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Which methods of training are the most effective for you personally? Chapter 8 Training and Development Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. W I L L O B J E C T I V EI S S After reading this chapter, you should be able to , 1. Define what is meant by training and explain why it is a critical function for corporations today. K a needs assessment, including performing 2. Explain how to conduct organizational, task, A and person analyses and deriving instructional objectives for a training program. S 3. Know how to design a training program to facilitate learning. S 4. Identify the critical elements related to transfer of training. A 5. Compare and contrast the various techniques available for training, N advantages and disadvantages, with particular including their relative emphasis on e-learning. D 6. Identify criteria used R to evaluate training effectiveness. 7. Understand different A experimental designs that can be used for evaluating training programs. 8. Understand the components of training programs for employee orientation 2 and onboarding, teamwork, generational issues, diversity awareness, sexual harassment, and international assignments. 1 6 1 OVERVIEW Thave referred to the empirical research linking particular human Throughout this book we resource practices to corporate financial performance. The last chapter emphasized the S critical role of performance measurement and management as characteristics of “highperformance work practices.”1 This same body of research also points to the importance of training and development as contributors to the “bottom line” of corporate performance. Training has evolved substantially in recent years with evidence indicating more organizational investment in training and development. Those leaders who understand how to drive business results in an increasingly competitive, global environment recognize that a better-trained workforce improves performance and that investing in employee learning 273 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 273 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability Figure 8-1 Trends in the Workplace Importance of ethics Economic climate dictates how companies operate Concept of work changing Increase in diversity in the workplace Changes brought about by global network and communications W I L L I S , Trends in the Workplace Impact of technology on work and home life Security concerns on a global scale Faster work pace requires more flexibility K A S S and development is critical to achieving success.2 See Figure 8-1 for current trends in the A development (HRD) systems. Given the intense workplace shaping human resource pressure to compete, improve quality N and customer service, and lower costs, leading American companies have come to view training as a key to organizational survival and success. D In fact, ASTD’s 2010 State of the Industry report noted that despite the uncertain economic conditions affecting companies, there R was still a continued dedication to workplace training in firms worldwide. By their investments in learning, executives highlighted their A belief that employee learning and development is critical to the survival, recovery, and Employee skill-level a top priority Training and Fortune’s “Best Companies” future growth of their firms.3 In another review, it was found that “many organizations are more likely to include training solutions 2 as part of a systemwide change to gain competitive advantage.”4 1 world view the skill level of their workforce as the Many employers throughout the top priority for planning. According 6 to the Society for Human Resource Management’s workplace forecast published in 2011, one of the top 10 trends is global competitiveness 1 and the need for an educated and skilled workforce. This suggests the need for continual training for employees, especially T given the fact that large numbers of Baby Boomers are expected to leave the workforce around the same time. As a result, many HR professionals are worried about a skills shortageS in the U.S. labor force.5 Another survey of those firms planning to hire new employees indicated that 39 percent of them said they expected to encounter some difficulty in finding qualified individuals for their new positions. Even though there are several workers available for every open position in the United States, HR professionals are still having trouble finding the right people to match the skills required for their job openings.6 Organizations with exceptional training opportunities and programs often make Fortune magazine’s list of the “Best Companies to Work For,” an honor that also translates into financial success. One study found that companies that made Fortune’s list had 50 percent less turnover than their peers and returned about three times more money for stockholders.7 274 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 274 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. U.S. workers are not competing well on trainability To become a leading-edge company, a firm will need to be more concerned with the types of programs it uses to improve workplace learning and performance, not simply with how much money it spends on training. A transformation of a firm’s training efforts and other practices and systems that support training may be needed. For example, successful firms align their training with high-performance work practices (e.g., self-directed work teams, access to business information), innovative compensation practices (profit sharing, group-based pay), and innovative training practices (e.g., mentoring or coaching programs, training information systems). According to ASTD’s 2010 review of the industry, top companies expect their employees to allocate a meaningful amount of time to formal learning and development activities.8 Not only must firms invest in the continual learning of workers in order to be competitive, but many companies are providing training to workers who are new to the workforce. Many companies also include an assessment of workforce trainability as part of their analysis for expansion and plant W openings. Unfortunately, recent evidence indicates that many U.S. workers are not competing well on the trainability criterion. In 2005, Toyota selected I United States as the place for a new plant for its mini-SUVs. Ontario, Canada, over the Toyota chose Canada over L several U.S. states offering substantial financial incentives based to some extent on the relative trainability of Ontario’s workforce. The president of L the Automotive Parts Manufacturers’ Association stated that the educational level in parts of the United States wasIso low that trainers for Japanese plants have to use “pictorials” to teach some illiterate workers how to use high-tech equipment. Other reports support the S contention that auto companies with plants in parts of the United States are disappointed in , workforce.9 the trainability of the U.S. Many firms provide life training in addition to skills training. When Marriott Hotels hires new workers, it enrolls them in a 6-week training course with classes on hotel duties K At Burger King, basic training for starting restaurant jobs also and self-esteem and stress. includes Life 101 (e.g., teaching employees how to balance a checkbook, the importance of A getting to work on time). Ecolab established partnerships with welfare-to-work community S program at a Wisconsin plant to teach entry-level employees groups and started a training math, basic physics, andS blueprint-reading skills.10 This chapter provides an overview of employee training. We will discuss the imporA of the organization’s competitive strategy and the need to tance of training in the context link training needs withN the mission and goals of the organization. You will learn how to design and evaluate a training program and to tailor the training to particular situations. D R A DEFINING TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT Training should be aligned with strategy Training is defined as any attempt to improve employee performance on a currently 2 held job or one related to it. This usually means changes in specific knowledge, skills, 1 be effective, training should involve a learning experience, be attitudes, or behaviors. To a planned organizational6activity, and be designed in response to identified needs. Ideally, training also should be designed to meet the goals of the organization while simultaneously meeting the goals 1 of individual employees. The term training is often confused with the term development. T Development refers to learning opportunities designed to help employees grow. Such opportunities do not have to be limited to improving employees’ S jobs. At Ford, for example, a new systems analyst is required performance on their current to take a course on Ford standards for user manuals. The content of this training is needed to perform the systems analyst job at Ford. The systems analyst, however, also may enroll in a course entitled “Self-Awareness,” the content of which is not required on the current job. This situation illustrates the difference between “training” and “development.” The focus of “development” is on the long term to help employees prepare for future work demands, while “training” often focuses on the immediate period to help fix any current deficits in employees’ skills. The most effective companies look at training and career development as an integral part of a human resources development (HRD) program carefully aligned with corporate 275 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 275 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability business strategies. This is a critical factor for those firms rated as ASTD’s Best Companies.11 It is also important for individual employees. In fact, in a survey reported in 2010 by the Corporate Executive Board, 20,000 high-potential employees revealed that being connected to their firm’s corporate strategy was top on their list as something that drove or engaged them.12 During tough economic times, it is especially important for training to be aligned to corporate strategic business objectives. This can be done by (1) aligning efforts with the organizational mission and business goals, (2) using training to address skill gaps, (3) designing job-focused instructional objectives, (4) creating sound training programs that promote learning and transfer to jobs, and (5) collaborating with sponsors and others outside the training department to promote transfer of training to jobs.13 The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD) award winners for the Very Best Learning Organizations are those that strike a balance between training and other types of learning efforts (e.g., performance analysis, organizational development, talent management, process Wimprovement). In 2010, the ASTD listed 31 firms that were successful in creating a valuable learning culture despite tough economic times and budget cutbacks. TheseI firms were able to create engaged learning environments, use new ways of deliveringLlearning via social media tools, and create innovative cultures. These included 22 from the United States, 6 from India, 2 based in Turkey, L and 1 from Singapore. The top 10 winners included firms from all around the world in I diverse industries, such as Intercontinental Hotels Group, Datatel, NIT Technologies Limited (India), University Health System, Yapi ve Kredi Bankasi A.S. (Turkey), Barilla S America, Inc., CaridianBCT, Farmers Group, Inc., ESL Federal Credit Union, and 14 , Wipro Technologies (India). ASTD’s BEST organizations K EXTENT OF TRAININGA AND DEVELOPMENT In the United States, ASTD estimated S that companies spent $125.88 billion on employee learning and development in 2009 with a slight increase in the dollar amount spent on S training per employee.15 In 2009, ASTD’s BEST organizations reported an average of 47 hours of learning content for each employee, a 15.9 percent increase from 2008. The BEST A award winners were defined as those organizations honored for demonstrating a clear link N between learning and performance in their firms. Common characteristics of BEST winning organizations were: D R ■ Evidence that learning has an enterprise-wide role or linkages from the executive team to the organization’s strategy. A ■ ■ ■ Evidence that learning has value in the organization’s culture (e.g., learning opportunities for employees, C-level involvement, learning for growth of the organization, and 2 innovation). Evidence that learning links to 1 individual and organizational performance (e.g., alignment with the business, efficiency, measurement of the effectiveness of learning, and 6 success with non-training solutions for business needs). 