith w ork that provides one w ith the certainty o f having a job even in
hard tim es.
Surroundings: A ssociated with work that is carried out under pleasant conditions - not
too hot, cold, noisy, dirty, etc.
Supervisory R elations: A ssociated w ith w ork th at is carried out under a supervisor who is
fair and w ith w hom one can get along.
Associates: C haracterized by work which brings one into contact with com patible fellow
workers.
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W ay o f L ife: A ssociated w ith th e kind w o rk th at permits o n e to live the kind o f life he o r she
chooses and to be the ty p e o f person he o r she w ishes to be.
V ariety: A ssociated w ith w o rk th at provides the opportunity to do different types o f jo b s .
Sum m ary
M anagem ent authorities and generational theorists (S u p e r & Sverko, 1995; H o w e &
Strauss, 1991; Zem ke et al., 1999) have developed generational value profiles that d escribe
the how m em bers o f d ifferent generations vary in w hat they v alu e as a cohort. R esearch has
also been conducted that sug g ested a person's values change o v e r tim e and vary from
dem ographic region to d em ograph ic region (S uper & Sverko 1995). Yet, the research o f
W agenknecht-Ivey in 1997 su g g este d that there was no statistical difference in the w o rk
values o f B aby B oom ers (b o m betw een 1946 and 1960) and th e B aby B usters (bom a fte r
1960). Therefore, conflicting research did exist that perpetuated the argum ent o f w h eth er o r
not w ork value differences actu a lly existed betw een g enerations and established the research
problem o f this study.
T h e purpose o f this stu d y w as to m easure the w ork values o f the Silent generation
bom b etw een 1925 and 1942, the B oom generation bom b etw een 1943 and 1960, and th e
T hirteenth generation bom b e tw ee n 1961 and 1981 (Strauss and H ow e, 1991) w ithin an
organization to determ ine if th e th ree generations could be differentiated by their w ork
values.
C h ap ter II o f this stu d y focused on a review o f the literatu re to identify and describ e
the current generations in the U S lab o r force, explore the com plexities o f the current
A m erican m ulti-generational w o rk p lace, identify w ork values cited in literature, and identify
the instrum ents designed to m e asu re a persons w ork values.
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In C hapter ID, the research m ethods n ecessary to meet the stated p u rpose o f this
research w ere presented. C hapter HI included a discussion o f the study population, study
sample, m easurem ent instrum ent, m ethods o f d a ta collection, and the p ro p o sed methods o f
data analysis to answ er the proposed tw o research questions:
1.) C an th e three generations in a m ultigenerational w orkplace b e differentiated by
the w o rk values they hold? M ath em atically the null hypothesis is stated as:
H 0: M-x = fJ-2 = M-3-
2.) W hich w o rk values are the m ost useful in discrim inating am o n g the three
generations? M athem atically th e null hypothesis is stated as:
H 0: p i = p 2 = P-3.
The focus o f C hapter IV was p resentation o f the statistical an aly sis o f the collected
data using the techniques o f m ultivariate analysis o f variance and discrim in an t analysis to
answ er that stated research questions. C h ap ter V focused on the study conclusions,
im plications, and recom m endations for fu rth er research.
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13
CHAPTER TW O
R EV IEW O F T H E L IT E R A T U R E
A review o f the literature was conducted to provide background for this study. The
review included: 1.) D efining A m erica’s generations according to generational theorists
Strauss and H ow e (1991), 2.) D escribing the th ree predom inant generations in th e present
A m erican w orkplace by th eir place in tim e, w ork values and characteristics, 3.) Identifying
th e com plexity o f w ork values held by m em bers o f a m ultigenerational w orkplace, and 4.)
Identification o f present scales used to m easure the general values and the w o rk values o f
people.
A m erican G enerations D efined
Centuries o f historical, biographical, autobiographical and social science w ritings
have formed a rich study o f generational insight. A ccording to Strauss and H ow e (1991),
historians have provided us insight into generations th ro u g h points in tim e. B iographers have
provided for insight into th e lives o f individuals and fam ilies. A utobiographers have
provided a rich and personal perspective o f life events through their ow n w ords. T he w orks
o f social scientists D aniel Levinson, Erik Erickson, and E llen Lagermann have provided a
w indow into the phases o f life. Collectively historians, biographers, autobiographers and
social scientists have contributed insight into A m erican generations.
In 1991, W illiam Strauss and Neil H ow e folded together many o f the salien t facts
presented by historians, biographers, autobiographers and social scientists in th eir book
G enerations: the history o f A m erica’s future 1584 to 2 0 6 9 . Strauss and H ow e’s 1991 book is
a com prehensive explanation o f A m erican generations and provided a sem inal foundation for
the exploration into A m erican generations.
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14
In their o w n w ords, Strauss and H o w e (1991) “attem pt to go bey o n d o u r predecessors
by not just talking ab out generations in th e abstract, but by defining th e term precisely
enough to batch real-life cohort groups into generations” (p.60). Strauss and H ow e defined a
generation as:
A. special cohort-group w hose length approxim ately m atches th a t o f a basic phase o f
life, o r about tw enty-tw o years o v e r the past three decades (p. 34) and as a cohortgroup w hose length approxim ates th£ span o f a phase o f life and w hose boundaries
are fixed by p eer personality (p. 60).
T he life phases identified by Strauss and H o w e closely match those identified by Daniel
Levinson, Erik E rickson and Ellen L agerm ann. Strauss and H ow e identified the four phases
o f life as Elderhood, Midlife, Rising A dulthood, and Youth. A ccording to Strauss and Howe,
these four phases last tw enty-tw o years and form the length o f a generational cohort.
Strauss and H ow e (1991) developed in their book the concept th at each generational
cohort has a distinct cycle-of-life and a d istin ct biography. T ogether th e fo u r phases o f life
and the respective biographies form w hat Strauss and Howe called th e generational diagonal.
A dding to their concept o f a generational diagonal comprised o f the fo u r phases o f life and
respective biographies, Strauss and H ow e presented the concept o f g enerational cycles that
they purport as clearly separating their research from their predecessors’ research. Their
concept o f generational cycles started w ith the understanding that generations w ere first
differentiated by a social movem ent that w as “an era, typically lasting a decade, when people
perceive that historic events are radically altering their social environm ent” (p. 71). Strauss
and H ow e further delineated the social m ovem ent into two types. T he Secular Cries that
cyclically reoccur “w hen society focuses on reordering the o u ter w orld o f institutions and
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15
public behavior” and th e Spiritual A w akenings th at cyclically re o c c u r “ w hen society focuses
on changing the in n e r w orld o f values and p riv ate behavior” (p. 71). A ccording to Strauss
and H ow e, each social m ovem ent reoccurred in tim e intervals sep arated by tw o phases o f life
o r approxim ately ev ery forty-five years. Strauss and H ow e fu rth er fo u n d that each
generation’s social m ovem ent alternated as either D om inant o r R ecessive and passed through
social m ovem ents a t alternating life phases.
W hen S trauss and H ow e (1991) com bined the four phases o f life (E lderhood, M idlife,
Rising A dulthood, and Y outh), the tw o social m ovem ents (S ecu lar C ries and Spiritual
A wakenings) w ith th e D om inant and R ecessive alternation o f the so cial m ovem ent they
identified fo u r generational types that have sequentially repeated th em selv es in A m erican
history. The four generational types identified by Strauss and H o w e w e re the (dom inant)
Idealistic G eneration, the (recessive) R eactive G eneration, the (d o m in an t) Civic G eneration,
and the (recessive) A daptive G eneration. Strauss and H ow e provided a visual interpretation
o f their theory called th e Generational D iagonal in the Tw entieth C en tu ry (see Table I on the
following page). In all, Strauss and H ow e identified eighteen g en eratio n s that have
reoccurred in sequence in A m erica since 1584 w ith the exception b ein g the C ivic Generation
during the Civil W ar (see Table 2 on the fo llo w in g page).
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%
Table 1
The Generational D iagonal in the Twentieth C entury
Social Movement
Spirilual
Secular
Awakening
Crisis
Constehational
Era
M ID LIFE
RISING
ADULTHOOD
YOUTH
Awakening E ra
1961-81
= 1 = -----1924
Aligned Year
ELDERHOOD
Outer-Driven Era
1943-60
Crisis Era
1925-52
Inner-Driven
Era 1901-24
- t-
1942
MISSIONARY
PROGRESSIVE
1
(Adaptive)
(Idealistic)
»’SW visionary
sensitive
•vi
MISSIONARY "
LOST,,,^-’-'''
i
(Idealistic)
(Reactive)
moralistic
I .v'^’pragmatic
LOST
G.L
i
(Reactive)
(Civic)""
alienated
i ....•■'Reroic
G.L
SILENT
■f
(Civic)
(Adaptive)
i
protected
suffocated
1981
1960
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
G.I.
LOST
1
(Civic)
(Reactive)
busy
reclusive
SILENT
G.I,...,..-"
1
..(Civic)
(Adaptive)
indecisive
powerful
SILENT
BOOM
(Idealistic)
(Adaptive)
...■conformist
x narcissistic
THIRTEENTH
BOOM
(Reactive)
(Idealistic) """"l
i
criticized
indulged
M
M
Note. From “Generations: The History o f America's Future. 1584 to 2069." by W. Strauss and N. Howe, 1991,
p. 57. Copyright 1991 by William Morrow and Company. Inc.
T able 2
Eighteen A m erican G enerations
CYCLE
G EN ERA TIO N
TYPE
BIRTHYEARS
Colonial:
Puritan
Caviler
Idealist
Reactive
1615-1647
Glorious
Civic
1648-1673
Enlightenment
Adaptive
1674-1700
Awakening
Liberty
Idealist
Reactive
1701-1723
1724-1741
Republican
Civic
1742-1766
Compromise
Adaptive
1767-1791
Civil W ar:
Transcendental
Gilded
Idealist
Reactive
1792-1821
1822-1842
Progressive
Adaptive
1843-1859
G re a t Power:
Missionary
Lost
Idealist
Reactive
1860-1882
1883-1900
G.I.
Civic
1901-1924
Silent
Adaptive
1925-1942
Boom
Thirteenth
Idealist
Reactive
Millennial
Civic (?)
1943-1960
1961-1981
1982-
Revolutionary:
Millennial:
1584-1614
Note. From "Generations: The History o f America's Future. 1584 to 2069.” bv W. Strauss and N. Howe. 1991.
p. 57. Copyright 1991 by William Morrow and Company. Inc.
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17
The F o u r G enerations in the Y ear 2000 W orkforce
D isagreem ent existed amongst historians, dem ographers, biographers,
autobiographers, and social scientists as to birth years included in each o f the four
generations in the current workplace. Sim ilar disagreem ent existed in the nam e for each o f
the fo u r generations in the workplace. Z em k e et al. (1999) identifed the fo u r generations in
the current w orkplace as the Veterans b o m betw een 1922 and 1943, the B oom ers bom
betw een 1943 and 1960, th e Xers bom betw een 1961 and 1980, and the N exers bom between
1980 and 2000. Strauss and H ow e (1991) identifed the same four as the Silent generation
b om betw een 1925 and 1942, the Boom generation bom betw een 1943 and 1960, the
Thirteenth generation bom betw een 1961 and 1981 and the M illennium generation bom from
1982 until the present. G ibson (1991) concurred with Strauss and H ow e th at the Boom
generation birth period w as tw enty years but identified the B oom generation as being bom
betw een 1946 and 1966. A ccording to Strauss and Howe (1991), fitting any generation into
a solid birth year range is difficult. They suggested that each generation m ay overlap into
another generation as m uch as four years at the being and end o f each generation. To
conduct research into the w o rk values o f different generations it was necessary to select a
w ell-docum ented generational cycle w ith form al titles and fixed birth years. F o r the purpose
o f this study, Strauss’s and H ow e’s generational cycles and titles w ere used. A uthors cited in
this review o f literature often refered to th e four current w orkforce tw entieth-century
generations w ith different titles. Table 3 on the following page reflects the variety o f titles
given to each generation using the titles assigned by Strauss and H ow e as the benchmark.
F o r the purpose o f this research, the Strauss and H ow e generation titles w ere used.
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T able 3
Titles G iven to the Four C urrent W orkforce T w entieth-C entury G enerations
Silent Generation
Boom Generation
Thirteenth Generation
Millennium Generation
Veterans
Babv Boomers
Generation X
Traditionalists
GIs Mature
Boomers
Xers
Gen X
Nexters
Generation Y
Millennials
Seniors
Baby Busters
Generation 2001
WWn
Thirteener
Nintendo Generation
Twenty-somethings
Generation Net
Post-Boomers
Internet Generation
Generation
Note: Sources (Zemke et al., 1999: Howe and Strauss. 1993; and Strauss & Howe. 1991).
Silent G eneration
N um bering approxim ately 40 million, the S ilen t generation w as rep o rted as being the
sm allest tw entieth-century A m erican generation. S andw iched in betw een th e G .I. generation
and the B oom generation, the Silent generation has b e e n noted as being w ithdraw n,
indifferent, unim aginative and cautious (Strauss & H o w e 1991). T heir w ar, th e K orean
conflict, w as a peacekeeping action dw arfed by the sh ad o w o f W orld W ar II.