1 and performance initiatives.16 Evidence of investments in learning T The ASTD BEST Award winner Datatel, an information technology and consulting S firm, averages about $3,000 per employee annually on training and employees average about 80 hours a year in training. As the chief financial officer, Kevin Boyce, says “our philosophy is to take care of our people. If our people are prepared, knowledgeable, and have the right skills, they will take care of our customers.”17 Farmers Group, Inc., a finance and insurance company, invests upwards of $106,000 to hire, train, and develop new employees in its University of Farmers program, which includes both classroom and online education.18 Training has been viewed positively among employees. Approximately twothirds of employees, regardless of age or gender, view the training they have received from their employers to be useful in helping them perform their current job duties. They were less enthusiastic about how well it has prepared them for higher-level jobs (about half were 276 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 276 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development Figure 8-2 Average Percent of Learning Content for ASTD’s Best Award Winners Learning Content Area Managerial and supervisory training Profession or industry-specific training Processes, procedures, business practices Mandatory and compliance training Other (quality, product knowledge) IT and systems training Customer service training New employee orientation Interpersonal skills training Sales training Executive Development Basic skills training Percentage of all Training 13% 11% 10% 10% 10% 7% 7% 7% 7% 6% 6% 4% W Source: ASTD 2011 State of theIIndustry Report. www.astd.org. L L satisfied). They also viewed I the training their employer provided as critical for determining whether or not they would stay with their current firm.19 S a variety of training programs to meet their organizational Corporations are offering needs. Figure 8-2 lists ,the most frequent types of learning content offered by ASTD’s 20 Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Best organizations as rated in 2011. The importance of training is likely to continue in the future given recent trends in the workforce. As the United States shifts from manufacturing to service jobs, more K workers are needed in service-based industries. In addition, increasing technology demands that current employees enhance their skills and technical A U.S. Steel (USX) invested money in training for workers so sophistication. For example, that they would be able to Suse the new technology they implemented in its production processes. Similarly, Xerox spent about $7 million on its training center to assist its sales staff S to better meet customers’ needs for handling documents.21 in gaining additional training Employees at RJR Nabisco A who have been confronted with new technology in their jobs are given the option of receiving retraining or early retirement.22 Employees themselves are N asking for additional training in using new technology.23 D R A OF TRAINING A SYSTEMS VIEW Needs assessment phase Development phase Evaluation phase The basic process of training is illustrated in Figure 8-3. Three major steps are involved: assessment, development, 2 and evaluation. The goal of the assessment phase is to collect information to determine if training is needed in the organization. If it is needed, it is then important to determine 1 where in the organization it is needed, what kind of training is needed, and what specific 6 knowledge, abilities, skills, or other characteristics (KASOCs) should be taught. This information is collected by conducting three types of analyses: at the organizational, job, 1 and individual levels of analysis. After the information is compiled, objectives for theTtraining program can be derived. The goal of the development phase of training is to design the training environment necessary to achieve the objecSmust review relevant learning issues, including characteristics of tives. This means trainers adult learners and learning principles as they apply to the particular training and potential trainees under consideration. Also, trainers must identify or develop training materials and techniques to use in the program. Finally, after the appropriate learning environment is designed or selected, the training is conducted. The goal of the evaluation phase is to examine whether the training program has been effective in meeting the stated objectives. The evaluation phase requires the identification and development of criteria, which should include participants’ reactions to the training, assessments of what they learned in the training program, measures of their behavior after the training, indicators of organizational results (e.g., changes in productivity data, sales figures, employee turnover, accident rates), 277 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 277 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability Figure 8-3 A Systems Model of Training NEEDS ASSESSMENT DEVELOPMENT EVALUATION Identify or develop criteria to evaluate training outcomes: Identify needs for training by conducting needs analyses: • Organization • Task or job • Person • Reactions • Learning • Behavior change • Organizational results Derive instructional objectives Choose evaluation design W I Design a learning environment by examining: L • Characteristics of adult learners • Learning principles L I S or develop training , Identify materials and methods K A S S A N D R A Conduct training Conduct evaluation and cost-effectiveness of training program and return on investments (ROI) or, 2 as discussed in Chapter 6, utility analysis. An experimental design is chosen to assess the effectiveness of training. The choices of the criteria 1 training is conducted in order to ensure that training and the design are both made before will be properly evaluated. After the 6 training is completed, the program is then evaluated using the criteria and design selected. Discrepancies between Research and Practice 1 T Research in training is needed now more than ever before as the demand for training inS since much of the literature on training comes from creases in organizations.24 In addition, Majority of U.S. companies do not do formal needs assessment a variety of scientific fields (e.g., industrial and organizational psychology, human resource development, cognitive psychology, anthropology, education, human factors, computer science), it is increasingly important to integrate the findings across those disciplines. Various fields in psychology even define training differently.25 Compared to other areas of HRM, practitioners have a fairly strong knowledge of some areas of training research.26 A recent survey of training processes used in corporate America revealed some discrepancies between the academic recommendations regarding training program development and evaluation and the current state of the practice.27 While larger companies were more likely to have done formal needs assessments, written 278 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 278 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development Research findings often ignored specific instructional objectives, and evaluated the training with something other than a simple, post-training reaction questionnaire, the majority of all classes of respondents did none of these things. Small businesses rarely did any of these things as part of their training. Over 60 percent of all surveyed companies, regardless of company size, relied only on trainee reactions to assess the training, taken upon completion of the training, and had no systematic follow-up to further evaluate the training. Less than 10 percent of companies used any form of control group to evaluate the effects of the training. Over 50 percent of companies admitted that managerial training programs were first tried because some other company had been using them. As one training director put it, “A lot of companies buy off-the-shelf training programs just because they had heard or knew that a competitor was using the same training. Shouldn’t we expect more data to determine training needs?” Other scholars also have noted the gaps between research and practice in the training field. Practitioners28 point out that research findings are often ignored and faddish programs are adopted withW little proven utility. In addition, training needs assessments and evaluations are often rare despite their importance, and most training is informal even I approach to use. though this is not the best In order to address some L of the gaps between research and practice, the American Society for Training and Development has initiated and published its ASTD 2006 L Research-to-Practice conference proceedings. In this extensive report, it has included I a variety of training issues such as evaluation efforts, learning almost 20 articles examining transfer, and web-based and classroom instruction. The intent of the proceedings was to S share knowledge that will affect practice in the field.29 Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. , K NEEDS ASSESSMENT A The first step in training is to determine that a need for training actually exists. An organization should commit itsS resources to a training activity only if the training can be expected to achieve some organizational goal. The decision to conduct training must be based on S the best available data, which are collected by conducting a needs assessment. This needs Aconducted in the context of a human resource planning (HRP) analysis ideally should be program and timely andN valid performance data. Companies that implement training programs without conducting a needs assessment may be making errors or spending money D unnecessarily. For example, a needs assessment might reveal that less-costly interventions (e.g., personnel selection, Ra new compensation system, job redesign) could be used instead of training. Despite the importance of conducting needs assessments, few employers conA duct such an analysis in the context of their strategic plans or any form of strength, weakThree primary types of analysis Performance discrepancies ness, opportunity, or threat analysis (SWOT analysis). A needs assessment2is a systematic, objective determination of training needs that involves conducting three primary types of analyses. These analyses are used to derive 1 program. The three analyses consist of an organizational objectives for the training analysis, a job analysis6 , and a person analysis.30 After compiling the results, objectives for the training program can be derived. 1that a training need is any discrepancy between what is desired Many trainers suggest and what exists. Thus one T of the goals of the needs assessment is to note any discrepancies. For example, the World Bank determined through a needs assessment that many of its SEurope required training in transforming state-owned businesses constituents from Eastern into self-sustaining businesses. The organization contracted with a number of universities to develop and provide the necessary training. Comparisons between the expected level of performance specified (from the job analysis) and the current level of performance exhibited (evident in the person analysis) may indicate performance discrepancies. The Sheraton Corporation, for example, specified that all hotel managers must be familiar with the implications of the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) for hotel operations (see Chapter 3). A test on the law was administered, and scores on the test were used as a basis for identifying those managers who needed training on the implications of the law. Performance discrepancies, however, should not be automatically interpreted as a need for 279 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 279 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability training. The analyst must determine whether the discrepancy is a skill or knowledge deficiency, thus requiring training. If, however, the required skill is present and performance is still lacking, then the problem may be motivational in nature and thus require some other type of organizational intervention (e.g., new reward or discipline system). One study noted that organizations that conducted needs analyses were better able to use the results in the design and evaluation phases than organizations that did not.31 Organizational Analysis Focus on where training should be placed Organization analysis tests hypotheses regarding training needs An organizational analysis tries to answer the question of where the training emphasis should be placed in the company and what factors may affect training. To do this, an examination should be made of the organizational goals, personnel inventories, performance data, and climate and efficiency indexes. This examination should ideally be conducted in the context of the labor supply forecast and gap analysis. Organization system constraints that may hamper the training process W also should be explored. Training does not exist in a vacuum, and the context in which it occurs has an impact on whether individuals will I detailed surveys of the workforce to determine trainlearn.32 Many companies rely on very ing needs as part of the planning effort. L Motorola and IBM, for example, conduct annual surveys that assess particular training needs in the context of the company’s short- and L long-term goals. I goals of the organization and any trends that may The review of short- and long-term affect these goals is done to channel the training toward specific issues of importance to S the firm (e.g., improved customer satisfaction, increased productivity). For example, after , Merrill Lynch pleaded guilty to a number of fraudulent business practices, the chief executive officer (CEO) ordered training in business ethics for all employees. To reduce layoffs, IBM retrained hundreds of employees to be sales representatives. Not only was IBM able to minimize layoffs, but the larger K sales staff was able to attack another corporate goal: to improve customer satisfaction. A Data from a human resource information system (HRIS) can reveal projected employee SThe more sophisticated inventories also can indicate mobility, retirements, and turnover. the number of employees in each KASOC or competency group, which can then be comS pared to what is needed based on the gap analysis of the HR planning process. For exA Division decided to change to a new programming ample, the Ford Manufacturing Systems language for future support work. The N first step it took was to determine the extent to which current staff was sufficiently skilled in the new language. The HRIS quickly revealed how D many of the staff had at least basic knowledge of and experience with the new language. A review of climate and performance R efficiency data is important to identify problems that could be alleviated with training.33 Climate indexes are quality-of-work-life indicators A and include records on turnover, grievances, absenteeism, productivity, accidents, attitude surveys, employee suggestions, and labor–management data (e.g., strikes, lockouts). Job satisfaction indexes provide data on2employee attitudes toward the work itself, supervision, and co-workers. Performance data should be the specific record of important outcomes over a specific period. A record of1competency assessment could be useful data as well. Multirater data should be maintained 6 here also. Efficiency indexes consist of costs of labor, materials, and distribution; the quality of the product; downtime; waste; late deliveries; repairs; and equipment utilization.1 These data are examined to find any discrepancies between desired and actual performance. T It is also important to identify any organization system constraints on training efforts. S are not clear to top management, they may not For example, if the benefits of training plan and budget appropriately for training. Consequently, the training program may not be properly designed or implemented. Omni Hotels requires senior executives to attend training programs to ensure that they are supportive of the training that lower-level managers receive. In addition, the training staff makes sure that the training is tailored to Omni so that trainees can more readily see the value of the training.34 Organizational analysis should test hypotheses about training needs. For example, a retail marketing manager received a complaint from a vendor that the sales staff did not understand the advantages of a particular product. The manager then “mined” the customer survey and complaint database to determine the extent to which product knowledge of the 280 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 280 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development sales staff was a problem. He was able to determine that the complaint may have been an isolated event. Organizational analysis should be about testing theories of where (and why) training is needed. Complaints about a product or service should be carefully examined to determine the extent and importance of the problems(s) described in the complaints. Of course, data can also be “mined” or collected to determine an optimal way to do things which can then drive training content. Job Analysis Focus on what should be taught in training Person Analysis Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Focus on who should receive training Identify performance discrepancies A job analysis tries to answer the question of what should be taught in training so that the trainee can perform the job satisfactorily. As discussed in Chapter 4, a job analysis should document the tasks or duties involved in the job as well as the KASOCs (or competencies) needed to carry out the duties. When conducting a job analysis to determine training needs, both a worker-oriented approach, which focuses on identifying behaviors and KASOCs, and a task-oriented W approach, which describes the work activities performed, should be used. The critical incident technique (CIT) is particularly valuable because it I on the job and the consequences of specific work behaviors. provides considerable detail A task-oriented approach L is beneficial in identifying specific training objectives that are used in curriculum development and program evaluation. Ideally more than one method L of job analysis should be used to determine training needs. If interviews or questionnaires I exist between what a supervisor says is an important job duty are used and discrepancies and what an employee states, these discrepancies should be resolved before any training S programs are designed.35 The O*NET is also a, very valuable resource for training needs and content for many jobs and job families. Occupations included in the O*NET database describe specific training needs for each occupation. For example, the O*NET analysis for “Advertising and K Promotions Managers” describes over 20 tasks that have to be mastered in order to excel in this occupation. A S A person analysis attempts S to answer the question of who needs training in the firm and the specific type of training needed. To do this, the performance of individuals, groups, or A (taken from the performance appraisal data) or assessments of units on major job functions KASOCs or competencies N are compared to the desired levels. Many companies use selfassessments in this process. For example, Ford determined the training needs for a new D computer language based on a self-assessment questionnaire distributed to the staff. At the managerial level, many R organizations (e.g., IBM, AT&T, Federal Express, the World Bank, and the Federal Aviation Administration) use peers and subordinates to provide A performance information about their managers. At Ford, each supervisor is responsible for completing an individual training plan for each subordinate. The plan is developed jointly by the supervisor and the2subordinate. The two decide on the courses that should be taken and the time frame for completion. The goal is for each employee to reach a certain level 1necessary for current and future tasks. Many organizations in the of proficiency considered service sector rely on customers for information about sales personnel. Bloomingdale’s, 6 for example, uses “paid” customers to assess the sales techniques of probationary employ1 to determine the appropriate managerial intervention to take ees. The data are then used with the employee (e.g.,T training, discipline, new compensation). Performance discrepancies are used to indicate areas needing attention. It is important Sdiscrepancies are due to a lack of KASOCs, which KASOCs are to determine whether any missing, and whether they can be developed in employees through training. Individuals may lack the necessary skills or perceive themselves as lacking the skills (i.e., they may lack confidence in their abilities). In these cases, training may be needed. In other situations, employees may have the skills yet lack the needed motivation to perform, and other action may be called upon (e.g., changes in the reward system, discipline). Employees also can be tested on the desired behaviors using a performance test such as those discussed in Chapter 6. If they can perform the duties satisfactorily, the organization will know that skills training is not required. The U.S. Navy, for example, uses miniature training and testing in order to determine skill level prior to comprehensive training. Pratt & Whitney 281 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 281 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability and Office Depot are among the many companies that use an assessment center to measure supervisory skills judged to be critical based on its goals. Person analysis can also be used to assess trainability—whether the individual is capable of benefiting from the training and who, among candidates, might benefit the most. We discuss trainability later in the chapter. Research is clear that individual difference variables such as cognitive ability and motivation to learn are related to trainability and the extent to which someone will learn.36 Techniques for Collecting Needs Assessment Data A variety of techniques have been suggested for conducting a needs assessment and for collecting data to use in the organizational, job, and person analyses. Figure 8-4 lists these techniques. Some techniques (e.g., work sampling) can be used for more than one type of analysis. Thus efforts to coordinate and integrate results are recommended. Deriving Instructional Objectives After completing the three types of analyses in the needs assessment, the training profesI sional should begin to develop instructional or learning objectives for the performance discrepancies identified. InstructionalLobjectives describe the performance you want trainees to be able to exhibit. Well-written learning objectives should contain observable actions L (e.g., time on target; error rate for things that can be identified, ordered, or charted), meaI surable criteria (e.g., percentage correct), and the conditions of performance (e.g., specification as to when the behavior should occur). ESL Federal Credit Union, one of ASTD’s S Best organizations, has SMEs (subject matter experts) help to identify strategic objectives and then create training objectives., Some sample learning objectives for a training program with sales employees are W ■ ■ Advantages of deriving objectives Figure 8-4 Organizational Analysis Organizational goals and objectives HRIS data Skills/competency inventories Organizational climate indexes Efficiency indexes/performance data Changes in systems or subsystems (e.g., equipment) Management requests Exit interviews Management-by-objectives or work planning systems After training, the employee willKbe able to smile at all customers even when exhausted or ill, unless the customer is irate. A After training, the employee will be able to calculate markdowns on all sales merchanScorrectly 100 percent of the time. dise (e.g., 30 percent markdown) S Although training programs can be developed without deriving learning objectives, A there are several advantages to developing them. First, the process of defining learning objectives helps the trainer identifyN criteria for evaluating training programs. For example, specifying an instructional objective of a 20 percent reduction in waste reveals that measures of waste may be important D indicators of program effectiveness. Second, learning objectives direct trainers to the specific R issues and content to focus on. This ensures that trainers are addressing important topics that have been identified through strategic planA trainees by specifying what is expected of them at ning. Also, learning objectives guide 2 1 Data Sources Used in Training Needs Assessment 6 Job/Task Analysis Job descriptions 1 Job specifications or task analysis T Performance standards Performing the jobS Work sampling Reviewing literature on the job Asking questions about the job Training committees/conferences Analysis of operating problems O*NET data Person Analysis Performance appraisal data Work sampling Interviews Questionnaires Tests (KASOCs) Attitude surveys Training progress charts/checklists Assessment centers Critical incidents Self-efficacy measures Source: Academy of Management Review by M. L. Moore and P. Dutton. Copyright 1978 by Academy of Management (NY). Reproduced with permission of Academy of Management (NY) in the format Textbook via Copyright Clearance Centre. 