M anagem ent experts Z em k e et al. (1999) n o ted th at the m em bers o f th e Silent
generation are conform ers, disciplined, logical, h isto ry absorbed, purveyors o f law and order,
and conservative spenders. T h e Silent and T hirteenth generations are the tw o generations
living today w hose members are old enough to beco m e President o f the U nited States yet
have not produced one. The B o o m generation beat th e m to the W hitehouse. T h eir war, the
K orean conflict, was a peacekeeping action dw arfed b y the shadow o f W orld W ar
n.
A ccording to generational historians Strauss and H o w e (1991), the Silent g en eratio n has been
adaptive throughout the four phases o f life and su ffo cated by parental p ro tectio n during their
youth, becam e conform ists during their rising youth, and w ere indecisive in m idlife.
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A ssum ing a retirem ent age o f 65 years old, the leading edge o f the Silent generation
started leaving th e w o rk force in 1990 and the trailing edge will not com plete th eir exodus
from the w orkforce before the first decad e o f th e new m illennium ends. The Silent
generation is running out o f tim e to m ake th e ir mark on A m erica (S trau ss & H ow e, 1991).
B oom G eneration
People b o m in the United States betw een 1943 and I960 have been identified as
belonging to the B o o m generation o r b ab y boom cohort (Strauss & H ow e, 1991). T he term
baby boom w as n o t a tradem arked n am e b u t m ore likely a spin o f f th e term "boom" used
frequently to describe the general g ro w th in th e economy experienced during and after W orld
W ar II. T he term "baby boom generation" becam e popular am ongst dem ographers in th e
1970's w hen they started using the term to explain the 20 year p opulation grow th experienced
betw een 1946 and 1966 (Anon., 1993, p. 6).
It w as reported that 78 m illion A m ericans belong to the B o o m cohort (G ibson, 1993).
Crispell (1993) rep o rted that the B oom g eneration represented 41 % o f the adult p opulation .
A ccording to G ibson (1995), the baby bo o m generation was m ade up o f four distinct sub
generations, each spanning five years. G ib so n ’s (1995) descriptive longitudinal analysis o f
C urrent Population Survey figures d ifferen tiated each sub-group based on education,
m arriage, childbearing, household incom e, and hom eownership. T h e Boom generation w as
projected to continue to add m em bers to A m erica's labor force th ro u g h the year 2000 even
though their share o f th e labor force actu ally peaked in 1985 (F ullerton, 1991).
The B oom generation, according to Strauss and H ow e (1991), w ere indulged by th e ir
parents during th e ir youth and becam e narcissistic during rising youth. Zem ke et al. (1999)
described the B oom ers as believing in th e econom ic grow th and th e expansion o f A m erica
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w hile considering them selves as stars o f th e show o f life. B oom g en eratio n m em bers were
reported to be im m ersed in personal gratification, feel optim istic about th e future, and foster
the concept o f team w ork. T hey lived w ith, through and after V ietnam , a co n flict that divided
their nation com m unities, cam puses, fam ilies and friends. They w itnessed, as children and
young adults, the assassination o f their P resid en t and their leader o f civil rights. They earned
their stripes o f optim ism by reuniting A m erica (Strauss and H ow e, 1997).
If the first m em bers o f the Boom gen eratio n continue to w ork until th ey are 65 years
old, they will not begin e x itin g the labor fo rce until the year 2 0 11 (C rispell, 1993). Their
m ass numbers will not b e seen again in the lab o r force until the next baby boom generation,
b o m between 1989 and 1993, enters the lab o r force in first century o f th e new millennium
(Edm ondson, 1995).
Thirteenth G eneration
Bom betw een th e years o f 1961 and 1981, the Thirteenth generation is the largest
generation in the U nited States with a reported population o f 79 m illion p eo p le (Strauss &
H ow e, 1991). It was rep o rted that the T hirteenth generation has a “w o rk to live” attitude,
unlike their Boom and S ilent generation parents w hom “lived to w ork” (Z em k e et al., 1999,
p. 99). The Thirteenth generation was n oted as being the generation o f latch key kids, single
parent homes, and career absorbed parent(s). H ow e and Strauss (1993) n oted in their book,
13th Gen: abort, retry, ignore.fail?. the Silent and B oom generations v iew the Thirteenth
generation as “slackers” (p. I). The im age portrayed by the Thirteenth gen eratio n may lead
people to believe they do only w hat was expected, nothing m ore and n o thing less. H ow e and
Strauss also suggested th a t th e Thirteenth generation is not interested in com m itting their
lives to their em ployer, authority, or set hours.
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Z em ke et al. (1999) reported that the m em bers o f the Thirteenth generation are selfreliant, searching for a sense o f fam ily and balance in th eir lives. A t w ork they are skeptical,
like informality, view authority casually, and are technologically astute. At play th ey live on
the edge m anifested through th eir desire to rock clim b, m ountain bike, and snow board.
Follow ing Strauss and H o w e ’s (1991) G enerational Diagonal in the T w entieth
Century the Thirteenth generation is the tw entieth cen tu ry ’s reactive generation. As youth
they “w ere deliberately encourage to react to life as you w ould hack through a ju n g le: Keep
your eyes open, expect the w orst, and handle it on y o u r ow n” (p. 329). As they e n ter rising
adulthood, the Thirteenth generation was reported as being astutely aw are o f foreign
com petition and national debt burdens their generation m ust bear. Strauss and H o w e also
reported that “tw o-thirds believe they will have to w ork harder than earlier generations
simply to enjoy the sam e standard o f living” (p. 330).
M illennial G eneration
Even though the M illennial generation w as not included in this research, these birthcohorts w arrant mention for the purpose o f future research. Strauss and H ow e (1991) placed
the beginning birth-year o f The M illennial generation as 1982 and w as projected to end “just
beyond the year 2000” (p. 335). They also noted that “ not since the early 1900s have older
generations moved so quickly to assert greater adult dom ain over the w orld o f childhood and
to implant civic virtue in a new crop o f youngsters” (p. 335).
The M ulti G enerational W orkplace in the Tw enty First C entury
M anagem ent authors Z em ke et al. (1999) spoke clearly to the current im pact o f the
multi generational workplace:
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There is a problem in the w o rk p lace —a problem derived n o t from dow nsizing,
rightsizing, change, technology, fo reig n com petition, pointy-haired bosses, bad
breath, cu b icle envy, o r greed. It is a problem o f w ork values, am bitions, view s, m id
sets, dem ographics, and gen eratio n s in conflict. The w o rk p lace you inhabit today is
aw ash w ith th e conflicting voices and view s o f the m ost ag e- and value-diverse
w orkforce this country has know n since o u r great-great-grandfathers abandoned field
and farm fo r factory and farm (p. 10).
In her article W o rkplace Trends. A lison Stein W alln er (1999) w rote: “ Trends, trends
everywhere, b u t w h e re ’s some inform ation w e can use” (p. 153)? W alln er form ed an
argum ent fo r use o f trends in the strategic p lan n in g o f a m ulti-generational w orkplace o f th e
tw enty-first century.
I f w e can b eliev e that there is a problem in the w orkplace as purported by Z em ke et
al. (1999), and W alln er (1997), then m any o f th e problem s in the m ulti-generational
w orkforce o f the tw enty-first century m ay b e hidden in the w ork valu es o f each generation.
These w ork values m ay becom e blurred by the stereotypical view s o f each generation.
U nderstanding th e com posite w ork value stru ctu re o f an organization m ay allow hum an
resource professionals and managers o f o rg an izatio n to better m eet th e .needs o f their
generationally d iv erse population through program s and policy design. The following
sections further th ro u g h literature citations th e argum ent that generational stereotypes may
exist and that differences in the w ork values o f em ployees o f d ifferen t generations may exist.
G enerational S tereotypes
O lder w o rk ers o f the Silent and B o o m e r generations face stereotyping. W hen the
stereotypical view o f older adults w as tran sferred to business, older w o rk ers were view ed as
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costing more, being less productive, incapable o f learn in g new skills, and sick m ore often
than their younger colleagues (K aeter, 1995). In a sim ilar study, Duran and K leiner (1992)
reported that older em ployees w ere often thought o f as b eing less healthy, less productive,
more costly to employ, and less adaptable than their y o u n g er counterparts. Collectively,
these stereotypical view s w ere negative and may create career problems for older adults in
the w ork force. Research indicated that human reso u rce professionals perceive that there w as
a large gap betw een existing policies and needed p o licies to address the career problem s o f
older adults (R osen & Jerdee, 1990). Rosen and Jerd ee identified these polices as being
reflected in the m anagem ent practices o f an organization.
M em bers o f the T hirteenth generation w ere cited as being the m ost diverse generation
in history. T hey brought to th e w o rk place greater ethnic, economic, and cultural diversity
than any generation in A m erica’s history. Furtherm ore, they may be first generation since
the Civil W ar to have less econom ic fortune than th eir parents (Howe and Strauss, 1993).
Like th e V eteran and B oom generations, the T hirteenth generation may be faced w ith
a negative stereotypical im age. H ow e and Strauss (1 9 9 3 ) noted that m em bers o f the
Thirteenth generation have been criticized for their “slack er” attitude in the w orkplace (p. 1).
In reality, they m ay be prim e candidates for m anagem ent by objective. It has been noted that
this generation responds to clear outcom e objectives, deadlines, and inputs (H ow e &
Strauss). U nlike previous generations, members o f th e T hirteenth generation seem
com fortable leaving w ork early i f they achieve the outcom e early. W allner (1997) suggested
that mem bers o f the T hirteenth generation m ight function well in the tw enty-first century
w orkplace w here the value o f technological know ledge is high and merit-based pay is
common.
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A ccording to Zem eke, et al. (1999), th e m em bers o f T hirteenth generation have been
stereotyped as lacking loyalty to their em ployers. Zemeke, et al. also reported that m em bers
o f the Thirteenth generation know they are technologically valuable and are com fortable w ith
moving on to a new job. This was a lesson th e y learned from their B oom generation parents
who w ere com fortable m oving on from 50% o f their marriages (Zem eke, et al.). In the
tw enty-first century, if not already, successful organizations m ay spend tim e and money
mentoring this generation in hopes o f retaining their talents (C ham bers, Foulon, HanfieldJones, H arkin & M ichaels, 1998).
W ork Values
The follow ing section provided background on the values identified in the literature
as having d irect reference to being achieved o r attained through a person's work.
M anagerial. Supervisory and A ssociate Relations
The im pact the V eteran and B oom generations will have on creating an aging w ork
force dem ands th e need fo r managers, supervisors and associates to b etter understand the
psychological and physiological processes o f aging (Dennis, 1988). U nderstanding the
differences betw een younger and older w orkers may allow supervisors o f older adults to
perform m ore effectively and be more responsive to the differing needs o f older adults
(Kelly, C husm ir, & Law rie, 1990).
A ccording to W allner (1997), the m ultigenerational w orkplace is not well postured
for the em inent “ senior explosion” (p. 154). It w as reported that th e num ber o f Silent and
Boom generation people age 55 to 64 years old will increase by nine m illion between 1996 to
2006 (Fullerton, 1999). The Age D iscrim ination Em ploym ent A ct w as signed into law in
1967 to protect w orkers over the age o f 40 years old from unfair hiring, promotion, and
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la y o ff policies. Even w ith th e passage o f the A ge D iscrim ination A ct som e 33 years ago,
society has not m ade m uch progress in elim inating th e age discrim ination concerns o f near
retirem ent and m iddle a g ed w ork ers (Kaeter, 1995).
As the A m erican w o rk force ages, o ld er adults m ay have an increased likelihood o f
being m anaged by an indiv id u al younger than they are. Y ounger m anagers th at find job
satisfaction in status, success, pow er, money, and com petition may be m anaging older
em ployees that find jo b satisfactio n in security, a sense o f belonging, com fort, pride and
cam araderie w ith fellow em ployees. These sam e d ifferences in job satisfactio n m ay account
fo r the differing view s o ld e r w orkers and younger m an ag ers have o f th e ir jo b s (Zeltin, 1992).
This w as not to say differen t beliefs only existed b etw een older w orkers and younger
m anagers. R esearch indicated that older supervisors held m ore negative beliefs about older
w orkers than did younger supervisors (H assell & P errew e, 1995). The rep o rted challenge fo r
supervisors and m anagers w a s not to under m anage o ld er em ployees by assig n in g them light
duty tasks, low ering perform ance expectations, and reducing m onitoring o f productivity
(B uonocore, 1992).
Econom ic R ew ards
Kuhn, reported in 1995 that many older w o rk ers placed a higher v alu e on personal
satisfaction and m aking a contribution than on ad v an cem en t and high earnings . The
R ew ard-A ccom m odation H ypothesis o f G ruenberg (1980) purports th at o ld er w orkers assign
m ore im portance to intrinsic w o rk rewards than to extrinsic w ork rew ards. M ottaz (1987)
found that the G ruenberg H ypothesis explained increased w orker satisfaction and that
determ inants o f increased w o rk satisfaction w ere sim ilar fo r males and fem ales.