282 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 282 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development the end of training. Finally, specifying objectives makes the training department more accountable and more clearly linked to other human resource activities, which may make the training program easier to sell to line managers. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRAINING PROGRAM After a needs analysis has been conducted and the staff is confident that training is needed to address the performance problem or to advance the firm’s strategic mission, the training program is developed. This can be done by an in-house training staff or by outside consultants. Many firms now even design and manage their own corporate training centers. Some of the companies that have W their own corporate universities include Toyota, BB&T, Ford, Disney, GE, Union Carbide, IBM, Home Depot, Xerox, Motorola, Phillips Petroleum, I McDonald’s, Black & Decker, Aetna Life & Casualty, Kodak, and Goodyear Tire & Rub37 ber. To develop the program, L the trainer should design a training environment conducive to learning. This can be done by setting up preconditions for learning and arranging the L learning. Following this, the trainer should examine various training environment to ensure training methods and techniques to choose the combination most beneficial for accomI plishment of the instructional objectives of the training program. S , Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Designing a Learning Environment for Training To design a training program in which learning will be facilitated, trainers should review the basic principles of how individuals learn. Learning principles should be reviewed and K of the training program and materials. Also, issues of how to integrated into the design maximize transfer of new behaviors back to the job should be addressed. Finally, trainers A should design their programs to meet the needs of adults as learners, which means underSlearn. For example, adult learners want to set their own goals standing how adults best for training since they see S themselves as capable of self-direction. In addition, they often enjoy experiential learning techniques and self-directed learning more than conventional AThey are problem-centered and are more receptive to training informational techniques. that enables them to solve N problems of particular interest to their situation. They want to be able to apply the training they receive to their day-to-day work experiences and are less Dif they cannot see a direct application to their work situation.38 interested in the program Figure 8-5 illustrates how Ran instructional model can have training implications in order to maximize learning and transfer back to the job. A Preconditions of Learning Trainability Ability and motivation to learn Trainees must be ready to learn before they are placed in any training program. To ensure 2 this, trainers should determine whether trainees are trainable (i.e., whether they have the ability to learn and are motivated to learn). In addition, trainers should try to gain the sup1 port of trainees and their supervisors prior to actually implementing the program. 6 1 Before the learner can benefit from any formal training, he or she must be trainable or ready to learn. This means the trainee must have both the ability and the motivation to T learn. To have the ability, the trainee must possess the skills and knowledge prerequisite to S way to determine this is to give trainees a performance test or mastering the material. One work sample (i.e., an example of the types of skills to be performed on the job) and measure how quickly they are able to learn the material or how well they are able to perform the skills. Assessing trainees’ ability to learn is of increasing concern to corporate America. In view of the increasing technological knowledge required in most jobs, many Americans are not being educated at a level compatible with the requirements of most entry-level jobs. This situation appears to be getting worse in the United States since the entry-level jobs of the future are being “up-skilled” while the pool of qualified workers is shrinking. It has been estimated that over 30 million workers in the United States are functionally illiterate, meaning that they cannot read or write well enough to perform their job duties. 283 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 283 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability Figure 8-5 A Summary of Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction and Training Implications Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction Training Implications Learning is promoted when learners are engaged in solving real-world problems • Ensure that the problems addressed in the training correspond to real-world tasks in the organization • Increase task complexity and diversity over multiple lessons to ensure that trainees have experienced an adequate sampling of task-based experience • Relate what trainees know about organizational mission and objectives to the training they will complete • Relate the skill and knowledge trainees will master to what they already know about their jobs • Inform trainees that the skills, knowledge, and thought processes they will build during training are like those that exemplary performers use to perform their jobs • Employ examples for concept learning, procedural demonstrations, process visualizations, and behavior modeling depicting what exemplary performers actually think and do on the job • Draw attention to any mental models that support situational interpretations, decision making, or problem solving on the job • Point out relevant similarities and differences across multiple demonstrations • Provide enough authentic job-based practice to master the instructional objectives and exemplary performance on the job • Provide coaching and immediate feedback during practice • Build trainees’ self-efficacy by letting them know that successful training performance means they can feel confident they can perform the job tasks • Provide opportunities for trainees to publicly demonstrate their new skills in ways that commit them to applying what they learned on the job • Provide post training opportunities for trainees to continue discussing how they are applying what they learned to their jobs and ways to improve • Provide post training opportunities for managers to monitor and reinforce the application of learned skills on the job Learning is promoted when existing knowledge is activated as a foundation for new knowledge Learning is promoted when new knowledge is demonstrated to the learner Learning is promoted when new knowledge is applied by the learner Learning is promoted when new knowledge is integrated into the learner’s world W I L L I S , K A S Sun Oil, Campbell Soup, and Digital S Equipment work with state and local governments in partnership programs to help address literacy issues among the workforce.39 Research clearly shows that employees withAhigher cognitive ability and basic math and reading skills are more trainable.40 N It’s not enough that trainees have the ability to learn the skills; they must also have the D desire or motivation to learn. Research also finds that employees who are more conscientious, more oriented toward learning, R less anxious, and younger are more trainable.41 One way to assess motivation to learn is to examine how involved they are in their own jobs and A career planning. The assumption is that those individuals who are more highly involved Source: Modified from: Merrill, M. D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50(3), 43–59. Learning and individual characteristics will have higher motivation to learn.42 It is also important to assess the attitudes and expectations of trainees regarding training 2since their views will most likely affect their reactions to the program and the amount they learn.43 For example, employees who choose to attend 1 are required to attend.44 Some companies link suctraining learn more than those who cessful completion of training programs 6 and acquired skills with compensation. At Ford, employees must select 40 hours of training from a list of options. An employee must fulfill 1 the 40 hours to qualify for merit pay. Given the increasing use of distance T learning formats, it is also important to assess learners’ readiness to participate in online learning. The readiness of learners to enter into disS a critical role in increasing their course-completion tance learning environments may play and program-retention rates. Thus, a tool, the E-learning Readiness Self-Assessment, has been designed to provide a quick, yet comprehensive analysis of preparedness for success in an online training program. It addresses questions about the learner’s access to technology, online skills, motivation, online audio, Internet skills, and views about training success.45 Gaining the Support of Trainees and Others If trainees do not see the value of training, they will be unlikely to learn new behaviors or use them on their jobs. Trainees should be informed in advance about the benefits that will result from training. If they see some incentives for training, it may strengthen their 284 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 284 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development Supervisory support is critical motivation to learn the behaviors, practice them, and remember them. To gain the support of trainees for the training program, the trainer must point out the intrinsic (e.g., personal growth) and extrinsic (e.g., promotion) benefits of attending training. In addition to garnering the support of trainees for training, the support of their supervisors, co-workers, and subordinates should be sought. For example, if the trainees’ supervisors are not supportive of training, then they may not facilitate the learning process (e.g., allow employees time off for training, reward them for using new skills). Likewise, if their peers or subordinates ridicule them for attending training, they may not be motivated to attend training programs or to learn.46 Trainers can improve the likelihood of acquiring others’ support for training by getting their opinions on the content of training, the location, and the times. At Patapsco Valley Veterinary Hospital located in Ellicott City, Maryland, staff members are consistently asked for their opinions on the most convenient times to hold training sessions. In addition, the owners of the practice set a positive example by attending the training sessions W themselves and by rewarding employees for participating in training and using their new skills on the job. At Grant Thornton, one of ASTD’s Best I firms, the CEO shows support for knowledge sharing by having a blog on the front page of the firm’s knowledge sharing L platform, “K-Source.” L I After ensuring that the preconditions for learning are met, trainers should build a training Conditions of the environment in which learning is maximized. To do this, trainers need to decide how to Learning Environment S best arrange the training environment by addressing the issues that follow. , Whole versus Part Learning Research has shown that when a complex task is to be learned, it should be broken down into its parts if this can be done. Trainees should learn each part separately, starting with the simplest and going on toKthe most difficult. However, part learning should be combined with whole learning; that Ais, trainees should be shown the whole performance so that they know what their final goal is. The training content should be broken down into integrated S be learned until it can be performed accurately. Then a trainee parts, and each part should should be allowed to putS all the parts together and practice the whole task. One method that combines part and whole learning is called progressive part learning. In this approach, the A learn and practice that first part along with a second part, then trainees learn one part, then learn and practice the first Nand second parts along with a third part, and so on. This might be used if the topics to be taught are somewhat interdependent (e.g., a communications course D that involves sessions on active listening, being assertive, using nonverbals). Massed versus Spaced Practice Practice is important for trainees to learn a new skill or behavior. Trainers can observe the A practice sessions and provide feedback to the trainees to correct their mistakes. Spaced practice (i.e., practicing the new behavior and taking rest periods in between) is more effective than massed practice 2 (practicing the new behavior without breaks), especially for motor skills. For example, it would be easier for you to learn how to play golf by having a 1 going out to practice putting, rather than learning how to do all of lesson on putting and then the possible golf shots (e.g., 6 putting, chipping, pitching, driving, etc.) and then going out to play. If a learner has to concentrate for long periods without some rest, learning and reten1 like cramming for an examination: rapid forgetting sets in very tion may suffer. It’s a little soon. Consequently, spaced T practice seems to be more productive for long-term retention and for transfer of learning to the work setting. Of course, it takes longer for spaced practice than for massed practice,Sso trainees may resist it (e.g., they may be less receptive to attending four half-day workshops than two full-day sessions). On the other hand, tasks that are difficult and complex seem to be mastered and then performed better when massed practice is provided first, followed by briefer (spaced) sessions with more frequent rest periods.47 Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. R Spaced practice is generally more effective Overlearning Overlearning (i.e., practicing far beyond the point of performing the task successfully) can be critical in both acquisition and transfer of knowledge and skills. Generally, overlearning increases retention over time, makes the behavior or skill more automatic, increases the quality of the performance during stress, and helps trainees transfer what they have learned back to the job setting.48 Overlearning is desirable in a program when the task to be learned 285 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 285 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability Overlearning is recommended when the task will not be immediately practiced is not likely to be immediately practiced in the work situation and when performance must be maintained during periods of emergency and stress. For example, overlearning skills for driving or flying may be important so that in a crisis situation the individual will be able to quickly remember what actions should be taken. Pat Head Summitt, rated as the top coach (most wins among both men and women coaches) in collegiate basketball, believes in the importance of overlearning, which she calls “discipline.” She has had her nationally ranked team, the Tennessee Lady Volunteers, practice their plays over and over again in preparation for critical games.49 This might be one reason why the Lady Vols have won eight National Basketball Championships! Goal Setting Goal setting can help employees improve their performance by directing their attention to specific behaviors that need to be changed. If employees set specific, challenging goals, they can reach higher levels of performance. For example, research has shown that goal setting has led to an average productivity W increase of 19 percent.50 Goal setting improves performance because it affects four mechanisms: (a) it directs and focuses a person’s beI effort toward attaining the goal, (c) it encourages an havior, (b) it increases an individual’s individual to persist toward the goalLor work harder and faster to attain it, and (d) it enables an individual to set specific strategies for attaining the goal.51 Training programs should L include specific, yet challenging goals so trainees can reach higher levels of performance or greater mastery of the training Imaterial. Trainees should be encouraged to set public goals and to record their accomplishments to ensure greater transfer of their training skills. 19 percent increase in productivity Knowledge of Results S , they need to receive timely and specific feedback or For trainees to improve performance, knowledge of results. Feedback serves informational and motivational purposes. It shows trainees any gap between their performance and the desired performance and what particular skills or behaviors they need toKcorrect. Also, it can motivate them to meet their performance goals once they see that A they are coming close to accomplishing them. Trainers should build into the training environment opportunities for providing feedback to trainees. For example, the trainer could giveSpop quizzes to trainees during the session and call out the correct answers. Trainees could S then quickly score their work to see how well they are doing in the session and where they need additional learning or practice. Sometimes A another (e.g., observers can be used in role-plays to trainees can provide feedback to one provide feedback to role-players). N Attention Attention to objectives Retention Rehearsal helps D Trainers should try to design training programs and materials to ensure that trainees devote attention to them. They can do thisR by choosing a training environment that is comfortable to trainees (e.g., that has good temperature, lighting, seats, plenty of room, snacks) and free A from distractions (phone calls, interruptions from colleagues). This is becoming increasingly more critical and challenging as trainees bring more and more technology (BlackBerry devices, cell phones, iPads, 2 laptops) into the classroom. No matter how motivated trainees are, if the environment is not comfortable to work in, trainees will have difficulty 1sure that trainees are familiar with and have accepted learning. Trainers also should make the learning objectives. They can do 6this by asking trainees to describe how accomplishing the objectives will resolve problems on the job. If trainees are able to translate learning objectives into relevant job issues, 1 they may pay more attention to the training sessions. T The ability to retain what is learned is obviously relevant to the effectiveness of a training program. Many factors have been S found to increase retention. If the material presented is meaningful to trainees, they should have an easier time understanding and remembering it. Trainers can make the content meaningful by (1) presenting trainees with an overview of what is to be learned so that they will be able to see the overall picture, (2) using examples, concepts, and terms familiar to the trainees (e.g., use medical terms and examples when training doctors and nurses), and (3) organizing the material from simple to complex (teach someone how to serve the ball before you teach him/her strategies in tennis). Retention also can be enhanced by rehearsal or requiring trainees to periodically recall what they have learned through tests. The ideas listed in Figure 8-5 provide some good tips for how to ensure retention. 286 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 286 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development Using Learning Principles to Develop Training Materials The learning principles described previously should be considered not only when designing the training environment but also when developing training materials. Any materials used with trainees should be able to stimulate them into learning and remembering the information. To ensure that this occurs, trainers need to make sure that the learning principles are built into their training materials. For example, the materials should provide illustrations and relevant examples to stimulate trainees. In addition, the objectives of the material should be clearly stated and a summary should be provided.52 Transfer of Training The ultimate goal of a training program is that the learning that occurs during training be transferred back to the job. Research strongly supports the view that the post-training climate will affect whether training influences behaviors or results on the job. To maximize transfer, the following suggestions have been offered.53 These include ideas for before the training is W session itself, and once the employee has returned to the job. conducted, during the training I L 1. Align the training program with the organization’s needs using competency modeling. 2. Involve supervisorsLand trainees in the project team. I design theory. 3. Use sound instructional 4. Develop application-oriented objectives based on the competency. S , During Training Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Before Training 1. Maximize the similarity between the training context and the job context. That is, the training shouldK resemble the job as closely as possible. At GE, for example, the “action-learning” process focuses on real business problems. A 2. Require practice of the new behaviors and overlearning in training. S 3. Provide realistic work-related tasks. S in training books to note ideas during training. 4. Provide extra spaces 5. Include a variety ofAstimulus situations in the practice so trainees will learn to generalize their knowledge and skills. Many coaches set up grueling basketball N schedules with top-ranked teams so that their teams get to play in a variety of D for the NCAA playoffs each year. situations and be ready 6. Label or identify the R important features of the content to be learned to distinguish the major steps involved. A 7. Develop, and have available on the job, job aids to remind employees of the key action steps necessary on the job. For example, Alcoa uses job aids in many of its manufacturing jobs. 2 8. Make sure that the1general principles underlying the specific content are understood in training. 6 9. Provide opportunity (time) to synthesize material or plan for application. At Lockheed Martin, trainers 1 from the Robert H. Smith School of Business leading the Executive Leadership Strategies Program give executives time at the end of each T day to synthesize their learning for the day. They also have them present their S synthesis for the week-long training at the end of the week, along with an action plan for how they will apply the skills. 10. Build the trainee’s self-efficacy for learning and using the new skills. Self-efficacy is a feeling of control and accomplishment, the sense that you can control your own destiny. Self-efficacy is related to motivation to learn, which is subsequently related to motivation to transfer the skills. Trainers can use verbal persuasion as one tactic to convince trainees that they can learn the tasks. Self-efficacy has been shown to be related to learning using a sample of Navy warfare officers in midlevel managerial positions. In addition, encourage trainees to develop an action plan including specific measurable goals.54 287 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 287 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability After Training 1. Encourage trainees to practice skills on their jobs in between training sessions. For example, the executive education programs conducted by the Robert H. Smith School of Business for some of its corporate clients (e.g., SAIC, Lockheed Martin) often require “homework assignments” such as customer-value projects, organizational systems projects, and individual leadership development plans in between attendance at sessions. The assignments encourage trainees to apply their new skills in the workplace, using an action learning model. 