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It w as suggested that there is a d eclin e in vertical ad v an cem en t within o rganizations
d ue to changes in jo b skill requirem ents, increased autom ation, organizational restructuring,
contingent w orkers, the impact o f th e B o o m generation, and changes in career expectations
(K aye & Farren, 1996). Siegel (1993) rep o rted that the decline in vertical advancem ent
w ithin organizations may lead you n g er w o rk ers to develop resentm ent tow ard older
em ployees because they feel older w o rk e rs are blocking their ability to be prom oted. Siegel's
research also revealed that there w as an ag e barrier for the likelihood o f prom otion b ased on
perform ance evaluations. The sup erv iso ry perceptions o f prom otion likelihood for y o u n g er
m anagers show ed a significant positive relationship to their perform ance evaluation w hile
th ere was no relationship found for o ld e r m anagers.
M ultigenerational organizations h av e always existed in A m erica but the generations
w e re separated b y “organizational stratificatio n ” (Zemke et al., 1999, p 10). The o ld er and
senior em ployees typically held the se n io r m anagem ent positions, m iddle-age em ployees
held the m iddle m anagem ent and su p erv iso ry w ith the younger em ployees filling the lab o r
positions. The very nature o f past o rg an izatio n al structures separated the generations thro u g h
clear pecking orders, shorter life spans, and structured hierarchies. T o d ay ’s w orkplace has
softening hierarchies, employees th at h av e a projected longer life span, and multigenerational sen io r and middle m an ag em en t (Zem ke et al.).
M any o ld e r employees w ere h ired u n d er the post W orld W ar II w ork ethic w here
young em ployees started at the bottom o f th e corporate ladder, developed new skill sets on
th e job, found advancem ent w ithin the organization, and w ere paid w ages more in
accordance w ith seniority than w ith ind iv id u al perform ance. T here w as consensus th at this
"old system" o f "lifetim e" em ploym ent w as o v er (Bennett, 1998, p. 2 1 ).
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It was generally agreed am ongst authorities that all em ployees m ust tak e personal
responsibility for th e ir ow n career path th a t m ay result in increased jo b security (Boggs,
1997, Joison, 1997; K aye & Farren 1996; Little, 1997). B oggs sug g ested th at an employee
m ust take responsibility for their future and develop a personal c aree r vision based on the
long-term vision o f th eir employer. L ittle suggested that the em ployees o f th e 1990s must
build new skills, ta k e risks, and strive to learn som ething new each day. K aye and Farren
suggested that an em ployee w ork actively tow ards several career goals at once to take
advantage o f a lateral position move. Jo in so n encouraged organizations to establish multiple
career paths fo r th e ir em ployees that w ould allow employees in terested in m anagerial
developm ent to attain their goals and not penalize em ployees w ho are not interested in career
grow th through m anagem ent.
Itzin and Phillipson (1994) identified that line managers had an unfavorable effect on
the career developm ent o f older w orkers. The manager's negative effects left th e older
w orkers with the general feeling that th ey w ere overlooked or excluded from career
developm ent, thus increasing the older w orker's fear o f dism issal. S hearring (1992) reported
that adults can m aster new subjects, develop new skills, and develop creativity at any age if
given the opportunity
Em ployees m ay set as a personal g o al their own career d ev elo p m en t and
em ployability. O rganizational encouragem ent and com m itm ent to life long career
developm ent w as o ne reported w ay organizations can help their em ployees achieve this goal
(Bounocore, 1992). U nfortunately, there still exists reluctance o n the part o f previously
trained and experienced older w orkers to learn new skills (Sm ith & Hoy, 1992).
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Task Variety. Independence and Intellectual Stim ulation
Detailed inform ation gathered on the tasks perform ed by 573 em ployees in a diverse
sam ple o f jobs suggested th a t the m easurem ent o f task-level properties provided a new
dim ension into the study o f jo b satisfaction. T he collected inform ation in d icated that 30% o f
the change in jo b satisfaction was driven by skill variety and task identity. T he greatest
indicator o f task-level characteristics was task com plexity (T aber & A lliger, 1995). Research
conducted by D odd and G anster (1996) on th e jo b dim ensions o f autonom y (Independence),
variety, and feedback suggested high task variety level had a significant positive im pact on
jo b perform ance w hen coupled w ith either au tonom y o r feedback. A utonom y and feedback
resulted in little interaction on job perform ance w hen an individual w as involved in a low
task variety job.
Wav o f Life
According to a recent article in the B ay lo r B usiness Review (Cox, 1999), the smart
w orkplace realized that “ productivity is enhanced w hen organizations treat th eir employees
as whole individuals w h o se lives go beyond th e jo b ” (p. 7). It was also rep o rted that more
and m ore employees o f all ages desired a strong w ork-life balance, a p henom ena once largely
representative o f the T hirteenth generation m em bers. A 1999 study o f 53 cu rren t o r past
m anagers revealed that requests for alternative w o rk arrangem ents (A W A ) w ere met with
m anagem ent favor w hen th e requesting em ployee w ould not disrupt w ork, w as not
perform ing critical tasks, w as not in a supervisory capacity, and was not requesting AW A for
child care. The study also revealed that the sex o r age o f the em ployee requesting the AW A
had no significant influence on a m anager’s decision to grant or not g rant A W A . As a group
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the m anagers tended to make th e ir decision to grant A W A b a se d on their own short-term
goals (Pow ell & M ainiero, 1999).
T hornburg (1995) proposed th at human resource p ro fessio n als consider structuring
organizational w o rk around em ployee w ork schedules by p ro v id in g the following offerings.
1.) Flexibility in scheduling so w orkers can take c a re o f sick spouses, go b ack to
school, travel, or slow d ow n a bit. 2.) Training so o ld e r w orkers can take ad v an tag e
o f the latest technology an d organizational thinking. 3.) R esource and referral help
those addresses long-term and elder care. 4.) C areer life counseling that will help
older w orkers make the tran sitio n to a new status. 5.) A w areness developm ent fo r
s
em ployees o f all ages on h o w ageism discourages o ld e r w orkers from being
productive as they m ight (p. 40).
A ndrew s (1992) reported th a t th e w ork place m ust b e co m e attractive to the w ork-life
needs o f old er w orkers if organizations choose to m aintain an d increase their supply o f o ld er
w orkers to hedge against a projected shrinking labor force. A ccording to Andrews, th e w o rk
place becom es m ore attractive to o ld er w orkers w hen o rg an izatio n s im plem ented phased
retirem ent th rough the option o f part-tim e em ploym ent and jo b sharing. B uonocore (1992)
noted that m ost corporations fail to recognize the d ev elo p m en tal changes that people
experience as th ey age. Therefore, people may be anchored to th eir job but find a g re a te r
level o f personal satisfaction in interests outside o f their w o rk life.