2. Ensure that there is a supportive climate for learning and for transferring new behaviors. This can be done by building managerial support (emotional and financial) for training, providing trainees with the freedom to set personal performance goals, and encouraging risk taking among trainees. One study used 505 supermarket managers from 52 stores W and found that the work environment, measured by training climate and learning culture, was directly related to the transfer of trained I to encourage peer support since this type of supbehaviors.55 It is also important port has been shown to influence L transfer of training skills.56 3. Have trainees present their new learning to co-workers once they return. L 4. Once back on the job, employees should be given opportunities to demonstrate that I example, one study of plane mechanics from the they can use the new skills. For Air Force found that after training S they were given opportunities to perform only about half of the tasks they learned in training.57 Likewise, in a study of university , employees, it was found that situational constraints (e.g., adequate resources, time) limited the amount that trainees could transfer new skills to the work environment.58 5. Encourage continual learningK by employees. They should realize that one-time training in an area is not sufficient to maintain effective skills. Retraining also A may be needed to update skills. S Relapse Prevention Sometimes, despite trainers’ best efforts to get individuals to transfer what they have S learned back to the job, it is difficult for trainees to maintain new behaviors or skills over A situations and revert back to their old habits. Most a long period. They encounter high-risk people experience relapses after learning new behaviors. Think about all the times you N or someone you know went on a diet or started an exercise program. Perhaps you were quite successful sticking to the planDafter attending a training program (e.g., online Weight Watchers). Then, one weekend you Rgo on a trip with friends. Next thing you know you are eating lots of snacks and ignoring your exercise plan. This is a relapse. The same thing A have attended a training program. For example, a often happens to employees after they manager learns how to control his temper in training, yet the first time returning back to the job he encounters an irate employee and he screams at the person. Relapse prevention is 2 emphasizes the learning of a set of self-control and needed to assist trainees.59 This model coping strategies when the trainee 1 is faced with high-risk situations.60 Employees should be made aware of the relapse process itself by informing them that 6 there are some situations that make it difficult for trainees to use their new behaviors. For example, they may be faced with peers 1 or supervisors who are not supportive of their new skills.61 They should learn to identify and anticipate high-risk situations they will face T when returning from training. They should be instructed on how to cope in these situations. S trainees’ self-efficacy so that they can effectively Teaching these issues should increase use their new training skills back on the job. Choosing Methods for the Training Program Training methods can be divided into two categories. 1. Methods that are primarily informational or transmittal in nature; that is, they use primarily one-way communication in which information is transmitted to the learners. 2. Methods that are experiential in nature; that is, the learner interacts with the instructor, a computer/simulator, customers, or other trainees to practice the skill. 288 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 288 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development Experiential methods favored by trainees Figure 8-6 Uses LECTURE Gaining new knowledge To present introductory material Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. AUDIOVISUALS Gaining new knowledge Gaining attention INDEPENDENT STUDY Gaining new knowledge Completing degree requirements Continuous education Some of the major methods, including their uses, benefits, and limitations, are described next and in Figures 8-6 and 8-7. Electronic learning, or e-learning, can be both an informational and an experiential method of training. Most training programs utilize several training techniques since no one approach is best suited for every purpose. According to the 2010 State of the Industry report by ASTD, most of the top 31 firms reported using a mix of various techniques to deliver training. There has also been an increased interest in the use of blended training approaches in organizations. This often means the integration of classroom and e-learning training approaches.62 For example, Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu has an “Upstream Sales Boot Camp,” which uses workshops, virtual learning, and coaching session, as well as a “Client Experience Lab,” which is an immersive interactive one-day experience.63 IBM’s international sales training program includes both classroom and on-the-job training (OJT), which is given over one year. AMC Theatres uses videotapes, detailed training manuals, and OJT programs to train ushers and concession personnel. To determine which combination of methods to select for W a particular training program, a developer should first clearly define the purpose of and the I In addition, an assessment of the resources (e.g., staff, budget, audience for the training. materials) available to conduct the training is necessary. It is also important to consider L whether the focus will be on skill acquisition, maintenance, or generalization of the skill L to other areas. One recent study found that trainees rated as more effective those methods I They also preferred more individualized training methods, like that involved them more. one-on-one instruction, and technology-based methods such as computer simulations, mulS timedia presentations, and computer-assisted programmed instruction.64 , At a minimum, the training methods selected should (1) motivate the trainee to learn the new skill, (2) illustrate the desired skills to be learned, (3) be consistent with the K A Informational Training Methods S Benefits S A Equally good as programmed instruction and television N Low cost D at one time Reaches a large audience Audience is often comfortable with it R A Can reach a large audience at one time Allows for replays Versatility Can reduce trainer, travel, and facility costs 2 1 Allows trainees to go 6 at their own pace Minimizes trainers’ time 1 Minimizes costs of development T S Limitations Learners are passive Poor transfer Depends on the lecturer’s ability Is not tailored to individual trainees Is not tailored to individual trainees Must be updated Passive learners Expensive to develop a library of materials Materials must be designed to adjust to varying reading levels Performance depends on trainee’s motivation Is not applicable for all jobs E-LEARNING Gaining new knowledge Pretraining preparation to ensure that all trainees have similar backgrounds Convenient Allows trainees to go at their own pace Can guarantee mastery at a specified level Expensive to develop Is not easily applicable for all tasks (e.g., cognitive tasks, verbal, psychomotor) Does not lead to higher performance than lectures Encourages active trainee involvement Provides immediate feedback to trainees 289 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 289 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability Figure 8-7 Experiential Training Methods Uses Benefits Limitations Learning job skills Good transfer Apprenticeship training Limited trainer costs Job rotation High trainee motivation Depends on the trainers’ skills and willingness May be costly due to lost production and mistakes May have frequent interruptions on the job Often is haphazardly done Trainees may learn bad habits ON-THE-JOB TRAINING E-LEARNING Gaining new knowledge Self-paced W I L Convenient Can reduce costs L I Effective for learning and transfer Can practice most of the S job skills , Drill and practice Individualized training Standardization over time Feedback given EQUIPMENT SIMULATORS To reproduce real-world conditions For physical and cognitive skills For team training Trainees may have difficulties with computers Limited interactions for trainees Less useful for training interpersonal skills or psychomotor tasks Costly to develop Requires good fidelity GAMES AND SIMULATIONS Decision-making skills Management training Interpersonal skills Resembles the job tasks Provides feedback Presents realistic challenges K A Decision-making practiceS Real-world training materials S Active learning Problem-solving practice A N Gains experience of other roles D Active learning Close to reality R A CASE STUDY OR ANALYSIS Decision-making skills Analytical skills Communication skills To illustrate diversity of solutions ROLE-PLAYING For changing attitudes To practice skills To analyze interpersonal problems BEHAVIORAL MODELING To teach interpersonal skills To teach cognitive skills To teach training/teaching skills Allows practice Provides feedback Retention is improved Strong research evidence SENSITIVITY TRAINING To enhance self-awareness To allow trainees to see how others see them Use multiple methods 2 1 Can improve self-concept6 Can reduce prejudice 1 Can change interpersonal behaviors T S Highly competitive Time-consuming May stifle creativity Must be updated Trainers often dominate discussions Initial resistance of trainees May not take it seriously Time-consuming May be costly to develop May be threatening May have limited generalizability content (e.g., use an interactive approach to teach interpersonal skills), (4) allow for active participation by the trainees to fit with the adult learning model, (5) provide opportunities for practice and overlearning, (6) provide feedback on performance during training, (7) be structured from simple to complex, (8) encourage positive transfer from the training to the job, and (9) be cost effective. In many cases, trainers will use different techniques. For example, teaching supervisors how to give performance feedback may first begin with a lecture or overview of the performance appraisal process, followed by smallgroup discussions or videotapes depicting effective coaching, and then role-plays to have 290 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 290 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development supervisors practice their feedback skills. In addition to using multiple methods for training employees, employers should also have numerous ways for employees to enhance their learning. At ASTD’s BEST rated firms in 2010, the top 10 tools or approaches being used consisted of: classroom instruction (97.1 percent), assessments (75.2 percent), in-person coaching (71.9 percent), blended learning (e.g., combinations of synchronous and asynchronous classroom and e-learning) (68.5 percent), in-person mentoring (66.3 percent), learning management systems (63.5 percent), asynchronous learning systems such as ondemand modules (63 percent), synchronous learning system (e.g., WebEx, Centra, Adobe Acrobat Connect) (63 percent), courseware authoring tools (e.g., Toolbook Instructor, Adobe Captivate, Trivantis Lectora) (56.5 percent), and rapid development tools (e.g., Articulate Presenter, Toolbook Assistant, PowerPoint conversion tools) (53.9 percent).65 Informational Methods Lectures Informational methods W are used primarily to teach factual material, skills, or attitudes. Generally, they do not require the trainee to actually experience or practice the material I session. Some of the more commonly used informational techtaught during the training niques include lectures, L audio and video media, and self-directed learning (SDL) methods. E-learning is one of the most popular approaches today. L I most commonly used technique for training employees and The lecture method is the teaching students. As the 2010 ASTD State of the Industry report noted, classroom inS struction is not being replaced by emerging technologies and informal learning. In fact, , reported that their organizations currently use classroom instruc97 percent of respondents tion and less than 1 percent no longer use it. Instead, new technologies supplement classroom instruction.66 The method is often supplemented with group discussions, audiovisual aids, motion pictures, orK television. The approach can also vary in the degree to which discussion is permitted, since A some lectures involve all one-way communication, while others may allow trainees to participate by asking questions or providing comments. Despite S recent research shows that lecture-based training is quite an the criticism of this method, effective way to facilitate Sthe transfer of theories, concepts, procedures, and other factual material.67 In addition, a meta-analysis of the effects of lecture, modeling, and active parA of older trainees found that all three methods had positive ticipation on the performance effects on learning and skill N measures.68 Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Audio and Video Media Two good websites for creating podcasts D A variety of audiovisuals are available to trainers, including films, videos, slides, overheads, audiotapes, flip charts, R and chalkboards. Videoconferencing has gained in popularity as costs have become more affordable for employers and different systems have A become more compatible. The staff of Greenberg Traurig, an international law firm, set up a videoconference system that is used almost constantly to share information and multimedia presentations in the 2 375-attorney firm.69 FedEx Kinko’s has videoconferencing facilities available at over 150 U.S. locations,with costs of about $225 per hour.70 Other firms using videoconferencing1include JCPenney, IBM, AT&T, and Texas Instruments. Many firms also use webinars 6 to make workshops available to employees. At Weichert Co., its own university has integrated face-to-face learning with online discussions (webinars) to 1 help train real estate agents. Podcasting is anotherTpopular method to reinforce and promote training to its target audience. It involves recording a portion of audio or video content that is useful and posting it online or on the firm’sSintranet site and providing a link to download the recording. The use of podcasting has shown some benefits for the training function, including reduced training costs, increased participation, and greater learner engagement. One organization reported being able to deliver its training for $30,000 instead of $125,000 since it reduced the number of training sessions by 50 percent. Another firm was able to get 70 percent participation instead of the usual 40 percent participation by using podcasts for training. Two helpful sites for creating podcasts are: www.freeconference.com and www.audioacrobat.com. Use the first website to get participants’ permission to be recorded and the second site to publish your podcast. Audio Acrobat generates the appropriate HTML codes for the website, the e-mails, and the downloads. There are both audio and video podcasts that can be used. 291 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 291 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability Podcasts will not replace live, in-person training, but they are making it easier for trainees to engage in training on their own schedule, with some of the latest technology, and at a reasonable price.71 Self-Directed Learning (SDL) Methods Advantages of SDL SDLRS and outcomes Several informational methods for training are considered to be SDL approaches because the trainee takes responsibility for learning the necessary knowledge and skills at his or her own pace. A wide range of decisions can be given to the trainee, including the topic of study, objectives, resources, schedule, learning strategy, type and sequence of activities, and media. In most cases, trainees work without direct supervision, set their own pace, and are allowed to choose their own activities, resources, and learning environments. Generally, the training department’s role is to provide assistance by establishing learning centers with available materials and by having trained facilitators on hand for questions. Larger companies such as Motorola, Sunoco, and Office Depot have been successful in setting up such centers and encouraging self-directed learning by employees. In these centers, trainW ees can be given self-assessment tools or instruments. The advantages of SDL includeI (1) reduced training time, as compared to more conventional methods (e.g., lecture); L (2) more favorable attitudes by trainees compared to conventional techniques; (3) more consistency with an adult learning approach; (4) miniL mal reliance on instructors or trainers; (5) mobility (i.e., a variety of places can be used I can learn at their own pace); (7) consistency of the for training); (6) flexibility (trainees information taught to all trainees; and (8) cost savings. There are also several disadvanS tages, including (1) high developmental time for course materials and extensive planning , requirements, (2) difficulties in revising and updating materials, and (3) limited interactions with peers and trainers. Research indicates that employees with high levels of readiness for SDL as measured K by the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) were more likely to be higher72 level managers, to be outstanding performers, to possess greater creativity,73 and to have A74 a higher degree of life satisfaction. Also, employees who were outstanding performers S in jobs requiring high levels of creativity or problem solving or involving high levels of change were more likely to have high SDLRS scores. In addition, employees with higher S SDLRS scores were successful in relatively unstructured learning situations in which more A75 A variety of SDL approaches are available. Two responsibility rests on the learners. of the more commonly used techniques N include independent study and various forms of e-learning. Independent study requires a trainee to read, synthesize, and remember the D contents of written material, audio or videotapes, or other sources of information. The training or personnel department can develop R a library of materials for trainees to use in teaching themselves at their own pace various skills or knowledges. Companies such as Coors, DigiA tal Equipment Corporation, Kraft, and U.S. Gypsum utilize extensive self-study materials for their sales employees. Trainees can also design their own training curriculum by opting for correspondence courses or enrolling 2 in independent study courses at local schools or on the web. Generally, in these programs, trainees are required to master the content on their 1 own without direct supervision. Sanofi-aventis is one of the largest pharmaceutical firms and a winner of the 2007 ASTD BEST firms. In addition to classroom training, it has an 6 extensive self-directed learning program consisting of more than 700 courses offered via 1 and online. Every employee is encouraged to create CD-ROM, textbook, audio CD, DVD, an individual development plan, andTemployees are required to earn continuing professional education hours annually. Trainers have used Brainshark Rapid Learning, an asynchronous S development tool, to create online learning objects and to track learners’ progress.76 E-learning is typically (although not always) an individualized learning method that allows for study of material online. With the proliferation of e-learning, podcasts, and webinars, the control of learning is shifting from the trainer to the learner, although e-learning typically includes both self-paced and instructor-led online learning. According to the ASTD 2010 State of the Industry report, the use of e-learning is at its highest level yet, and in 2009, 27.7 percent of all formal learning hours were made available online. Often, a tough economic climate favors the use of e-learning to improve efficiency since trainees can access the material at any time or from any location. UBS uses an e-based program to train new stockbrokers. Best Buy uses e-learning for technical training such as 292 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 292 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development More effective for training “declarative” knowledge Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Social Media Technologies for Learning installing car stereos. Caterpillar has an extensive e-learning program. Intercontinental Hotels Group offers “The Academy,” which enables employees to access in-depth e-learning opportunities on key business topics such as finance, coaching, and branded customer experience. ICICI Bank refreshes training by sending daily text-messages to employees’ mobile phones.77 Most programs build in the important learning principles by (1) specifying what is to be learned (i.e., the behavioral objectives); (2) breaking down the learning topic into small, discrete steps; (3) presenting each step to the trainee and requiring him or her to respond to each step of the learning process (by reading each part); (4) testing the trainees’ learning at each step (by responding to questions); (5) providing immediate feedback to the trainee on whether his or her response was correct or incorrect; and (6) testing the level of skill or knowledge acquired at the end of the training module. E-learning has replaced “programmed instruction” in training classification but is based on the same principles. One recent study found that web-based instruction was more effective than classroom instrucW tion for teaching declarative knowledge, and was equally effective in teaching procedural knowledge, and traineesIwere equally satisfied with both methods. L L ASTD’s 2011 State of the Industry reports indicated that social media technologies are I gaining in use for work-related learning (in addition to personal usage). Some of the most common types of social media technologies being used for learning include: shared workS spaces (e.g., SharePoint, Google Docs), social networks (e.g., Facebook, LinkedIn), Podcasts, Wikis, Blogs (e.g.,, Wordpress, LiveJournal), Shared Media (e.g., YouTube, Flickr), Micro-blogs (e.g., Twitter, Yammer), Social bookmarking (e.g., Digg, reddit), Virtual worlds (e.g., Second Life), and Augmented realities (e.g., Layar). They also revealed generational differencesKin usage of these technologies for work. As expected, younger generations such as Millennials were more likely to use the majority of technologies more A often than older generations (Baby Boomers) except for podcasts and virtual worlds. More S than 80 percent of respondents also indicated that they expected the use of social media for learning in their organizations to increase over the next 3 years. This is important since S Millennials believe that social media are very useful for learning. Farmers Group, Inc., is A social media for its training function. Through its “Agency one firm that has been using Insider” program, it allows N the trainees to specify how they want to receive the learning, via Twitter, Facebook, e-mail, or RSS feed. Genpact, a business unit within GE located in D India, uses a blended learning model including classroom instruction, e-learning courseware, webinars, knowledge R portals, and blogs to help employees learn new knowledge and skills.78 A Online courses rely on a self-directed learning approach and are gaining in popularity with the rise of podcasts, teleconferences, and instant messaging. Online training is a viable alternative to classroom 2 training and is used to teach almost everything. Despite the numerous benefits of online courses, HR professionals should exercise caution when using 1 “soft skills.” Participants need opportunities to interact and a web-based format to teach practice to truly learn them. 6 If online courses will be used to teach softer skills, trainers should use a variety of exercises, videos, audios, and graphics so that trainees enjoy the 1 to practice the skills. Trainers should also make sure that the training and are more likely online courses are designed T to show how learning will promote success on the job, use peers to support the training, break the skills into concrete learning modules, provide feedS and create opportunities to practice the skills. Some e-learning back throughout the course, designers have been working on creating activities that are both interactive and effective and “don’t leave learners stuck on autopilot.”79 Experiential Methods Experiential methods are often used to teach physical and cognitive skills and abilities. These techniques include OJT, computer-based training (CBT), equipment simulations, games and other simulations, case analyses, role-playing, and behavior modeling. In addition, a variety of electronic training-delivery media and distance learning techniques have become popular as instructional/experiential methods. 293 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 293 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability On-the-Job Training Much industrial training is conducted on the job (e.g., at the work site and in the context of the job). Often, it is informal, as when an experienced worker shows a trainee how to perform the job tasks. The trainer may watch over the trainee to provide guidance during practice or learning. For example, sales employees use coaching calls where a senior sales person coaches a new sales employee. Five steps are utilized.80 1. Observation of the new employee. 