Job Security
Surveys conducted by the N ational Opinion R esearch C en ter indicated a reduction in
th e num ber o f people m aintaining lifetim e em ploym ent w ith o n e organization. N ational
R esearch C en ter surveys also show ed th at during the 1990's high-seniority em ployees
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perceived a decline in jo b security (A aronson & Sullivan, 1998). It has b een recom m ended
that organizations co n sid er em ploym ent agreem ents as an avenue to retain senior staff and
provide them w ith jo b security (Patterson, 1998).
The reported stereotypical view o f older adults as costing more, being less productive,
unable o f learning new skills, sick more often th an th eir younger colleagues, and less
adaptable than their y o u n g e r counterparts may leav e o ld er em ployees w ith a legitim ate
concern with their jo b secu rity (D uran & Kleiner; 1992; K aeter, 1995). In 1986 the United
States Congress elim inated m andatory retirem ent, th u s opening the door fo r older adults to
participate in the decision w hen they would retire (W orth, 1995). This change in m andatory
retirem ent have left organizations faced w ith the sensitive challenge o f h o w they should view
older em ployees that w an t to w ork into late adulthood and how to overcom e the stereotypical
notion that everyone retires at the same age (D ennis, 1988). W hen a person decided to retire
their decision w as m ost likely made on their econom ic ability to retire, health, job
satisfaction, fam ily responsibilities, and their need to pursue other interests (Dennis).
W hen the U nited States Congress elim inated m andatory retirem ent in 1986, they also
opened the door for organizations to offer Early R etirem en t Incentive Plans (ER IP) (Worth,
1995). The result has been an increased num ber o f early pensioners returning to the work.
E arly pensioners reasons fo r returning to w ork included changes in the types and provisions
o f pensions, longer life expectancies, increased h ealth care, and expanded opportunities to
w o rk reduced or flexible schedules (Herz, 1995).
M any organizations, both public and private, w ere reported to offer pre-retirem ent
planning programs. In th e public sector, many em p lo y ees now view pre-retirem ent planning
as one o f their em ployee rights (Siegel, 1994). Siegel's 1994 survey o f 600 hum an resource
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professionals indicated that pre-retirem ent counseling program s only reached 20% o f the
em ployees nearing retirem ent age.
C ole (1995) suggested that the business concern ov er recruiting and retaining
technically astute employees, a phenom enon once reserved fo r the high technology, has now
becom e a concern for many organizations not involved directly in high technology. T he
result has been an increased com petition for the members o f th e Thirteenth generation.
Com panies th a t found success in using stock options and retirem ent plans to recruit and
retain m em bers o f the Boom generation have found it takes m ore to recruit and retain the
mem bers o f T hirteenth generation. C ole also reported that th e m embers o f the T hirteenth
generation have an entrepreneurial spirit and seek fun and m eaning in their work.
A recen t study profile o f 256 senior managers suggested that the perception o f
Thirteenth generation members as not being loyal was m ore a reaction to seeing their parents
dow nsized o u t o f a job. The senior m anagers reported that m any members o f the T hirteenth
generation w ere not afraid to strike o u t on their own, jo in sm all start-up organizations and
have no intention o f staying w ith one organization their entire career. Instead, the m em bers
o f the T hirteenth generation look for an environm ent w here th ey can learn, develop new
skills, express their creativity, and develop leadership skills (W ah, 2000).
T he results o f a 1989 study o f 400 corporate officers, 6000 corporate executives, and
20 corporate case studies suggested th at “the executive talent has been the most under
managed corporate asset in for the past two decades” and further suggest making “talent
m anagem ent a burning priority” (C ham bers, Foulton, H andfield-Jones, Hankin, & M icahels,
p. 47). C ham bers et al. also suggested th at few com panies realize they have a retention
problem because they focused on the retention o f top executives w here the reported attrition
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was less th a t 4 percen t a year. The study a lso indicated that th e m iddle rank o f m anagers, 3
to 8 years out o f college, should becom e th e focus o f retention program s.
C reativity
R esearchers agreed that em ployee creativ ity w as critically im portant to the success o f
an organization but little was know n how to prom ote creativity w ith in an organization
(M cShulskis, 1997; O ldham & Cum m ings, 1996; Tabak, 1997). M cShulskis suggested th a t
organizational m an ag ers start by listening to th e ir em ployee’s ideas a b o u t how the
organization m ig h t be run more successfully. Oldham & C um m ings suggested that
com panies p ossessed a culture for creativity w h en they w ere m anaged in a supportive and
non-controlling fashion. The concept o f su pportive and non-controlling m anagem ent w as
further su p p o rted in the research o f Tabek.
Prestige
In a 1999 exam ination o f theories pertain in g to prestige, D aven found an em pirically
strong relationship betw een the prestige o f a social netw ork contact and prestige attainm ent.
This relationship supported the concept th a t people searching fo r a position o f prestige had a
better chance o f finding such a position if th e y netw orked w ith p restigious people even
thought th e reaso n fo r the dyadic link lacked consistent explanation.
E sthetics and Altruism
E m ployees o f public and private organizations w ere reported to be reaching out in
increasing num bers to create a.more beautiful A m erica through th e A dopt a Highway
program. The A d o p t a H ighw ay program w a s initiated to allow organizations to adopt a
portion o f hig h w ay and m eet on a volunteer basis to pick-up roadside trash. Participating
organizations w e re recognized through road signage. In a sim ilar effort, A m ericans from
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public and private organizations w ork cooperatively to paint their to w n s. Started in 1988, the
non-profit organization Paint-the-Tow n has organized painting m ore th a n 2500 hom es across
A m erica w ith v o lu n te e r help and donated supplies (Ziegler, 1992).
It w as reported th at philanthropic g iv in g through the U nited W a y soared to $3.58
billion in 1999 largely due to the generosity o f m illions o f A m ericans a n d th eir
em ployers. L ocal U nited W ay cam paigns fo r health and hum an services w ere largely
directed through th e leadership o f em ployees o f public and private organizations.
Em ployers not o n ly supported their em ployees participation in the e ffo rts o f the United
W ay but, often m atched em ployee contribution dollars. M any em p lo y ees spend
countless personal hours soliciting donations thus, satisfying their p erso n al need to help
others less fortunate (Fund Raising M anagem ent, 1999).
It was reported that, even though the U nited W ay has dom inated em ployee charitable
giving cam paigns fo r m any years, em ployers and em ployees have alternatives. Roha (1992)
cited 135 alternative um brella organizations n o t covered by the U nited W a y that also
m andate o f health and hum an services spending. Roha, also reported th a t "alternative funds
w ere created prim arily to m ake it easier fo r charities not em braced by th e U nited W ay to
com pete in lucrative w orkplace fund-raising cam paigns" (page. 114). E m p lo y ee possibilities
to help others th rough charitable giving w ere reported to be grow ing in w orkplace
contributions to non-U nited W ay charities (B othw ell & Daley, 1993). B othw ell and D aley
reported that the g ro w th in w orkplace contributions w as especially tru e in state and local
campaigns.
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Surroundings
W hen the O ccupational, H ealth, and Safety A dm inistration (O SH A ) w as form ed in
1970, the w orking conditio n s o f all Am ericans cam e u n d e r a federal guideline fo r w orker
surroundings. T he federal govern m en t has set strict g u id elin es for the num ber o f restroom s
needed per em ployee, g en eral and task lighting, noise levels, dust levels and the list goes on.
The O SH A regulations have provided fo r w orkspaces th at have adequate restroom s, air
quality, climate control, lighting, and office ergonom ics. W hat O SH A regulations did not
address was the w orkers psychological interaction w ith th e ir w orkspace. B aldry reported in
1997 that human resource m anagers w ere just realizing th at office buildings designed to
m ake a statem ent from th e outside may have sent as p rofound o f a statem ent to th o se who
w orked in them. T he p ro b lem arose w hen the statem ent w as directly counter to the goals and
com m itm ent o f the organization. B aldry suggested th a t th e insights o f office designers were
crucial to understanding h o w people use buildings, b u t h o w the people that w ork in the
building feel about their space w as equally crucial. A ccording to Baldry, this w as found in
the spatial signals a b o u t status and behavior o f w orkers.
The sense o f personal w orkspace o r territory is im portant to us all. I f not expressly
forbidden, w e d e c o ra te o u r office walls, desks o r V D U s with pictures, postcards or
artefacts that are designed to tell observers a little bit about us as people: I am a name
and not a num ber, how ever large the organization. This concept o f personal space is
often expressed by w orkers in term s o f privacy, w hich in itself suggests a degree o f
control over th e im m ediate w orking environm ent: can the office-w orker shut the door
on others, control noise levels o r the audibility o f conversations and regulate the
tem perature o r lig hting to suit his o r her personal standards o f com fort? (page 366)
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It w as suggested th a t w orkers in the age o f tech n o lo g y w ould find them selves
spending m ore tim e interacting w ith com puters and electro n ic aids than w ith people. Cubicle
offices filled w ith electronics w ould replace the once rev ered private office. E m ployees o f
all ages w ill place an increasing im portance on office ergonom ics as their dependence on
electronics increase (Em anoil, 2000).
Instrum ents Used to M easure W o rk Values
T he w ork values th at people possess have been th e subject o f extensive research. A
review o f the literature indicated th at numerous instrum ents have been developed fo r the
purpose o f m easuring an individual's w ork values. T he form al developm ent o f instrum ents
to m easure w ork values started in the 1960’s w ith dev elo p m en t o f the published M innesota
Im portance Q uestionnaire (M IQ ) (Rounds, Henly, D aw is, Lofquist, & W eiss, 1967) and the
published W ork Values Inventory (WVT) (Super, 1968). In 1971 the unpublished Survey o f
W ork V alues (SWV) w as developed at Bowling G reen S tate University (W ollack,
G oodale,W ijting, & Smith, 1971). The Survey o fW o rk V alues was revised and published in
1975 as a unisex instrum ent and assum ed the instrum ent nam e o f the Survey o f W o r k Values,
Form U (SW V - U) (B ow ling G reen State University).
As a part o f the W ork Im portance Study (W IS) th ere w as a resurgence o f new
instrum ents published to m easure the w ork values o f individuals (Super & Sverko, 1995).
The W ork Aspect Preference Scale (W A PS) was published in 1983 (Pryor, & Taylor, 1986).
As a part o f the WIS, the Life Roles Inventory (LRI) w as developed in 1985 fo r m easuring
the life goals o f and roles o f people living in C anada (Fitzsim m ons, M acnab, & C aserly,
1985). In 1985, the V alues Scale (VT), Second Edition, w as developed by a consortium o f
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36
international vocational psychologists as a p a rt o f th e International W o rk Im portance Study
(N eville & S uper, 1986).
It w as no t w ithin the scope o f this stu d y to report on the established internal reliability
and validity o f each instrum ent cited. T he fo llo w in g review o f literatu re only focused on the
developm ent, scale, and proposed use(s) o f each instrum ent, thus b u ild in g an argum ent fo r
the researcher's instrum ent choice, the W o rk V alues Inventory (Super, 1970).
M innesota Im portance Q uestionnaire
The M in n eso ta Im portance Q u estio n n aire (M IQ ) was developed as part o f the
M innesota W o rk A djustm ent Project, a p ro ject based on the Theory o f W o rk A djustm ent
(L ofquist & D aw is, 1978). The theory states th a t “w o rk adjustm ent can b e predicted from
the correspondence betw een an individual’s w o rk personality and the w o rk environm ent;
vocational needs, along w ith vocational ab ilities, constitute the m ajor aspects o f w ork
personalities” (A lbright. 1978, p. 1672).
The 1975 edition o f the M IQ has a rich history o f developm ent (R ounds, et al., 1981).
It began w ith th e developm ent o f the N -F acto rs Q uestionnaire, a 48 -item questionnaire w ith
12 scales to m easure w ork values. T he N -F acto rs Q uestionnaire lacked reliability and soon
lead to developm ent o f the first form o f the M IQ . T he first form o f th e M Q I was constructed
using a L ikert form at and consisted o f 20 fiv e-item scales, but like N -F acto rs Q uestionnaire it
lacked reliability. In 1965 the paired co m p ariso n version o f the M IQ w as release and
consisted o f 3 90 questions covering 20 d im en sio n s o f work. The paired com parison version
w as revised in 1967 and shortened to 190 item s (B enson, 1985). The stated purpose o f the
M IQ was “to m easure tw enty psychological n eed s and six underlying w o rk values that have
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37
been found to be relevant to w o rk adjustm ent, specifically to satisfaction w ith w o rk ”
(M innesota im portance questionnaire, T: 1641, 1994, p. 525).
The 1975 Edition o f the M IQ assesses the im portance o f 20 w ork needs by either
ranked o r paired form ats. T he identified 20 identified w ork needs are: A bility, U tilization,
A chievem ent, Activity, C om pensation, Security, W orking Conditions, A dvancem ent,
R ecognition, Authority, Social Status, C o-w orkers, Social Service, M oral V alues, Company
Politics, Supervision-H um an Relations, Supervision-T echnical, Creativity, Responsibility,
A utonom y [ranked form only]). These 20 w ork needs w ere factored into the follow ing six
underlying dim ensions: A chievem ent, C om fort V alue, Status Value, A ltruism V alue, Safety
V alue and A utonom y V alue (R ounds, et al., 1981).