2. Feedback obtained by the new employee. 3. Consensus (i.e., the coach and the new employee arrive at an agreement as to the strengths and weaknesses of the sales call). 4. Rehearsal of a new sales call. 5. Review of the employee’s performance. Conditions when OJT is best In 2006, Ruby Tuesday’s restaurants W introduced a “master’s” program. Company leaders attended training and were certified as “burger masters.” They then went back to their I consistency among restaurants. They also opened restaurants to teach their staff to ensure a culinary arts center, which is dedicated L to building a hands-on training experience for all employees from hourly to senior managers. Within the first year, they were able to retain L more highly trained staff and turnover was decreased by 20 percent from the previous year.81 I with the development of new employees, it can also Although OJT is often associated be used to update or broaden the skills of existing employees when new procedures or S work methods are introduced. In some cases, the trainer may be a retired employee. For instance, at Corning Glass Works,,new employees are paired with retirees for a brief onthe-job introduction regarding the company culture and market data. Following this, they are exposed to formal classroom and field training.82 Many companies combine OJT with K formal classroom training. At McDonald’s, after a 3-hour induction, new employees are partnered with a buddy who is a member of the training squad.83 Dow Chemical alternates A sales employees between classroom training at corporate headquarters and OJT experiS Wang Laboratories spends up to 9 months alternatences in the field for a year. Similarly, ing salespeople from company headquarters and field offices. Restaurant employees at the S Hard Rock Café are trained by OJT and the use of job aids (i.e., training materials). WorkA 84 ers view this approach very favorably. OJT is best used when one-on-one N training is necessary, only a small number (usually fewer than five) of employees need to be trained, classroom instruction is not appropriate, D work in progress cannot be interrupted, a certain level of proficiency on a task is needed for certification, and equipment or R safety restrictions make other training techniques inappropriate. The training should emphasize equipment or instruments that are to be used as A well as safety issues or dangerous processes. Apprenticeship programs often are considered OJT programs because they involve a substantial amount of OJT, even2though they do consist of some off-the-job training. Typically, the trainee follows a prescribed order of coursework and hands-on experience. 1 apprenticeship programs, and many require a miniThe Department of Labor regulates mum of 144 hours of classroom instruction each year as well as OJT with a skilled em6 ployee.85 Many professions (e.g., medicine) or trades require some type of apprenticeship 1 2 to 5 years. Some of the most common occupations program that may last anywhere from to offer apprenticeship programs include electricians, carpenters, plumbers, pipe fitters, T sheet-metal workers, machinists, tool-and-die makers, roofers, firefighters, bricklayers, S operating engineers, correction officers, and mecooks, structural-steel workers, painters, 86 chanics. In Europe, apprenticeships are still one of the most likely ways for individuals to gain entry into skilled jobs, while in the United States only 2 percent of high school graduates enter apprenticeship programs.87 This is a problem for the U.S. workforce since the pool of qualified skilled labor for future jobs has been shrinking. In France in one apprenticeship program alone, there are currently 4,200 apprentices with the Association des Compagnons du Devoir (elite artisans responsible for restoring historical sites such as Notre Dame Cathedral and Arc de Triomphe). Restricted to men, they begin as young as 15 and undertake up to 9 years of lessons, community chores, and hands-on training with 6,500 companies that have contracts with them. They train for an additional 2 years and 294 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 294 16/02/12 3:02 PM 8 / Training and Development have to complete a personal building project. Only one in 10 typically survives the apprenticeship period and is allowed to join the ranks of Compagnons.88 Another commonly used technique for OJT training is job rotation, which involves moving employees from one job to another to broaden their experience. Many U.S. companies are showing greater interest in having their employees be able to perform several job functions so that their workforce is more flexible and interchangeable. For example, in the automobile industry today, it is fairly common to see employees being trained on two or more tasks (e.g., painting and welding). This might be done in order to relieve employees’ boredom as well as make the company less dependent on specialized workers. GE requires all managerial trainees to participate in an extensive job rotation program in which the trainees must perform all jobs they will eventually supervise. This helps managers develop the broader background required for future managerial positions. At Lockheed Martin, a leadership development program was established for new HR college recruits. They are rotated to a variety of HRW departments (recruiting, selection, compensation) to gain broader experiences as HR professionals. Copyright © 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies. All rights reserved. Computer-Based Training (CBT)/E-Learning I SHRM conducted a survey L and found that when used effectively, e-learning has been able to deliver training for large numbers of employees at reduced costs and that there was L an increased usage of e-learning during an economic downturn.89 Another study found I was more effective than classroom instruction for teaching that web-based instruction declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge. Interestingly, the researchers also noted S that trainees were more satisfied with web-based classes that had higher levels of human , interaction than lower levels. When trainees were not given the opportunity to interact with others during web-based courses, they preferred classroom instruction.90 One leading provider of CBT software, CBT Group, has training deals with Cisco Systems, IBM, K Informix, Microsoft, Netscape Communications, Novell, Oracle, PeopleSoft, SAP, and Sybase, among others. A Effective computer skill training is vital to organizational productivity. One recent study demonstrated thatS the behavior modeling approach to computer skill training could be improved by incorporating S symbolic mental rehearsal (SMR). SMR is a specific form of mental rehearsal that establishes a cognitive link between visual images and symbolic A recommend that practitioners use SMR for improving the memory codes. The authors effectiveness of computer Nskill training.91 Chunking refers to chopping computer-based training into its smallest parts and sendD ing them through a network so that learners receive just the instruction they need when they need it. Spring Corporation R chunks CBT on the corporate intranet and is one of the leaders in using training over an intranet.92 The most popular processing software packages (e.g., A Microsoft Word) use CBT to introduce learners to the use of the software. The U.S. Armed Forces use CBT extensively for training many of their technicians. In fact, the military and NASA have numerous 2 advanced technologies such as intelligent tutoring systems and virtual reality that are used for training purposes.93 In some CBT programs, trainees interact directly with computers1to actually learn and practice new skills. This is done similarly to the PI system and is 6 called computer-assisted instruction (CAI). For example, Dialect Interactive Lectures (DIALECT) are university lectures that have been converted into multimedia-based digital1 learning material. DIALECT use animation, computer simulations, and hyperlink facilities T to guide students through lectures.94 CBT has the advantage of being self-paced, standardized, self-sufficient, easily available, and flexible. This is parS fast-paced environment, where organizations cannot afford ticularly important in today’s for employees to be away from the job for large amounts of time. In fact, many employees view it as a proven way to save time and money while delivering consistent content. Electronic training-delivery media involve some of the fastest-growing instructional methods. The latest round of CBT-oriented software offers revolutionary ways in which interactive training is developed and delivered. Multimedia training programs often feature text, graphics, sound, pictures, videos, simulations, and hyper-text links that enable trainees to structure their own learning experiences.95 The Home Depot delivers training on its more than 40,000 products to employees via the company’s web-based training model, a video-driven e-learning experience that consists of 15 minutes of video and synchronized 295 ber29163_ch08_273-320.indd 295 16/02/12 3:02 PM 3 / Developing Human Resource Capability test, followed by an assessment.96 Most CBT systems support links to the Internet and to corporate intranets. Internet-based e-learning has emerged as a cost- and time-efficient way to address many companies’ training needs. For example, B&W Pantex, a nuclear weapons management site, replaced many of its classroom sessions with computer-based training and quick stand-up meetings by frontline managers. Since 2007, it found that training efficiency improved by 49 percent. Many of ASTD’s BEST firms also use online learning in combination with other techniques.97 Distance Learning Programs Benefits of distance learning Online education is the fastest growing sector of the training market. Online learners have gone from 3 million in 2001 to more than 6 million by 2006.98 Many resources now exist for designing and implementing distance learning programs.99 In addition, a comprehensive list of vendors is provided by the Distance Education Clearinghouse website (http:// www.uwex.edu/disted). To incorporate a “green” perspective W into its training, Tata Consultancy Services Ltd converted its in-house conference to a virtual conference. Employees across 40 locations I using web-, video, or audio-conferencing facilities. around the world were able to connect This led to a large increase in participation and a reduction in the conference’s carbon L footprint and expenses.100 The Schwan Food Company expanded the educational opportuL nities it offered to its employees. It contracted with three accredited institutions to create I 7-week online modules that help students earn bachelor’s degrees in 3 years or less. It also created an associate’s degree and an MBA. University Health Systems created an online S multicultural sensitivity series that included on-demand video presentations by subject 101 , matter experts. Research on the effectiveness of distance education programs has only begun.102 In general, offering training or educational programs over the Internet enables employees to access high-quality education atKtheir own pace. They have access to class material, conduct research without traveling, Aand have dialogs with professors and classmates via e-mail, bulletin boards, and chat rooms. Some programs use videoconferencing or transmit lectures via satellite. In this regard,Sstudents may have an easier time juggling careers and families.103 Numerous organizations S have successfully used distance ...
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Running Head: EXPERIENTIAL METHODS OF TRAINING

Experiential Methods of Training
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EXPERIENTIAL METHODS OF TRAINING

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In my opinion, experiential methods of training are the most effective because of the high
interaction level involved between trainees and their instructor, simulator as well as other
trainees. The world today is on the digital age where most situations and events are complex and
require experience and expertise to address and solve them. Providing learners or trainees with
...


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