D isagreem ent existed am ongst test review ers over the best use o f th e M IQ . Benson
(1985) reported that clearest application o f the M IQ is in counseling individuals regarding
their future w ork plans. A lbright (1978) suggested th at the MIQ was not appropriate for the
use w ithin m ost em ployee career planning program s unless counselors receive special
training in the use o f the instrum ent. Zedack (1978) view ed the MIQ as an instrum ent that
provided a "w ithin-person type o f analysis" useful fo r "interpretation o f th e w orkers
im portance to his/her ow n needs" (p. 1675).
W ork V alues Inventory
D onald E. Super started w ork on the W ork V alues Inventory (W V I) in 1 9 5 1 as a part
o f the C areer Pattern Study (B olton, 1985). T he W V I w as "designed to m easure the values
w hich are extrinsic to as w ell as those which are intrinsic in work" (W ork values inventory,
T: 2998, 1994, p. 998).
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38
The W ork Values Inventory is a 45 item self-report inventory that uses a five-point
Likert format developed around 15 w ork values. T he w ork values m easured are: Altruism ,
Esthetics, Creativity, Intellectual Stimulation, Independence, A chievem ent, Prestige,
M anagem ent, Econom ic R eturns, Security, Surroundings, Supervisory R elations, A ssociates,
Variety, and W ay o f Life (Super, 1971).
The WVT was designed fo r use in the career and vocation counseling o f students from
ju n io r high through college (Super, 1971). B olton (1985) found the W VI to be the "best all
around instrum ent for m easuring w ork values "(p. 841).
Survey o f W ork Values. Form U
"The Survey o f W ork V alues (SW V) is intended to be an index o f a person's attitudes
tow ard w ork in general, rather than his feelings ab o u t a specific jo b ” (W ollack et al., 1971, p.
331). The SW V was based on a num ber o f the dim ensions o f the Protestant Ethic separated
it from earlier scales. The Protestant Ethic, as described by W eber (1958), purported
individualism, asceticism , and industriousness. T h e first Survey o f W ork V alues w as
constructed around seven identified aspects o f the Protestant Ethic. W ollack et al. (1971)
started the inventory design w ith three intrinsic aspects o f w ork (i.e. pride in w ork, jo b
involvem ent, and activity perform ed) and four extrinsic aspects o f w ork (i.e. social-status,
upw ard striving, attitude tow ard earnings, and responsibility to work). The SW V a u th o r’s
reallocation process generated six discrim inably different w ork values (i.e. social status,
activity perform ed, upw ard striving, attitude tow ard earnings, pride in w ork, job
involvem ent) from 18 sub-scales (Allison, 1995).
The first Survey o f W ork Values (SW V) w as revised in 1975 to elim inate th e gender
dom inant language; e.g. “A m an should choose th e jo b that pays the m ost” (W ollack et al.,
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39
1971, p. 335). T h e factors o f C o n v en tio n al Ethic and O rganizational-M an Ethic were also
elim inated in 1975 (B em ardin & C o o k e, 1995). The gender neutral F o rm U uses a five-point
Likert scale to m easure the re sp o n d e n t’s agreem ent o r disagreem ent to 54 statements.
Review o f the fa c to r loadings in d icated tw o orthogonal axes, one labeled the extrinsic axis
and the other intrinsic axis (B e m ard in & C ooke, 1995).
M orrow (1983) proposed th a t th e utility o f the Survey o f W o rk V alues lie in the
belief that w ork values based on th e P rotestant Ethic w ere m ore enduring than the attitudes o f
organizational com m itm ent and jo b satisfaction. This utility could b e useful for both
researchers and em ployers interested in the assessm ent o f the P ro testan t Ethic (Allison,
1995). Sim erson (1991, p. 681) su g g ested that the SW V be used as "one diagnosis" in the
developm ent intervention choices p rio r to planned organizational change.
W ork A spect Preference Scale
Published inform ation a b o u t the W ork Aspect Preference Scale (W A PS) was lim ited.
T he W ork A spect Preference S cale w as "constructed to assess the qualities o f w ork that
individuals consider im portant to them " (W ork aspect preference scale, T: 2987, 1994, p.
918). The W APS scores the fo llo w in g 13 scales: Independence, C o-W orkers, SelfDevelopm ent, C reativity, M oney, L ife Style, Prestige, A ltruism , Security, M anagem ent,
Detachm ent, Physical Activity, a n d Surroundings (Pryor & Taylor, 1986).
Life Roles Inventory
The Life R oles Inventory (L R I) w as developed fo r use w ith individuals living in
Canada and w as “designed to assess the im portance o f life career values and the relative
im portance o f five m ajor life ro les” (L ife roles inventory, T: 182, 1998, p. 612). The LR I is
actually com prised o f tw o separate inventories, the Values Scale (V S ) and the Salience
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Inventory (SI). B oth inventories were based on th e research conducted by m em bers o f the
W ork Im portance Study (W IS), an international co n so rtiu m o f psychologists u n d er the
leadership o f D onald E . S uper (Johnson, 1998). F urtherm ore, both instrum ents rem ain very
sim ilar to instrum ents w ith the same names d ev elo p ed fo r use w ithin the U nited States (i.e.
VS and SI).
The V alues S cale (V S) measures 20 d ifferen t values through 100 resp o n se items. The
20 values m easured are: A bility, Utilization, A chievem ent, A dvancem ent, A esthetics,
Altruism, A uthority, A utonom y, Creativity, E co n o m ic Rew ards, Life Style, Personal
D evelopm ent, Physical A bility, Prestige, Risk, Social Interaction, Social R elations, Variety,
W orking C onditions, C ultural Identity, Physical P ro w ess (Fitzsim m ons et al., 1985). The
Salience Inventory (SI) produces 15 scales by m easu rin g the life role im portance o f study,
w ork, home and fam ily, leisure, and com m unity serv ice in term s o f participation,
com m itm ent, and values expectations (F itzsim m ons et al., 1985).
Leung (1995) reported the LRI as a useful instrum ent for counseling individuals with
diverse vocational concerns. Johnson (1995) found th e L R I provided a m ore com prehensive
m easurem ent o f life roles and values than do o th e r instrum ents.
V alues Scale: Second E dition
The V alues S cale (V S), Second Edition, w as developed as part o f the W ork
Im portance Study by an international consortium o f vocational psychologists (S u p er &
Servako, 1995). T he reported utility o f the VS w as cross-national and national research and
service projects (Tiner, 1993). The reported purpose o f the VS is “a cross-cultural measure
o f values in various life roles” (The Values Scale: S econd Edition, T: 2876, 1994, p. 918).
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T h e U nited States version o f the V alues Scale (V S) has a rich history as one o f th e
instrum ent’s developed by D onald E . Super and associates fo r the W ork Im portance S tudy
(D um m ond, 1992). The 1980 version o f the VS contained 23 scales with ten item s p er scale
but w as reduced to 21 s...
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